Letter of Transmittal

Rhodora Cadiao
Governor
Province of Antique

To Gov. Rhodora Cadiao:

We write this proposal for the establishment of a power plant in the province of
Antique, a project that has the potential to revolutionize the energy landscape of the
province. This letter serves as a formal introduction to the proposal and outlines the
key points and benefits that our proposed power plant will bring to the region.
The power plant proposal, prepared by Billy Jhun Carillo, Daryl Pagas,
Roseben Bañez, Cyril Delacruz in which we believe that the development of a power
plant in the province is not only economically viable but also crucial for sustainable
growth and energy security.
This proposal is the culmination of our vision to provide reliable and sustainable
energy solutions to the people of Antique. We are confident that this power plant will
not only enhance energy accessibility but also contribute significantly to the economic
and environmental well-being of the province.
Enclosed with this letter is a proposal document that provides information about
the project, its financial viability, and its potential impact in the province. We kindly
request your consideration of our proposal and welcome the opportunity to discuss it
further at your convenience.
Thank you for considering our proposal. We look forward to the possibility of
working collaboratively with the province of Antique to bring this transformative project
to fruition.

Sincerely,
Billy Jhun P. Carillo
Daryl Pagas
Cyril Delacruz
Roseben Bañez

Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering- 4

Visayas State University
 I. Introduction
1.1 Background
The Philippines is encountering substantial energy issues due to the impending
depletion of the Malampaya natural gas reserves, which presently provide 30% of
Luzon's energy consumption, anticipated to occur by 2024-2025. The government's
objective is to raise the proportion of renewable energy (RE) to 35% by 2030 and 50%
by 2050. In 2022, the country's energy composition includes coal (31%), natural gas
(4.2%), renewable energy (32.7%), and oil-derived solutions (32.2%). Renewable
energy promotion efforts in the Philippines have not diminished the dominance of coal
as a power source, which currently makes up 43% of the national energy mix and is
projected to increase to 50% by 2030. President Duterte has endorsed renewable
energy sources, but the shift is hindered by expensive electricity and market
mechanisms that impede progress.

The Philippines is considering nuclear energy as a possible way to lessen reliance

on imported oil and coal. The Department of Energy (DOE) is contemplating
constructing a new nuclear station utilizing small modular reactor (SMR) technology,
with projected refurbishing expenses totaling US$2.3 billion. The DOE's Nuclear Power
Program Roadmap plans to start operating the nation's initial nuclear plant in 2027 and
is now conducting pre-feasibility studies.

U.S. corporations have potential market opportunities in providing equipment and

services to more than 70 power generation companies engaged in power plant
rehabilitation and maintenance in the Philippines. Investing in the renewable energy
sector provides opportunities in geothermal, solar, wind, hydropower, and biomass
resources, backed by governmental tools such as renewable energy portfolio criteria
and net metering schemes. Furthermore, LNG import ports and offshore wind
development projects offer opportunities for international investments in the nation's
energy industry.

The Philippines is currently facing a crucial point in its energy sector, as it strives
to provide energy security, meet sustainability objectives, and promote economic
growth while addressing the obstacles associated with shifting to cleaner energy
sources in a mostly privatized power industry.

The transition to sustainable energy sources is crucial for addressing global

warming and environmental issues, especially in the Philippines, which relies heavily
on agriculture and eco-tourism. The country has made significant strides in
transitioning to renewable energy sources, such as hydroelectric, geothermal, wind,
 solar, and biomass. The development of renewable energy projects has created job
opportunities in the construction, operation, and maintenance of renewable energy
facilities, contributing to overall economic growth.

To address the energy problem and its socioeconomic impacts, the Philippines
is prioritizing energy diversification, promoting the development of renewable energy
sources, and exploring emerging technologies like nuclear energy and SMRs.
Adopting renewable energy sources can enhance energy security, reduce electricity
costs, and promote economic growth. The country has also integrated large-scale
solar farms into its energy infrastructure, with notable solar farms located in Cavite,
Pampanga, Ilocos Norte, and Cagayan de Oro.

In the grand tapestry of human history, amidst the myriad innovations that have
shaped our modern world, few inventions have cast as profound a shadow as the coal-
fired steam power plant. Emerging as a symbol of the Industrial Age's dawn and the
herald of mass electrification, these monumental structures stand as towering
testaments to humanity's ingenuity and engineering prowess. From their unassuming
origins in the late 18th century to their pivotal role in sculpting the intricate contours of
the 21st-century energy landscape, coal-fired steam power plants have etched an
indelible mark upon the canvas of civilization.

At its essence, the coal-fired steam power plant embodies a deceptively simple
yet marvelously intricate concept: the transformation of coal's latent chemical energy
into the kinetic force of steam, propelling turbines to generate electricity. This
foundational process, conceived by luminaries like James Watt and honed over
centuries of tireless innovation, remains the bedrock of modern power generation
infrastructure, spanning continents and powering nations.

The saga of coal-fired steam power plants is one of ceaseless evolution and
adaptive resilience, a saga woven from the fabric of humanity's ceaseless pursuit of
progress. From the towering smokestacks and clanging machinery of the industrial
revolution's infancy to the sleek, technologically advanced facilities of contemporary
times, these power plants have metamorphosed in response to the relentless march
of progress and the ever-shifting sands of societal needs.

Even as alternative energy sources emerge and concerns over environmental

sustainability mount, coal-fired steam power plants persist as indispensable stalwarts in
meeting the insatiable global appetite for electricity. Their steadfast reliability in providing
baseload power has rendered them indispensable cogs in the machinery of the global
energy infrastructure, underpinning industries, sustaining communities, and driving
economies.

Yet, the legacy of coal-fired steam power plants is not devoid of challenges. As
awareness of the environmental toll exacted by coal combustion swells, so too do calls
for cleaner, more sustainable alternatives grow louder. Issues ranging from air pollution
to greenhouse gas emissions, alongside the finite nature of coal reserves, have
catalyzed a reckoning among policymakers, industry leaders, and environmental
advocates alike, compelling a reassessment of coal's role in the energy transition.

Navigating this labyrinthine landscape, the future of coal-fired steam power

plants remains shrouded in uncertainty. Though strides in technological innovation have
yielded significant reductions in emissions and bolstered efficiency, lingering doubts
persist regarding coal's long-term viability and ecological sustainability as a primary
energy source.

As humanity stands at the precipice of an energy transition, the saga of coal-

fired steam power plants serves as a poignant allegory for the intricate interplay between
progress, innovation, and environmental stewardship. Whether these towering titans of
industry continue to evolve and adapt to surmount the challenges of the 21st century or
yield to the relentless march of technological innovation, their legacy will endure—an
enduring testament to the pivotal role they have played in shaping the world we inhabit
today.

Diesel power plants represent a cornerstone in the realm of electricity generation,

renowned for their reliability, flexibility, and rapid deployment capabilities. Its main
components are diesel engines, adept at swiftly converting the chemical energy stored
in diesel fuel into mechanical energy through controlled combustion. This mechanical
energy is then harnessed to drive electrical generators and produced electrical energy
that provides power in establishments, factories, and other more.

The importance of diesel power plants is derived from their exceptional reliability,
rendering them indispensable in situations where maintaining a steady power supply is
of utmost importance. Their capacity to promptly adapt to changes in electricity demand,
alongside their proficiency in operating efficiently across a spectrum of loads, endows
them with versatility suitable for both continuous and peak power generation
requirements. Furthermore, their rapid deployment capability situates them as agile
solutions for addressing transient energy demands or furnishing essential backup power
during emergency scenarios.
 In addition to their primary function of generating power, diesel power plants play a
vital role in maintaining the stability of electrical grids. They achieve this by offering
crucial support services such as regulating frequency, supporting voltage levels, and
controlling reactive power. These contributions enhance the resilience and dependability
of electrical grids, ensuring smooth operation despite fluctuations in demand and
disturbances within the grid.

1.2 Site Selection

Whether a power plant is solar, wind, steam, or nuclear, choosing a site is an
important choice that will have a big impact on a lot of different parts of the project. The
long-term sustainability, operational performance, and cost-effectiveness of power
plants are significantly influenced by the location decision. The process of choosing the
ideal location for a power plant is intricate and requires weighing technical specifications,
financial constraints, potential environmental effects, and regulatory compliance. To
guarantee power plant enterprises' success, profitability, and sustainability, a thorough
assessment of all pertinent factors is necessary.

1.2.1 For the Coal-fired steam power plant

A steam power plant's site selection procedure is a crucial step that needs
careful consideration of a number of variables. Important factors include having access
to necessary resources, such as a dependable supply of water for steam production
and being close to fuel sources or an effective transportation system for fuel
distribution. To examine possible effects on biological systems, air and water quality,
and environmental regulation compliance, environmental impact assessments must be
carried out. To determine whether the location is suitable for the power plant and
related facilities, it is important to evaluate the topography and land availability of the
area. A thorough assessment of the current infrastructure—such as utilities and
transportation networks—ensures efficient power and material distribution. Climate
conditions—which include temperature, humidity, and wind patterns—have a
significant impact on plant productivity. Reliability to locations with high electrical
demand reduces transmission losses. To assess if the ground is stable enough to
support large machinery and structures, geotechnical studies are essential. To
address issues and gain local support, community engagement is crucial, considering
the effects of noise and visual disturbance on neighboring residential areas. It is
essential to abide by laws pertaining to safety, environmental protection, and land
usage. Aspects of security and safety, such as proximity to populous areas and
susceptibility to natural disasters, should be considered. Evaluating the possibility for
growth in the future is essential to make sure the location can handle more capacity if
needed. A thorough feasibility assessment that takes these factors into account is
necessary before choosing a location for a steam power plant. In this rigorous and
scholarly site selection process, environmental impact evaluations, stakeholder
participation, and obtaining required licenses are essential elements.

Figure 1.1 Antique Province Figure 1.2 Proposed Power Plant Location

The figure above shows the location of Antique Province and the favorable
location of the powerplant (box in color red). It is the ideal location since it is next to a
river, which facilitates the transit of coals. Transmission Lines can be linked from the
power plant to the location of the mill to transmit electricity to the industrial facility.

The thermal power facility ought to be situated at a considerable distance from

populated regions due to the substantial combustion of coal within such stations. The
burning of coal produces smoke and gases, contributing to environmental pollution and
potentially exerting adverse health effects. Therefore, it is imperative to ensure a
considerable separation between the thermal power facility and inhabited areas to
mitigate the impact of emitted pollutants on both the environment and public health.

Availability of Raw Material and Transport Facilities

The proposed site for the coal-fired steam power plant is strategically chosen
to be situated away from the town, facilitating convenient transportation of materials
and heavy machinery while reducing potential hazards to neighboring communities.
This decision is driven by a commitment to prioritize safety and minimize any adverse
effects on nearby populations. Additionally, the proximity of the river offers advantages
for the plant's cooling processes; however, meticulous environmental assessments are
imperative to safeguard the integrity of the local ecosystem and preserve water quality.
Adherence to stringent environmental regulations, coupled with the implementation of
cutting-edge pollution control technologies, is paramount to ensure the plant operates
in an environmentally responsible manner. Furthermore, active engagement with the
local community is crucial, fostering transparency, addressing concerns, and garnering
support for the project. By prioritizing environmental stewardship and community
involvement, the plant can mitigate its environmental footprint and cultivate positive
relationships with nearby residents, ultimately contributing to sustainable development
in the region.

Availability of Water and Ash Disposal Facilities

The availability of water and effective ash disposal facilities are two pivotal aspects
that underscore the operational integrity and environmental responsibility of a coal-
fired steam power plant. Water, as a critical component in the steam generation
process, plays a central role in facilitating the efficient operation of turbines and cooling
systems. Adequate access to water sources ensures the plant's uninterrupted
functionality, enabling the generation of steam necessary to drive turbines and produce
electricity. Furthermore, water is instrumental in the plant's cooling processes, where
it absorbs excess heat generated during power generation, thereby maintaining
optimal operating temperatures. However, the utilization of water in a coal-fired power
plant must be accompanied by stringent conservation measures and environmental
considerations to mitigate potential impacts on local ecosystems and water resources.
Additionally, the effective disposal of ash, a byproduct of coal combustion, is
paramount in maintaining environmental sustainability. Ash disposal facilities, such as
ash ponds or landfills, must be meticulously engineered and managed to prevent
contamination of soil and water resources. Proper ash disposal not only safeguards
environmental integrity but also ensures compliance with regulatory standards
governing waste management. Moreover, the implementation of advanced
technologies for ash handling, such as dry ash handling systems or utilization of ash
for beneficial purposes like construction materials, further enhances the environmental
sustainability of coal-fired power plants. In essence, the availability of water and robust
ash disposal facilities are indispensable elements in ensuring the efficient and
responsible operation of coal-fired steam power plants, contributing to both energy
reliability and environmental stewardship.

Public Problems
Designing a coal-fired power plant can potentially engender a host of public
problems, ranging from environmental concerns to socioeconomic impacts. Foremost
among these is the issue of air pollution, as coal combustion releases harmful
emissions such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter, which can
contribute to respiratory ailments and degrade air quality in surrounding communities.
Moreover, the extraction and transportation of coal may disrupt local ecosystems and
communities, leading to habitat destruction, noise pollution, and increased traffic
congestion. Additionally, the disposal of coal ash, a byproduct of combustion, poses
challenges, as improper handling can result in soil and water contamination.
Furthermore, coal-fired power plants often consume vast quantities of water for steam
generation and cooling, potentially exacerbating water scarcity issues in drought-prone
regions. Socioeconomic concerns may also arise, including debates over land use,
property values, and employment opportunities, particularly in regions heavily reliant
on coal mining and power generation. Consequently, designing a coal-fired power
plant necessitates careful consideration of these public problems, incorporating
community engagement, environmental mitigation measures, and sustainable
practices to address and mitigate potential impacts.

1.2.2 For the Diesel power plant

Selecting an ideal site for a power plant demands a meticulous assessment
encompassing various aspects. The primary objective revolves around achieving peak
operational efficiency while safeguarding the tranquility of nearby inhabitants. This
involves a multifaceted evaluation where factors like the soil foundation play a critical
role in providing a stable base for construction and ensuring long-term structural
integrity.

Moreover, securing an abundant and reliable water supply stands as another

cornerstone in the selection process. Adequate water resources are vital for the plant's
cooling systems and overall operations, making it an indispensable factor in site
determination.

Equally imperative is the distance between the proposed site and neighboring
communities. This spatial gap serves to minimize or prevent noise pollution that could
potentially affect the quality of life for residents. Maintaining a respectable distance
from populated areas is key to mitigating any adverse impact on the community.

Therefore, the site selection process is a comprehensive endeavor that

harmonizes various considerations to ensure not only the plant's optimal functionality
but also its coexistence within the local environment without imposing disturbances on
the neighboring populace.
 Figure 1.3 Site Location in Antique province for the proposed Power Plant design

Description

The designated location for the power plant's design is situated in Kangaranan
within the Antique Province. This particular site stands out due to its strategic proximity
to a readily available water source. This proximity ensures convenient access to the
necessary water supply crucial for the plant's operations, enhancing its efficiency and
reliability. Additionally, the site's adjacency to the water source simplifies logistical
considerations, facilitating the plant's construction and ongoing maintenance
processes.

Environmental consideration

Running a power plant poses environmental drawbacks due to its emission of

substantial exhaust gases and considerable noise levels. These emissions can
adversely affect the surrounding environment, impacting the air quality, vegetation,
crops, and the land in the vicinity of the plant. Noise pollution generated by the plant's
operations also contributes to its environmental impact. Hence, careful consideration
of the power plant's location is crucial, aiming to place it at a distance from residential
areas, industrial zones, and agricultural production sites. This strategic placement
helps mitigate the pollution's impact on these areas, minimizing potential harm to air
quality, vegetation, and the well-being of nearby communities. Additionally,
implementing noise mitigation measures alongside strategic positioning can
significantly reduce the plant's overall environmental footprint, safeguarding both the
environment and the health of local ecosystems and communities.

Water Supply
 Water supply is important part to consider in establishing a power plant as it
would serve as a cooling mechanism to ensure effective and efficient plant operation.
In this design power plant will be situated near Kangaranan river located at Antique
Province. The river would supply enough amount of water for plant operation.

Figure 1.4 Kangaranan River

1.2.3 For the Solar power plant

The performance of a solar power facility is contingent upon
meteorological circumstances, the efficacy and power rating of the photovoltaic
modules, and the solar irradiance they receive, which is dependent on their
geographical placement. The use of solar energy can be achieved through
different methods, including photovoltaics, solar heating and cooling, and
concentrating solar power. The technology can be utilized in both distributed
generating systems and central utility-scale solar power plants. Its storing
capabilities enhance its flexibility and reliability as an energy source.

Solar Energy Potential

The topography of the land is crucial, as a flatter terrain is generally more

advantageous for solar development. An optimal site for the property should
include a substantial amount of annual sunlight exposure and a gradual incline
to enable the installation of solar panels and maximize energy production. An
evaluation of many parameters, including horizontal solar irradiation, proximity
to power lines, distance from power substations, and elevation slope, can
evaluate the suitability of a location for the creation of a solar farm.

Accounting for horizontal sun irradiance is essential in the establishment

of a solar farm. Solar irradiance refers to the measurement of solar energy that
reaches a certain area at a given time, expressed in units of watts per square
meter (W/m2). The level of sun irradiation has a direct impact on the electricity
output of a solar farm. A location with a high level of solar irradiation is more
likely to be chosen for the construction of a solar farm since it has the potential
to produce a greater amount of electricity. Multiple variables, including changes
in the atmosphere, weather phenomena, and physical barriers such as
mountains or trees, impact the amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth's
surface. Therefore, the assessment of solar irradiance provides vital
information for making important decisions on the future energy production,
efficiency, performance, and maintenance of solar farms.

The solar irradiance in the Philippines varies from 128 to 203 watts per
square meter, with an average of 161.7 watts per square meter based on the
duration of sunlight. Theoretical power generation capacity is expected to range
from 4.5 to 5.5 kilowatt-hours per square meter per day.
 Figure 1.5 Global Horizontal Irradiance of Philippines
The red mark on the map indicates the precise position of the Antique
province, where the projected solar power facility is intended to be constructed.

Solar Radiation Profile

 The Philippines is situated in Southeast Asia, in close proximity to the
equator, specifically between 5° N and 20° N latitude. The position of this
country offers ample sunlight exposure year-round, rendering it an optimal site
for the development of solar power. The Philippines' abundant sun irradiation
and its proximity to the equator make solar photovoltaic systems well-suited for
off-grid populations in the country. The Philippines possesses several variables
that contribute to its favorable solar energy potential, rendering it an appealing
choice for the nation's energy future.

The nation has established high targets for renewable energy, with the
objective of achieving a 35% share in its power generation mix by 2030 and
50% by 2040. By 2022, the solar energy capacity in the Philippines has
experienced a significant and rapid growth, reaching 1.62 gigawatts. The
government has enacted a range of measures aimed at promoting the growth
of solar energy, such as the implementation of net metering, green energy
option/auction programs, and the establishment of a renewable energy market
trading system. The nation possesses vast renewable energy resources,
including as solar, wind, hydropower, and geothermal energy.

Figure 1.7 Irradiance vs. Time

Figure 1.6 Annual Sun Hours

 Figure 1.8 Photovoltaic Power Potential Map
The red mark on the map indicates the precise position of the Antique
province, where the projected solar power facility is intended to be constructed.
Status and prospects of Renewable Energy sources in Antique,
Philippines

There are many areas in Antique that is suitable for a location of solar
power plant or solar farm, using Global Solar Atlas, places in Antique province
has a global horizontal irradiance ranges to 1270.6 – 1920 .9 kWh/m2. By
selecting different location in antique with highest Global Horizontal Irradiance
(GHI) the group selected different possible sites for solar power plant with
respect to areas with few shadings like trees, building and other relevant objects
that could cause shading losses. Also the group considered not to select areas
with many buildings since this area is impossible for building solar power plant.
Below are the sites for solar farm:

Site Number 1:

Figure 1.9 Valderrama, Antique, Philippines (Borders)

Site Number 2:

Figure 1.10 Libertad, Antique, Philippines (Border)

Site Number 3:

Figure 1.11 San Jose and other near places

Site Number 4:

Figure 1.12 Tobias Fornier and Anini-y Borders

The group has chosen site number 4 based on its high Global Horizontal
Irradiance (GHI) and its potential for a utility-scale Photovoltaic (PV) system.
Site number 4 has the highest overall GHI throughout the year, ranging from
5.09 to 5.25 kW/m2, compared to the other sites. The land areas in the location
are suitable due to their expansive and unobstructed nature, which minimizes
any shadowing issues that can be resolved during the clean-up process.

The site number 4, located in Anini-y, Antique, Philippines, has been

selected with a Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) of 1912 kW/m2 and an
Optimal Global Tilted Irradiance (GTI) of 1950 kW/m2. The tilt angle is 13
degrees and the azimuth angle is 180 degrees. Displayed below is a
comprehensive depiction of the area's detailed information based on the Global
Solar Atlas.

Area

The necessary area is contingent upon various elements, such as the

selected technology for the photovoltaic module, the space needed for cleaning
and upkeep, and the gap between arrays. Decision-making is influenced by the
latitude of the site.
Climate

Figure 1.13 Anini-y, Antique, Philippines Info

The level of solar radiation in the Philippines fluctuates based on

geographical position and seasonal changes. Typically, the nation experiences
a tropical and marine climate characterized by elevated temperatures, high
levels of humidity, and ample precipitation. The climate in the Philippines is
characterized by two distinct seasons: the rainy season and the dry season. In
the dry season, spanning from November to April, there is normally an
abundance of sunlight, however in the rainy season, which occurs from May to
October, the sun typically shines for only a few hours each day. The quantity of
sunlight received in the Philippines is influenced by variables such as elevation,
geographical location, and the existence of barriers such as structures or
vegetation. The mean annual temperature in the Philippines is 26.6°C (79.9°F),
with relatively lower temperatures often experienced in January.
Figure 1.14 Philippine Climate Map
 1.3 Objectives
To meet the province of Antique’s demand for electricity, the main objective of this
paper is to build various power plants, including a solar power plant, a diesel power
plant, and a steam power plant powered by coal.

The study specifically aims to:

1. Ascertain the power plants' ability to design.

2. Create an operating schedule for the plant.
3. Talk about the fundamental needs for every power plant.
4. Develop the essential equipment and machinery for each power plant.
5. Design the power plant layout and machine foundations.
6. Illustrate the power plant cycle.
7. Identify and distinguish the operational expenses of each power plant.

1.4 Design Criteria

For the course MEng 148-Power Plant Design using Renewable Energy, the
student is designing a power plant to meet the energy needs of Antique province.
The coal-powered steam power plant design has multiple essential stages to
maximize energy output, a consistent coal supply and effective combustion process are
essential. Next, create a boiler that utilizes the heat from burning coal to convert water
into steam. Steam turbines are utilized to transform steam into energy. It is essential to
ensure that the plant complies with environmental requirements by implementing
technologies to decrease emissions. It requires efficient cooling, safety protocols, and a
robust maintenance strategy. Constructing the necessary infrastructure for electrical
transmission, trash management, and resource utilization is crucial. Implementing
backup systems and ensuring regulatory compliance are essential components of the
plan, in addition to evaluating the project's economic viability. Ensuring a well-designed
coal-powered steam power plant involves balancing all these factors.
The diesel power plant's architecture includes essential procedures to ensure
efficient and dependable electricity production. Determine the power requirements and
select appropriately sized diesel engines. Maintain a steady fuel supply and optimize
engine performance. Regulate emissions, control noise, and safely regulate exhaust.
Implement routine maintenance, evaluate backup power options, and create a secure
electrical distribution system. Adhere to environmental regulations, assess expenses,
and design an efficient arrangement. Utilize remote monitoring as necessary and
investigate environmentally friendly alternatives. It involves integrating engines, fuel,
and systems to generate electricity effectively and responsibly.
Finally, the solar power plant requires picking a sunny position with little shade and
selecting appropriate solar panels and inverters to maximize electricity production. It is
essential to securely link the plant to the grid, upkeep the equipment, prioritize worker
safety, and acquire required permissions. Cost analysis assesses the project's financial
feasibility, alongside community involvement and reducing environmental effect as
crucial factors.
 II. Statement of the Problem
2.1 Plant Capacity
2.1.1For the Diesel Power Plant
According to the data presented in the table below, the average load demand
of the consumer in April 2020 was, with a load of 23.3MW at 2100 hours. The collected
data will serve as the foundation for the planned power plant.

Figure 2.2 Daily load curve

Figure 2.1 Hourly load consumption

Calculation:

Figure 2.3 Daily Average Load Curve

2.1.2 For Coal-fired Steam Power Plant
For this power plant, the maximum demand will be increased by 20%. The
computations are performed as follows:

Plant Capacity = maximum demand + (20% x maximum

demand) Plant Capacity = 23.3 MW + (0.20 x 23.3 MW)
Plant Capacity = 27.96 MW ≈ 28 MW

Therefore, the overall plant capacity is equal to 28 MW.

2.1.3 For Solar Power Plant

Load Calculations:

Peak Load (W) = 23.7 MW or 23700000 W

Allowance = 20 %

Plant Capacity (W) = Peak Load (W) + (0.20 ∗ Peak Load (W)

= 23700000 W + (0.20 ∗ 23700000 W )

Plant Capacity (W) = 28440000 W

Reserve Over Peak = Plant Capacity – Peak Load

Reserve Over Peak = 28440000 W – 23700000 W

Reserve Over Peak = 4740000 W

2.2 Unit Selection and Scheduling
Choosing the appropriate units and creating a schedule are essential aspects of
power plant design. Consider it as selecting the appropriate tools for a task and
strategizing on their efficient utilization. Choosing the appropriate power generators is
essential for optimizing the plant's efficiency, conserving finances, and materials.
Properly scheduling these generators ensures alignment between electrical generation
and demand, thereby averting blackouts and preserving energy. It also assists in
maintenance, guaranteeing the proper operation of the power plant. Furthermore, it is
crucial for the environment since it can decrease pollutants and emissions of
greenhouse gases. Unit selection and scheduling involve making intelligent selections
and strategic planning to ensure efficient operation of a power plant, leading to cost
savings and environmental protection.

2.2.1 For the coal-fired steam power plant

(to be edited)

2.2.2 For the Diesel Power Plant

Table Average Load Curve in hours with 70% efficiency
 Figure Load Curve With 70% Efficiency

Power Plant Operation arrangement

The designed diesel power plant runs the whole day operation by 3 units (15 MW, 10
MW, 10 MW) and operates in their respective time. The table below shows the operation
arrangement.

Unit Selection and Scheduling

Hours of operation
Unit and Capacity Operating Hours
Unit 1 (15 MW) 24
Unit 2 (10 MW) 24
Unit 3 (10 MW) 15

Table Hours of operation

Operating Schedule
12 AM Unit 1, 2 and 3 ON
1 PM – 9 PM Unit 1 and 2 ON, Unit 3 OFF
10 PM – 12 AM Unit 3 ON
Table Scheduling of Units

Calculating the Energy Produced:

By Trapezoidal Rule:

1 1 1
= (28.54 + 25.71) + (25.71 + 23.57) + (23.57 + 22.85) +
2 2 2
1 1 1
(22.85 + 21.43) + (21.43 + 21.36) + (21.36 + 21.33) +
2 2 2
1 1 1
(21.33 + 21.39) + 2 (21.39 + 21.29) + 2 (21.57 + 22.86) +
2
1 1 1
(22.86 + 25.86) + 2 (25.86 + 28.57) + 2 (28.57 + 30) +
2
1 1 1 1
(30 + 28.71) + 2 (28.71 + 30) + 2 (30 + 30) + 2 (30 + 28.71) +
2
1 1 1
(28.71 + 28.53) + 2 (28.53 + 25.67) + 2 (25.67 + 28.74) +
2
1 1 1
(28.74 + 31.43) + (31.43 + 33.29) + (33.29 + 31.86) +
2 2 2
1
(31.86 + 28.54)
2

= 611.34 Mw-hr

𝑘𝑊−ℎ𝑟 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 611.34 𝑚𝑊

Average Load = 𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
= 24 ℎ𝑟𝑠 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟒𝟕 𝑴𝑾

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 25.47

Capacity Factor = 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 15 𝑀𝑊+10𝑀𝑊+10𝑀𝑊 = 0.7277 = 72.77%

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 611.34 𝑀𝑊−ℎ𝑟

Plant Use Factor = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 15𝑥24+10𝑥24+10𝑥15

=0.81512 or 81.512 %
Calculating the Use Factor for unit 1 and 2

For Unit 1, 15 MW and Unit 2, 10 MW = 25 MW

By trapezoidal rule:
=202.3205 MW-hr.

𝑘𝑊−ℎ𝑟 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 202.3205 𝑀𝑊

Average Load = 𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
= 24 ℎ𝑟𝑠 = 8.43 MW-hr = 8,430 kW-hr

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 8430

Capacity Factor = 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 15000 𝐾𝑊+10000 𝐾𝑊 = 0.3372 = 33.72 %

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 8,430 𝑘𝑤−ℎ𝑟

Plant Use Factor = =
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 25𝑥24

Plant Use Factor = 14.05 %

 III. Economics of the Design
Coal-fired Steam Power Plant
POWER PLANT ECONOMICS

Manpower Requirements
POSITION NO. OF PERSONEL SALARY/MONTH TOTAL
Plant Manager 1 Php 58,780 Php 705,360
Maintenance 1 Php 57,000 Php 684,000
Manager
Operations Manager 1 Php 47,500 Php 570,000
Performance and 1 Php 45,400 Php 544,800
Training Engineer
Control and 1 Php 38,400 Php 460,800
Instrument
Maintenance
Engineer
Electrical 1 Php 35,400 Php 424,800
Maintenance
Engineer
Pollution Control 1 Php 35,000 Php 420,000
Officer
Mechanical 1 Php 33,000 Php 396,000
Maintenance
Engineer
QHSE Officer 1 Php 30,000 Php 360,000
Shift Charge 1 Php 29,400 Php 352,800
Engineer
Shift Supervisor 1 Php 21,000 Php 252,000
Purchaser 2 Php 20,000 Php 240,000
Safety Officer 2 Php 20,000 Php 480,000
Control and 2 Php 19,000 Php 456,000
Instrument
Technician
Electrical 2 Php 17,000 Php 408,000
Technician
Mechanical 2 Php 17,000 Php 408,000
Technical
Security Personnel 4 Php 16,000 Php 768,000
Plant Operator 2 Php 15,000 Php 360,000
Maintenance Labor 6 Php 14,000 Php 1,008,000
Utility Personnel 6 Php 10,400 Php 748,800
Total Labor Cost Php 10,047,360
Table 1 Manpower Requirements

The values obtained in the table above are based on the various job application
sites available on the internet, such as Salary Explorer, Jobstreet, and the like. The
salaries presented are average values and are subject to change in accordance with
personnel performance.

Cost of Land:
The location for this design project is in the Municipality of Valderrama, Antique,
Philippines. It is situated near Kangaranan River, this river would supply enough
amount of water for plant operation. The proposed site selection covers approximately
50,000 𝑚2 or 5 hectares. The cost of land per hectare is ₱2,000,000, so:

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 × 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑒

₱ 2,000,000
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 6 ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 ×
ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑒

𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑳𝒂𝒏𝒅 = ₱ 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎

Cost of Plant Building:

Based on the data provided by Philippine Statistics Authority the average cost
per square meter for non-residential buildings in the region was estimated to be Php
12,334. The proposed area for the facility, covers around 12,500 square meters.

𝐵𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

₱ 12,334
𝐵𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 12,500 𝑚2 ×
𝑚2
𝑩𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 = ₱ 𝟏𝟓𝟒, 𝟏𝟕𝟓, 𝟎𝟎𝟎

Cost of Equipment

Equipment Quantity Cost Total Cost

TG220-9.8-M CFB 1 Php 6,972,128.00 Php 6,972,128.00
coal-fired boiler
SST - 200 Steam 2 Php 15,200,000.00 Php 30,400,000.00
turbine w/
Generator
TR20M tray 1 Php 500,000.00 Php 500,000.00
deaerator
OP 2643-3-UU-1 2 Php 100,000.00 Php 200,000.00
Condenser
 NTG-800 Cooling 1 Php 2,109,543.00 Php 2,109,543.00
tower
Boiler Pump 1 Php 400,000.00 Php 400,000.00
Forced and 2 Php 75,500.00 Php 151,000.00
Induced Draft
Fans
Make-up water 1 Php 90,500.00 Php 90,500.00
pump
Total Equipment Php 40,823,171.00
Cost

𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕 = ₱ 10,000,000 + ₱ 154,175,000 + ₱ 40,823,171

Cost of plant = ₱ 204,998,171.00

The following are the estimates and assumptions for the Plant Economics.
These values are based from the Book, Power Plant Engineering authored by
Frederick T. Morse. Consequently, assume that the Plant decides to market their
product to the nearby grid, the values are also included below.

Assumed Economic life of the Plant 25 years

Power Station Salvage Values 10% of the Plant Cost
= ₱ 204,998,171 × 0.10
= ₱ 𝟐𝟎, 𝟒𝟗𝟗, 𝟖𝟏𝟕.1
Estimated Primary Transmission Line
Length 300 km

Cost of Primary Transmission Line ₱ 60,000 per km

₱ 60,000
= × 300 𝑘𝑚
𝑘𝑚

= ₱ 18,000,000
Primary Distribution System Economic 25 years
Life
30% of the Cost of Primary
Transmission
 Primary Distribution System Salvage = ₱ 18,000,000 x .30
Value = ₱ 5,400,000
Assume ₱ 6,000,000
Cost of Secondary Transmission Line Assume 15 years Economic Life
Secondary Distribution System Salvage 20% of the Secondary
values transmission line cost
= ₱ 6,000,000 x .20
= ₱ 1,200,000
Interest rate 6.5%
Taxes and Insurance 5%
Management Cost ₱ 6,149,945.13 (3% of the Plant Cost)
Maintenance and Repair ₱ 1,224,695.13 (3% of the Equipment
Cost)
Cost of Franchise and Publicity ₱ 300,000
Collecting Revenue ₱ 350,000
Operating Secondary Distribution
System Cost ₱ 7,000,000 (assumed)

Fixed Element:

Capital Cost = Cost of Plant + Cost of Primary transmission line

Capital Cost = ₱ 204,998,171 + ₱ 18,000,000

Capital Cost = ₱ 222,998,171.00

Depreciation of Plant = Capital Cost – Salvage value

= ₱ 222,998,171 (1-0.10)

Depreciation of Plant = ₱ 200,698,353.9

Transmission = ₱ 18,000,000 (1-0.30)

Transmission = ₱ 12,600,000

Plant Depreciation Reserve (annual) = ₱ 200,698,353 / 25 yrs.

Plant Depreciation Reserve (annual) = ₱ 8,027,934.12

Primary Line Depreciation Reserve = ₱12,600,000 / 25 yrs.

Primary Line Depreciation Reserve = ₱ 504,000

Interest; Taxes and Insurance = (0.065 + 0.05) × Plant Cost

Interest; Taxes and Insurance = ₱ 204,998,171 (0.115)

Interest; Taxes and Insurance = ₱ 23,574,789.67

Maintenance & Repair Cost = ₱ 1,224,695.13 x 0.10

Maintenance & Repair Cost = ₱ 122,469.513

Management cost = ₱ 6,149,945.13

Fixed Element Cost

Annual Depreciation Reserves ₱ 8,027,934.12
Interest, taxes, Insurance ₱ 23,574,789.67
Maintenance ₱ 122,469.513
Management ₱ 6,149,945.13
Cost of Equipment ₱ 40,823,171.00
Cost of Building ₱ 204,998,171
Cost of Transmission ₱ 12,600,000
Total Annual Cost for fixed Element ₱ 296,296,480.4

According to Coal Agency (2019). The price of Sub-bituminous coal in the

Philippines is around 87 dollars per metric ton or about 4,785 in Philippine peso.

Energy Element:

Labor Cost = ₱ 10,047,360

Maintenance and Repairs = ₱ 1,224,695.13 x .9 = ₱ 1,102,225.617

 𝑇𝑜𝑛 8760 ℎ𝑟𝑠
Fuel Cost = (24.802 ℎ𝑟
)(1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
)( ₱ 4,785)

Fuel Cost = ₱ 1,039,615,513

Energy Element Cost

Labor Cost ₱ 10,047,360
Maintenance and repair ₱ 1,102,225.617
Fuel Cost ₱ 1,039,615,513
Total Annual Energy Element Cost ₱ 1,050,765,099

Customer Element:

Depreciation of Secondary = (₱ 6,000,000) (1-0.2)

Distribution System = ₱ 4,800,000

₱ 4,800,000
Annual Depreciation Reserve = 15 𝑦𝑟𝑠.
= ₱ 320,000

Interest, Taxes, and Insurance = (0.065+0.05) x Plant Cost

Interest, Taxes, and Insurance = 0.115 x ₱ 204,998,171 = ₱ 23,574,789.67

Operating Cost = ₱ 6,000,000

Cost of Franchise and Publicity = ₱ 300,000

Collecting Revenue = ₱ 350,000

Customer Element Cost

Annual Depreciation Reserve ₱ 320,000
Interest, Taxes, and Insurance ₱ 23,574,789.67
Operating Cost ₱ 6,000,000
Cost of Franchise and Publicity ₱ 300,000
Collecting Revenue ₱ 350,000
Total Annual Customer element ₱ 30,544,789.67
charge
Investor’s Profit:

Assume that the annual profit on capitalization, over and above interest, is to
be 8% of the plant cost, primary and secondary distribution system (Morse, 1953).

Capital = Plant cost + cost of Primary Line + cost of secondary distribution

Capital = ₱ 204,998,171 + ₱ 18,000,000 + ₱ 6,000,000

Capital = ₱ 228998171

Profit Element = Capital (0.08)

Profit Element = ₱ 228,998,171 (0.08)

Profit Element = ₱ 18,319,853.68

Overall Elements Cost

Fixed element ₱ 296,296,480.4
Energy element ₱ 1,050,765,099
Customer element ₱ 30,544,789.67
Profit element ₱ 18,319,853.68
Annual production cost ₱ 1,117,949,596

Assuming 80% of the Plant output to be registered on the customer’s meter.

Annual kW-hr. produced = 28,000 kW x 24 hrs. x 0.80 x 365 days

Annual kW-hr. produced = 196,224,000 kW-hr.

Rate:

𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡

𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑊 − ℎ𝑟. =
𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑊−ℎ𝑟. 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑

₱ 𝟏,𝟏𝟏𝟕,𝟗𝟒𝟗,𝟓𝟗𝟔
= 𝟏𝟗𝟔,𝟐𝟐𝟒,𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐤𝐖−𝐡𝐫.

𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒌𝑾 − 𝒉𝒓 = ₱ 𝟓. 𝟔𝟗𝟕𝟑 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒌𝑾 − 𝒉𝒓

Return on Investment:

Plant Efficiency: 0.5623 or 56.23%

Plant Capacity: 28 MW or 28,000 kW

Total Annual Cost: ₱ 1,117,949,596

Generated power of plant per day= 28,000 kW (0.5623) = 15,744.4 kW

kW-hr. produced per day = 15,744.4 kW (24 hrs.) = 377,865.6 kW-hr.

₱ 5.6973
Income per day = 377,865.6 kW-hr. x
𝑘𝑊−ℎ𝑟.

Income per day = ₱ 2,152,813.683

Income per year = ₱ 2,152,813.683 x 365 days

Income per year = ₱ 785,776,994.3

Payback period:

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡

Payback period =
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

₱ 𝟏,𝟏𝟏𝟕,𝟗𝟒𝟗,𝟓𝟗𝟔
Payback period =
𝟕𝟖𝟓,𝟕𝟕𝟔,𝟗𝟗𝟒.𝟑

Payback period = 1.4 years or 1 year and 4 months

Diesel Power Plant
POSITION NUMBER OF SALARY PER TOTAL / ANNUAL
PERSONNELS MONTH (each SALARY
personnel)

Plant Manager 1 180,000 Php 2,160,000 Php

Operations 2 140,000 Php 3,360,000 Php

Supervisor

Maintenance 2 120,000 Php 2,880,000 Php

Supervisor

Electrical Engineer 2 50,000 Php 1,200,000 Php

Mechanical 2 50,000 Php 1,200,000 Php

Engineer

Control Room 35,000 Php 1,260,000 Php

Operator 3

Maintenance
Technician 3 25,000 Php 900,000 Php
(Electrical)

Maintenance
Technician 3 25,000 Php 900,000 Php
(Mechanical)

Instrumentation 2 22,000 Php 528,000 Php

Technician

Operator 3 21,000 Php 756,000 Php

4 18,000 Php 864,000 Php

Fuel Handler

General Laborer 6 16,000 Php 1,152,000 Php

Total Labor Cost 17,160,000 Php

Table 1. Manpower requirements
Cost of Land:
The location for this design project is in the Municipality of Valderrama, Antique,
Philippines. It is situated near Kangaranan River, this river would supply enough
amount of water for plant operation. The proposed site selection covers approximately
50,000 𝑚2 or 5 hectares. The cost of land per hectare is ₱2,000,000, so:

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 × 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑒

₱ 2,000,000
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 5 ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 ×
ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑒

𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑳𝒂𝒏𝒅 = ₱ 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎

Cost of Plant Building:

Based on the data provided by Philippine Statistics Authority the average cost
per square meter for non-residential buildings in the region was estimated to be Php
12,334. The proposed area for the facility, covers around 12,500 square meters.

𝐵𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

₱ 12,334
𝐵𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 12,500 𝑚2 ×
𝑚2
𝑩𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 = ₱ 𝟏𝟓𝟒, 𝟏𝟕𝟓, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
Cost of Equipment:

Equipment Quantity Cost Total Cost

Diesel Engine

12KU44 2 ₱ 100,000,000 ₱ 200,000,000

(Mitsubishi KU
Series model)

18KU44 1 ₱ 130,000,000 ₱ 130,000,000

(Mitsubishi KU
Series model)

Fuel System

Diesel Day Tank 3 ₱ 500,000 ₱ 1,500,000

Pump
(Storage Tank to 3 ₱ 75,000 ₱ 225,000
Day
Tank)

Main Storage Tank 69 ₱ 110,000 ₱ 7,590,000

Fuel Filter Machine 3 ₱ 85,000 ₱ 255,000

Lubrication System
Lubricant Oil Tank 3 ₱ 60,000 ₱ 180,000
Oil Filter 3 ₱ 2,500 ₱ 7,500

Cooling System
Cooling Tower 1 ₱ 5,000,000 ₱ 5,000,000

Total Equipment Cost ₱ 344,757,500

 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕 = ₱ 9,250,000 + ₱ 154,175,000 + ₱ 304,757,000

Cost of plant = ₱ 508,932,500

The following are the estimates and assumptions for the Plant Economics.
These values are based from the Book, Power Plant Engineering authored by
Frederick T. Morse. Consequently, assume that the Plant decides to market their
product to the nearby grid, the values are also included below.

Assumed Economic life of the Plant 25 years

Power Station Salvage Values 10% of the Plant Cost
= ₱ 508,932,500 × 0.10
= ₱ 𝟓𝟎, 𝟖𝟗𝟑, 𝟐𝟓𝟎

Estimated Primary Transmission Line 300 km

Length

Cost of Primary Transmission Line ₱ 60,000 per km

₱ 60,000
= 𝑘𝑚
× 300 𝑘𝑚

= ₱ 18,000,000
Primary Distribution System Economic 25 years
Life
30% of the Cost of Primary
Primary Distribution System Salvage Transmission
Value = ₱ 18,000,000 x .30
= ₱ 5,400,000
Assume ₱ 6,000,000
Cost of Secondary Transmission Line Assume 15 years Economic Life
Secondary Distribution System Salvage 20% of the Secondary
values transmission line cost
= ₱ 6,000,000 x .20
 = ₱ 1,200,000
Interest rate 6.5%
Taxes and Insurance 5%
Management Cost ₱ 15,267,975 (3% of the Plant Cost)
Maintenance and Repair ₱ 10,342,725 (3% of the Equipment
Cost)
Cost of Franchise and Publicity ₱ 300,000
Collecting Revenue ₱ 350,000
Operating Secondary Distribution
System Cost ₱ 7,000,000 (assumed)

Fixed Element:

Capital Cost = Cost of Plant + Cost of Primary transmission line

Capital Cost = ₱ 508,932,500 + ₱ 18,000,000

Capital Cost = ₱ 526,932,500

Depreciation of Plant = Capital Cost – Salvage value

= ₱ 526,932,500 (1-0.10)

Depreciation of Plant = ₱ 474,239,250

Transmission = ₱ 18,000,000 (1-0.30)

Transmission = ₱ 12,600,000

Plant Depreciation Reserve (annual) = ₱474,239,250 / 25 yrs.

Plant Depreciation Reserve (annual) = ₱ 18,969,570

Primary Line Depreciation Reserve = ₱12,600,000 / 25 yrs.

Primary Line Depreciation Reserve = ₱ 504,000

Interest; Taxes and Insurance = (0.065 + 0.05) × Plant Cost

Interest; Taxes and Insurance =₱ 508,932,500 (0.115)

Interest; Taxes and Insurance = ₱ 58,527,237.5

Maintenance & Repair Cost = ₱ 10,342,725 x 0.10

Maintenance & Repair Cost = ₱ 1,034,272.5

Management cost = ₱ 15,267,975

Fixed Element Cost

Annual Depreciation Reserves ₱ 18,969,570
Interest, taxes, Insurance ₱ 58,527,237.5
Maintenance ₱ 1,034,272.5
Management ₱ 15,267,975
Cost of Equipment ₱ 344,757,500
Cost of Building ₱ 508,932,500
Cost of Transmission ₱ 12,600,000
Total Annual Cost for fixed Element ₱ 959,816,055

According to Global Petrol Prices the current price of diesel fuel in the
Philippines is ₱ 62.10 per liter.

Energy Element:

Labor Cost = ₱ 17,160,000

Maintenance and Repairs = ₱ 10,342,725 x .9 = ₱ 9,308,452.5

𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 12 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ ₱ 62.10

Fuel Cost = (7,541,918.573 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ )( 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
)( 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 )

Fuel Cost = ₱ 5,620,237,721

Energy Element Cost

Labor Cost ₱ 17,160,000
Maintenance and repair ₱ 9,308,452.5
 Fuel Cost ₱ 5,620,237,721
Total Annual Energy Element Cost ₱ 5,646,706,174

Customer Element:

Depreciation of Secondary = (₱ 6,000,000) (1-0.2)

Distribution System = ₱ 4,800,000

₱ 4,800,000
Annual Depreciation Reserve = 15 𝑦𝑟𝑠.
= ₱ 320,000

Interest, Taxes, and Insurance = (0.065+0.05) x Plant Cost

Interest, Taxes, and Insurance = 0.115 x ₱ 508,932,500= ₱ 58,527,237.5

Operating Cost = ₱ 6,000,000

Cost of Franchise and Publicity = ₱ 300,000

Collecting Revenue = ₱ 350,000

Customer Element Cost

Annual Depreciation Reserve ₱ 320,000
Interest, Taxes, and Insurance ₱ 58,527,237.5
Operating Cost ₱ 6,000,000
Cost of Franchise and Publicity ₱ 300,000
Collecting Revenue ₱ 350,000
Total Annual Customer element ₱ 65,497,237.5
charge

Investor’s Profit:

Assume that the annual profit on capitalization, over and above interest, is to
be 8% of the plant cost, primary and secondary distribution system (Morse, 1953).
 Capital = Plant cost + cost of Primary Line + cost of secondary distribution

Capital = ₱ 508,932,500 + ₱ 18,000,000 + ₱ 6,000,000

Capital = ₱ 532,932,500

Profit Element = Capital (0.08)

Profit Element = ₱ 532,932,500 (0.08)

Profit Element = ₱ 42,634,600

Overall Elements Cost

Fixed element ₱ 959,816,055
Energy element ₱ 5,646,706,174
Customer element ₱ 65,497,237.5
Profit element ₱ 42,634,600
Annual production cost ₱ 6,532,654,067

Assuming 85% of the Plant output to be registered on the customer’s meter.

Annual kW-hr. produced = 40,000 kW x 24 hrs. x 0.85 x 365 days

Annual kW-hr. produced = 350,040,000 kW-hr.

Rate:

𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡

𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑊 − ℎ𝑟. = 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑊−ℎ𝑟. 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑

₱ 6,532,654,067
=
350,040,000 𝑘𝑊−ℎ𝑟.

𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒌𝑾 − 𝒉𝒓 = ₱ 𝟏𝟖. 𝟔𝟒 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒌𝑾 − 𝒉𝒓

Return on Investment:

40,000 𝑘𝑊
Plant Efficiency = 167,958 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 x 100 % = 0.23815 or 23.815 %

Plant Capacity: 40 MW or 40,000 kW

Total Annual Cost: ₱ 4,736,781,298

Generated power of plant per day= 40,000 kW (0.23815) = 9,526 kW

kW-hr. produced per day = 9,526kW (24 hrs.) = 228,624 kW-hr.

₱ 18.64
Income per day = 228,624 kW-hr. x
𝑘𝑊−ℎ𝑟.

Income per day = ₱4,261,551.36

Income per year = ₱ 4,261,551.36 x 365 days

Income per year = ₱ 1,555,466,246

Payback period:

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡

Payback period =
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

₱ 6,532,654,067
Payback period =
1,555,466,246

Payback period = 4.2 years or 4 years and 2 months

Return of investment Amount

Income per day ₱ 4,261,551.36
Income per year ₱ 1,555,466,246
Payback period 4 years and 2 months
Solar Power Plant
Power plant economics refers to the financial considerations involved in
the operation and maintenance of power producing facilities. The economics of
power generation are impacted by multiple factors, including the power plant's
type, fuel expenses, building expenses, and market circumstances.

Table 2 Manpower and Labor Salaries

Salary
Position No. of Personnel Annual Salary
(Monthly)
Plant Manger 1 ₱200,000.00 ₱2,400,000.00
Maintenance Manager 3 ₱57,391.00 ₱2,066,076.00
Performance and Training Manager 3 ₱51,785.00 ₱1,864,260.00
Operations Manager 3 ₱102,148.00 ₱3,677,328.00
Control and Instrument 3 ₱25,000.00 ₱900,000.00
Maintenance Engineer 3 ₱60,666.00 ₱2,183,976.00
Electrical Maintenance Engineer 3 ₱50,000.00 ₱1,800,000.00
Pollution Control Officer 3 ₱47,500.00 ₱1,710,000.00
Mechanical Maintenance Engineer 3 ₱50,000.00 ₱1,800,000.00
QSHE Officer 3 ₱30,000.00 ₱1,080,000.00
Shift Charge Engineer 3 ₱30,000.00 ₱1,080,000.00
Shift Supervisor 3 ₱25,000.00 ₱900,000.00
Purchaser 4 ₱20,000.00 ₱960,000.00
Safety Officer 4 ₱23,000.00 ₱1,104,000.00
Control and Instrument Technician 4 ₱20,000.00 ₱960,000.00
Electrical Technician 5 ₱45,000.00 ₱2,700,000.00
Security Personnel 10 ₱25,000.00 ₱1,500,000.00
Plant Operator 10 ₱32,000.00 ₱3,840,000.00
Maintenance Labor 10 ₱20,000.00 ₱2,400,000.00
Utility Personnel 10 ₱18,000.00 ₱2,160,000.00
TOTAL ₱932,490.00 ₱37,085,640.00
Land Cost (Land needed):

Land Cost = ₱54,475/m2

Building Area = 248070m2

Building Area Cost = Land Cost ∗ Building Area

Building Area Cost == ₱54,475/m2 ∗ 248070m2

Building Area Cost = ₱13,513,613,250.00

Table 3 Equipment Cost
Equipment Quantity Cost Total Cost
Solar Panel (SPR-MAX3-400) 71100 PhP 21,042.00 PhP 1,496,086,200.00
Combiner Box 1000V DC 225 PhP 10,000.00 PhP 2,250,000.00
Inverter (SPI260K-B) 21 PhP 527,330.00 PhP 11,073,930.00
Switchgear 1 PhP 333,051.00 PhP 333,051.00
Transformer (30 MVA Oil
1 PhP 141,990.00 PhP 141,990.00
Immersed Transformer)
TOTAL PhP 1,509,885,171.00

Cost of plant:

Overall Cost Of Plant = Building Area Cost + Equipment Cost

Overall Cost Of Plant = ₱13,513,613,250.00 + ₱1,509,885,171.00

Overall Cost Of Plant = ₱15,023,498,421

Table 4 Power Plant Economics with assumptions calculations
Assumed Economic Life of the
30
Plant (Years)
PhP
10% PhP 1,502,349,842.10
Power Station Salvage value 15,023,498,421.00
Estimated Primary Transmission
126.25
Line Length (km)
PhP 7,575,000.00
Cost of Primary Transmission PhP
Line (PhP/km) 60,000.00
Primary Dsitribution System
30
Economic Life (Years)
Primary Distribution Sytem PhP
30% PhP 2,272,500.00
Salvage Value 7,575,000.00
Cost of Secondary Transmission PhP
Line (Assumption - 15 years) 2,000,000.00
Secondary Distribution System PhP
20% PhP 400,000.00
Salvage Values 2,000,000.00
Interest Rate 6.50%
Taxes and Insurance 5%
PhP
3% PhP 450,704,952.63
Management Cost 15,023,498,421.00
PhP
3% PhP 45,296,555.13
Maintenance and Repair 1,509,885,171.00
PhP
Cost of Franchise and Publicity 450,000.00
PhP
Collcting Revenue 580,000.00
Operating Secondary PhP
Distribution System Cost 5,000,000.00
Fixed Element:

Table 5 Fixed Element

Capital Cost = Cost of Plant + Cost of Primary Transmission
Capital Cost PhP 15,023,498,421.00
Depreciation = Capital Cost - Salvage Value
Plant PhP 13,521,148,578.90
Transmission PhP 5,302,500.00
Annual Depreciation Reserve is calculated by straight line basis:
Plant Depreciation Reserve (annual) PhP 450,704,952.63
Primary Line Depreciation Reserve PhP 176,750.00
Annual Depreciation Reserve = Plant D.R. + Primary D.R. PhP 450,881,702.63
Interest, Taxes and Insurance = (0.065 + 0.05) × Plant Cost PhP 1,727,702,318.42
Maintenance & Repair Cost (10%) PhP 4,529,655.51
Management Cost PhP 450,704,952.63
Total Annual Fixed Cost PhP 31,634,649,831.72

Energy Element:

Table 6 Energy Element

Labor Cost PhP 37,085,640.00
Maintenance and Repairs in 90% PhP 40,766,899.62
Total Annual Energy Element Cost PhP 77,852,539.62
Customer Element:

Table 7 Customer Element

Depreciation of Secondary (minus 20%) PhP 1,600,000.00
Annual Depreciation Reserve (by 15 years) PhP 106,666.67
Interest, Taxes and Insurance PhP 230,000.00
Operating Cost PhP 2,000,000.00
Cost of Franchise and Publicity PhP 450,000.00
Collecting Revenue PhP 580,000.00
Total Annual Customer Element Charge PhP 4,966,666.67

Investor’s Profit:

Table 8 Investor Profit

Plant Cost PhP 15,023,498,421.00
Cost of Primary Line PhP 7,575,000.00
Cost Secondary Distribution PhP 2,000,000.00
Total Capital PhP 15,033,073,421.00
Profit Element PhP 1,202,645,873.68

Overall Element Summary:

Table 9 Overall Element Summary

Fixed Element PhP 31,634,649,831.72
Energy Element PhP 77,852,539.62
Customer Element PhP 4,966,666.67
Profit Element PhP 1,202,645,873.68
Annual Production Cost PhP 32,920,114,911.69

Suppose that 80% of the Plant output is recorded on the customer's meter.

𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑊ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 40577805.85 𝑘𝑊ℎ (0.80)(365 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠)

𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑊ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 1184871931 𝑘𝑊ℎ

𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡

𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐾𝑤 =
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑊ℎ 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
 PhP 32,920,114,911.69
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐾𝑤 =
1184871931 𝑘𝑊ℎ

PhP 32,920,114,911.69
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐾𝑤 =
1184871931 𝑘𝑊ℎ

𝑃ℎ𝑃
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐾𝑤 = 27.7836
𝑘𝑊ℎ

Return on Investment:

𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 22.6%

𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 28440000 𝑊 28.4 𝑀𝑊

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑃ℎ𝑃 32,920,114,911.69

𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑎𝑦 = 28440 𝐾𝑤 (0.226)

𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑎𝑦 = 6427.44 𝐾𝑤

𝑘𝑊ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 6427.44 𝐾𝑤(24 ℎ𝑟𝑠)

𝑘𝑊ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 154258.56 𝑘𝑊ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑃ℎ𝑃
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 154258.56 𝑘𝑊ℎ ∗ (27.7836 )
𝑘𝑊ℎ

𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 𝑃ℎ𝑃 4,285,858.1276 𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦

𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 𝑃ℎ𝑃 4,285,858.1276 ∗ 365 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠

𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 𝑃ℎ𝑃 1,564,338,216.574

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡

𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 =
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

𝑃ℎ𝑃 32,920,114,911.69
𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 =
𝑃ℎ𝑃 1,564,338,216.574

𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟎𝟒𝟒𝟏𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔

Table 10 Return on Investment Summary
Return on Investment Amount
Income per Day PhP 4,285,858.1276
Income per Year PhP 1,564,338,216.574
Payback Period 21.0441 years
 IV. Conditions Met Prior To Design
When designing a steam power plant, crucial factors must be determined.
These factors involve determining the plant's power requirements, selecting the
appropriate fuel (such as coal or natural gas), adhering to environmental regulations,
choosing a suitable location, and constructing the plant.
Ensuring sufficient water supply, determining steam system operation, selecting
appropriate boilers and turbines, strategizing for cooling, establishing efficiency and
safety objectives, evaluating costs, obtaining required approvals, integrating with the
electrical grid, considering environmental impact, and ensuring environmentally
friendly design. After resolving all these issues, the designers can begin creating
precise blueprints for the power plant to ensure its efficiency and safety.
When designing a diesel power plant, certain crucial conditions need to be
considered. To begin, the electrical load needs of the facility or system must be
assessed to select the generators of suitable capacity. Secondly, it is important to
ensure a dependable supply of diesel fuel, considering fuel accessibility, storage
capabilities, and logistical arrangements. Thirdly, it is crucial to strictly adhere to
environmental rules, including emissions and noise levels. Site selection should
consider accessibility, environmental factors, and land availability. Decisions for grid
connection, backup power sources, and fuel handling must be considered, while
planning cooling systems, exhaust controls, and noise reduction measures.
Establish budget estimates, select equipment, create maintenance plans, and
implement safety procedures. To design a solar power plant, meticulous planning and
strict adherence to essential requirements are required. Important factors to consider
are identifying a suitable location with abundant solar radiation, acquiring land and
permissions, evaluating grid connection options, determining plant capacity, selecting
the right solar panel and inverter technologies, and deciding on mounting solutions.
Adhering to legislative mandates, securing funding, and managing finances are crucial,
as well as creating strong operational and maintenance strategies.
Key components include safety precautions, environmental effect reduction,
performance monitoring, and community interaction. Prior to designing a power plant,
meeting specific conditions is essential for economic feasibility, environmental
conformity, resource accessibility, grid incorporation, regulatory compliance,
technology choice, financial preparation, risk reduction, stakeholder involvement, and
infrastructure preparedness. It guarantees a prosperous, effective, and enduring
power generation project while reducing risks and expensive delays.
 V. Design of a Coal-Powered Steam Power Plant
5.1 Cycle Schematic Diagram
In contrast to various alternative applications, the envisioned
steam power plant exhibits relatively moderate power demands. Nevertheless, it would
be particularly advantageous if the plant could also address the substantial heat
requirements of the mill. In alignment with this distinctive design decision, the plant is
configured to operate within a modified cogeneration system featuring regeneration.
This intricate system encompasses key components such as the process heater, open
feedwater heater, mixing chamber, and the condenser. The integration of these
elements in the design not only caters to power generation but also ensures efficient
utilization of excess heat, highlighting the plant's versatility and resource optimization.
\

Figure Schematic diagram of cogenerative coal-fired steam power plant

Figure Simple Schematic of the plant

5.2 Operating Condition Selection and Design

The overall efficiency of a power plant is determined by the efficiency of its
individual components. A critical factor influencing the efficiency of a Coal-Fired
Powerplant is the reduction of heat losses, and there are various potential sites for
heat loss in a power plant. Aging Coal-Fired Powerplants experience a decline in
efficiency over time, leading to higher CO2 emissions per unit of energy produced
(Campbell, 2013). It is essential to operate coal-fired power plants in a manner that
maintains emissions well below target levels and maximizes combustion efficiency.
Achieving this goal requires a thorough understanding of the quantitative impacts of
process factors and fuel properties on emissions and efficiency (Bulsari, et al., 2010).

The majority of the world's electricity is generated by steam power plants, and
even small improvements in thermal efficiency can result in significant fuel savings.
Therefore, continuous efforts are made to enhance the cycle efficiency of steam power
plants. The fundamental concept behind all modifications aimed at improving thermal
efficiency is either increasing the average temperature at which heat is added to the
working fluid in the boiler or decreasing the average temperature at which heat is
rejected from the working fluid in the condenser (Cengel & Boles, 2006). Consequently,
it is crucial to maximize the average fluid temperature during heat addition and
minimize it during heat rejection.

Increasing the temperature of steam through superheating provides an

additional and highly desirable benefit. However, metallurgical constraints limit the
maximum temperature to which steam can be superheated. Currently, the turbine's
maximum allowable inlet temperature is approximately 620°C (1,150°F). Any increase
in this limit depends on the discovery of new or improved materials capable of
withstanding higher temperatures (Cengel & Boles, 2006). Therefore, the turbine inlet
temperature for this specific system is set at 580°C.

Raising the operational pressure of the boiler, which inherently elevates the
temperature at which boiling takes place, stands as another approach to augment the
average temperature during the heat addition phase. Consequently, this heightens the
average temperature at which heat is transformed into steam, leading to an increase
in the overall thermal efficiency of the cycle (Cengel & Boles, 2006). For smaller steam
turbines designed to produce lower outputs, it is common for them to operate at lower
pressures, as exposure to high supply or pressure may cause damage. In the context
of the sugar industry, which operates a power plant of less than 10 MW to meet the
factory's energy needs, especially during the harvest season, steam serves as the
primary energy source for sugar processing. The integration of "modern" technologies
could potentially enable the power plant at the same mill to operate consistently at a
capacity of 10 MW or even 15 MW throughout the year, signifying a shift from
cogeneration to independent power production (LANDELL MILLS LTD, 2011).
Typically, pressures between 6 and 8 MPa are deemed desirable in current practices.
In the specified design, both the boiler pressure and turbine inlet pressure are
straightforwardly set to 8 MPa.

Another strategy to enhance thermal efficiency involves lowering the

condenser pressure. Steam power plant condensers often operate significantly below
atmospheric pressure to capitalize on the heightened efficiency at low pressures.
Since vapor power cycles function within a closed loop, running at lower pressures
poses no significant issues. However, there is a minimum condenser pressure that can
be applied, and it must be lower than the saturation pressure corresponding to the
temperature of the cooling medium (Cengel & Boles, 2006). In the present design, the
cooling water is sourced from a nearby river, and given an average temperature of
26.5°C in Capiz, Philippines (Climate Data, 2022), the condensing pressure for this
system is explicitly set at 0.005 MPa or 5 kPa.

In the cogeneration arrangement, steam will be extracted for process heat, a

configuration beneficial for industries such as chemicals, oil, and food processing.
Interestingly, modern sugar mills with refineries only utilize 40% of steam for cane
processing (Petersen, 2014). Cogeneration systems necessitate low extraction
pressure as higher values can diminish electricity efficiency (Kamate & Gangavati,
2009). Typically, steam for process heat is delivered to a pressure of approximately 7
atmospheres (Cengel & Boles, 2006).

Consequently, the extraction pressure for steam in the heating process is set
at 0.75 MPa, equivalent to 750 kPa. At this juncture, the extraction will be regulated to
ensure that a substantial portion of the steam mass is utilized effectively. Eventually,
the steam will exit the heater as a liquid having reached its saturation point while
maintaining the same pressure. Therefore, the plant will be equipped with an open
feedwater heater for regeneration, a choice motivated by its simplicity, cost-
effectiveness, and efficient heat transfer (Cengel & Boles, 2006). The utilization of one
open feedwater heater is deemed sufficient for the system's relatively modest loads,
as adding more units with various designs and features could theoretically enhance
efficiency but would likely impede power generation efficiency. Such complexities
increase system cost and intricacy without a corresponding improvement in efficiency.
Consequently, some process heating steam will be directed to one open feedwater
heater, with the extracted steam pressure set at 750 kPa. The saturated liquid steam
will exit the heater under the same pressure (Chaplin, 2011).
Cycle Heat Balance
Isentropic efficiency of different turbines that have been designed in an
appropriate and focused manner can actually attain between 85% and 90%
(Vankeirsbilck et al., 2011).

And according to Sans-Prada et al., pump isentropic efficiency is typically 85%.

Additionally, the efficiency of the industrial steam boilers used in coal-fired

power plants would be nearly average, coming in at 85% (Zhang et al., 2018).

Having the knowledge of the most abundant coal in the country, which is the
subbituminous coal (DOE, n.d.). The higher heating value (HHV) of such idea is
typically at about 23 MJ/kg (Özyuğuran & Yaman, 2017).

Consequently, the following information is used:

Inlet Pressure = 8 MPa

Inlet Temperature = 540 °C

Extraction Pressure = 750 KPa

Exhaust Pressure = 5 KPa

Isentropic Efficiencies = 85%

Boiler Efficiency = 85%

Generator Efficiency = 90%

Desired Power Output = 28 MW

Heating Value of Coal = 23 MJ/kg

Assumptions in this analysis:

• Steady operating conditions take place for all components.

• Changes in kinetic and potential energy are negligible.

Table 2 Summary of heat balance calculations with its steam conditions

 Table 2 Summary of heat balance calculations with its steam conditions

State Temperature Pressure Enthalpy

°C MPa kJ/kg
1 540 8 3497.6
2 199.65 0.75 2940.09
3 32.87 0.005 2267.9
4 32.87 0.005 137.75
5 32.92 0.75 138.63
6 199.65 0.75 2940.09
7 199.65 0.75 2940.09
8 167.749 0.75 709.47
9 167.749 0.75 709.47
10 167.749 0.75 709.47
11 169.59 8 721.28

Figure 10 Simple Schematic of the power plant

Referring back to the simplified schematic of the cycle in Figure above,

the major contributors to the overall performance of the system are the
process-heating unit extraction lines and the feedwater heater. A percentage
of the entire steam flow is extracted from the turbine so that it may be utilized
for process heat. Additionally, a part of this is delivered to the water heater.
The steam is removed at a single state and simply assigned to both lines at
this point; hence, the steam conditions through points 6 and 7 are largely
identical to those at the extraction from point 2.

After the turbine, three different lines guide the flow of steam: points 3, 6, and
7. In state 5, feedwater enters the heater after passing via the condenser and
condensate-extracting pump. Here, the moist vapor from point 6 is combined
with the subcooled liquid from point 5, and water is heated. In this case, the
mass balance would be changing due to the proportion of steam delivered to
the process heater. Nevertheless, the mass of steam at point 8's outflow would
equal the whole mass minus the fraction needed for process heating.

The steam from point 7 would travel through the process heater and
leave at point 9. The liquid-saturated material at points 8 and 9 exits the
respective heaters and enters the mixing chamber. In addition, the pressures
at these locations are identical since they all lead to the same extraction point.
Therefore, the water conditions at both locations are comparable.
Consequently, it is obvious from the calculations shown below that the water
exits the mixing chamber at point 10 in exactly the same state as at points 8 and
9. In addition, the whole mass of steam is retrieved here. Again, the total
system performance changes based on the steam directed to the process-
heating devices. These are elaborated on further down.

On Figure below shows the T-S diagram for the cycle where on each point has its own
calculation. The broken lines represent the ideal processes that was supposed to
undergo but with the actual processes being considered.

Figure 11 T-S diagram of the cycle

𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝟏

@ 𝑃1 = 8 𝑀𝑃𝑎 & 𝑇1 = 580 ℃

ℎ1 = 𝟑𝟒𝟗𝟕. 𝟔 𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈

𝑠1 = 6.8503 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾
𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝟐
𝑠2 = 𝑠1 = 6.8503 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾
@ 𝑃2 = 0.75 𝑀𝑃𝑎:
𝑠𝑔 = 6.6847 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾

𝑠𝑔 < 𝑠2 ⟹ 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

@ 𝑃2 = 0.75 𝑀𝑃𝑎:
s h
6.8277 2831.1
6.8503 h2
6.8520 2842.5

6.8277 − 6.8503
ℎ2 = 2831.1 + ( ) (2831.1 − 2842.5)
6.8277 − 6.8520
ℎ2 = 2841.70 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
ℎ1 − ℎ2′
𝜂𝑇 =
ℎ1 − ℎ2

ℎ2′ = ℎ1 − 𝜂𝑇(ℎ1 − ℎ2)

= 3497.6 − 0.85(3497.6 − 2841.70)
= 𝟐𝟗𝟒𝟎. 𝟎𝟗 𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈
 @ 𝑃2 = 0.75 𝑀𝑃𝑎:
h s
2930.7 7.0311
2940.09 s2’
2952.2 7.0725

2930.7 − 2940.09
𝑠2′ = 7.0311 + ( ) (7.0311 − 7.0725)
2930.7 − 2952.2
= 𝟕. 𝟎𝟒𝟗𝟐 𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈 − 𝑲

𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝟑
@ 𝑃3 = 0.005 𝑀𝑃𝑎:
ℎ𝑓 = 137.75 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 2423.0 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

𝑠𝑓 = 0.4762 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾

𝑠𝑓𝑔 = 7.9176 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾

𝑠3 = 𝑠2′ = 7.0492 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾

𝑠3 = 𝑠𝑓 + 𝑥3𝑠𝑓𝑔
𝑠3 − 𝑠𝑓
𝑥3 =
𝑠𝑓𝑔
7.0492 − 0.4762
=
7.9176
= 0.8302
ℎ3 = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥3ℎ𝑓𝑔

= 137.75 + (0.8302)(2423.0)
= 𝟐𝟏𝟒𝟗. 𝟑𝟐 𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈

ℎ2′ − ℎ3′
𝜂𝑇 =
ℎ 2 ′ − ℎ3

ℎ3′ = ℎ2′ − 𝜂𝑇(ℎ2′ − ℎ3)

= 2940.09 − 0.85(2940.09 − 2149.32)
= 𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟕. 𝟗𝟒 𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈
 𝑥3′ = ℎ3′ − ℎ𝑓
ℎ𝑓𝑔
= 2267.94 − 137.75
2423.0
= 0.8792

𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝟒
@ 𝑃4 = 0.005 𝑀𝑃𝑎:
ℎ4 = ℎ𝑓 = 𝟏𝟑𝟕. 𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈

𝑣4 = 𝑣𝑓 = 1.0053 × 10−3 𝑚3/𝑘𝑔

𝑤𝑃1 = 𝑣5(𝑃5 − 𝑃4)

= 1.0053(0.75 − 0.005) × 103 × 10−3
= 0.7489 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑤𝑃1
𝑤𝑃1′ =
𝜂𝑃
0.7489
=
0.85
= 0.8811 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

ℎ5′ = 𝑤𝑃1′ + ℎ4
ℎ5′ = 0.8811 + 137.75
ℎ5′ = 𝟏𝟑𝟖. 𝟔𝟑 𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈

𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝟔
𝑃6 = 𝑃2 = 0.75 𝑀𝑃𝑎
ℎ6 = ℎ2′ = 𝟐𝟗𝟒𝟎. 𝟎𝟗 𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈

𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝟕
𝑃7 = 𝑃2 = 0.75 𝑀𝑃𝑎
ℎ7 = ℎ2′ = 𝟐𝟗𝟒𝟎. 𝟎𝟗 𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈

𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝟖
𝑃8 = 𝑃6 = 0.75 𝑀𝑃𝑎
ℎ8 = ℎ𝑓 = 𝟕𝟎𝟗. 𝟒𝟕 𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈
𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝟗
𝑃9 = 𝑃7 = 0.75 𝑀𝑃𝑎
ℎ9 = ℎ𝑓 = 𝟕𝟎𝟗. 𝟒𝟕 𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈
 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝟏𝟎
𝑃10 = 0.75 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Mixing chamber:

ℎ10 = (1 − 𝑦)ℎ8 + (𝑦)ℎ9 ; ℎ9 = ℎ8

= ℎ8
= 𝟕𝟎𝟗. 𝟒𝟕 𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈

𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝟏𝟏
𝑃11 = 𝑃1 = 8 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑣11 = 𝑣𝑓 = 1.38467 × 10−3 𝑚3/𝑘𝑔

𝑤𝑃2 = 𝑣11(𝑃11 − 𝑃10)

= 1.38467(8 − 0.75) × 103 × 10−3
= 10.039 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑤𝑃2
𝑤𝑃2′ =
𝜂𝑃
10.039
=
0.85
= 11.81 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

ℎ11′ = 𝑤𝑃2′ + ℎ10

ℎ11′ = 11.81 + 709.47
ℎ′11 = 𝟕𝟐𝟏. 𝟐𝟖 𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈

As previously stated, a part of the turbine's steam is removed. As a design

choice, it is hoped that at least 70% of the steam will be used only for process heating,
with the remainder going to the feedwater heater and the condenser. As a result, the
following conditions are met.

𝑦 = 0.7 ; 𝑊 = 28 MW

Open Feedwater Heater:

 ℎ6(𝑥 − 𝑦) + ℎ5(1 − 𝑥) = ℎ8(1 − 𝑦)
𝑥ℎ6 − 𝑦ℎ6 − 𝑥ℎ5 + 𝑦ℎ8 = ℎ8 − ℎ5
𝑥(ℎ6 − ℎ5) − 𝑦(ℎ6 − ℎ8) = ℎ8 − ℎ5
ℎ8 − ℎ5 + 𝑦(ℎ6 − ℎ8)
𝑥=
ℎ6 − ℎ5
(709.47 − 138.63) + (0.7)(2940.09 − 709.47)
𝑥=
2940.09 − 138.63

𝑥 = 0.7611

(1 − 𝑥) = 1 − 0.7611
𝑥 = 0.2389
(ℎ
𝑤𝑇 = 1 − ℎ2′) + (1 − 𝑥)(ℎ2′ − ℎ3′)

= (3497.6 − 2940.09) + (0.2389)(2940.09 − 2267.94)

= 𝟕𝟏𝟖. 𝟎𝟗 𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈

𝑤𝑃 = (1 − 𝑥)𝑤𝑃1′ + 𝑤𝑃2′
= (0.2389)0.8811 + 11.81
= 12.020 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑤𝑇 − 𝑤𝑃
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 718.09 − 12.020
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝟕𝟎𝟔. 𝟎𝟕 𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈

𝑊
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
𝑛𝑔
28000
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
0.9

= 31111. 111 𝐤𝐖 ≈ 31.1 𝐌𝐖

Wnet
𝑚̇ = wnet
31111.111
𝑚̇ = 706.07
 𝑚̇ = 44.06 𝒌𝒈/𝒔

𝑚̇ 𝑥 = 𝑚̇ 𝑥

= (44.06)(0.7611)
= 33.53 𝒌𝒈/𝒔
𝑚̇ 𝑦 = 𝑚̇ 𝑦

= (44.06)(0.7)
= 30.842 𝒌𝒈/𝒔

Heat Input:
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇ (ℎ1 − ℎ11)
= 44.06 (3497.6 − 721.28)
= 122324.6592 𝑲𝑾 ≈ 122.324 𝑴𝑾

Process Heat:
𝑄𝑃 = 𝑚̇ 𝑦(ℎ7 − ℎ9)

= 30.842(2940.09 − 709.47 )

= 68796.78 𝑲𝑾 ≈ 68.79𝑴𝑾

𝑊𝑇 = 𝑚̇ 𝑤𝑇

= (44.06)(718.09)
= 31639.0454 𝑲𝑾 ≈ 61.63 𝑴𝑾

Electrical Efficiency:
Wnet
𝜂𝑒 = Qin

31.11
= 122.324

𝜂𝑒 = 0.2543 or 25.43%

Thermal Efficiency:
𝑄𝑃
𝜂𝑡ℎ =
𝑄 𝑖𝑛

68.79
=
122.32
= 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔𝟐3 𝐨𝐫 𝟓𝟔. 𝟐3%
 Utilization Factor:
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 + 𝑄𝑃
𝜖𝑢 =
𝑄𝑖𝑛

31.11 + 68.79
𝜖𝑢 = 122.32

𝜖𝑢 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏67or 𝟖𝟏. 67%

Power-to-Heat Ratio:
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝐶=
𝑄𝑃
31.11
𝐶 = 68.79

𝐶 = 𝟎. 452

Fuel:
𝜂𝐵 𝑄𝑖𝑛
=
𝑚 𝑓 𝑄𝑓

𝑄
𝑚𝑓= ṁ 𝑖𝑛 f
Qf

122.32
𝑚𝑓= (0.85)(23)

𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑓=6.25 0𝑟 24.802 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠/ℎ𝑟
𝑠

Condenser mass flow:

𝑚̇ 𝑐 = 𝑚̇ (1 − 𝑥)
𝑚̇ 𝑐 = 44.06(1- × 0.7611)
𝑚̇ 𝑐 = 𝟏0. 𝟓259 𝒌𝒈/𝒔

Heat Rejected:
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇ 𝑐(ℎ3′ − ℎ4)
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 10.53(2267.94 − 137.75)
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 22409.59 𝑲𝑾 ≈ 22.40 𝐌𝐖
 Following parameters were obtained based on the calculations:
Steam mass flow rate = 44.06 kg/s
Coal mass flow rate =24.802 ton/h
𝑚̇ 𝑦 = 30.842 kg/s
Heat Input =122.324 MW
Net Power Output = 31.63 MW
Heat Output = 10.33 MW
Utilization Factor = 81.67%
Power-to-Heat Ratio = 0.452

Design of Power Plant Components

Power Plant Building

The cornerstone of the power plant's infrastructure lies in the establishment
and positioning of its building. The term "building plant," alternatively known as the
physical plant, encompasses the array of machinery housed within a building,
commonly found in office buildings or other substantial non-residential structures. This
machinery includes vital components such as power systems, exhaust systems, and
heating and cooling systems. It is highly advisable to conduct a thorough estimation
and calculation of the machine foundation for the entire plant to ensure structural
stability and optimal functioning.

The intricacies of the power plant's physical layout are elucidated in the
subsequent section. This layout delineates the spatial arrangement and configuration
of the power plant building, providing a comprehensive overview of the placement and
integration of various machinery and systems. The thoughtful consideration and
meticulous design of the building plant are paramount to the overall efficiency,
longevity, and safety of the power plant, underscoring the importance of accurate
foundation assessment and strategic placement within the facility.
Power Plant Layout
The power plant layout is presented in the following figure.

Figure Power Plant layout with dimensions

Machine Foundation
The operation of a power plant involves a multitude of intricate processes.
Although all components are physically located in one central facility, each part
performs its designated function and communicates with distant components. These
interconnections are established through a network of pipelines designed for the
transportation of steam, water, gases, or fuel. However, the operational activities of
the machines often result in substantial vibration and noise, posing potential risks to
their integrity and performance.

In order to ensure the optimal functioning of the power plant, the machinery is
constructed from resilient materials capable of withstanding challenging environmental
conditions. While these materials offer durability, they may possess considerable
weight and size. Consequently, it becomes imperative to provide robust foundations
for all machinery, a necessity dictated by the need to support their weight, mitigate the
effects of vibration, and maintain proper alignment and organization. This meticulous
approach ensures the sustained and effective performance of the machines,
particularly in demanding operational scenarios.
 The main components are the steam generating unit as a whole, the steam
turbine, the electric generator, the condenser, the feedwater heater, the cooling tower,
and the fuel and ash management system. However, some of these are almost
structures or may be called plants in their own right, while others cope with reasonably
controllable circumstances. As a result, only the steam turbine, generator, and cooling
tower design foundations will be described in this section. Sections VII and IX go into
depth on the technical specifications and properties of these units.

The ground on which the power plant, and therefore all the machinery, will be
built is mostly composed of La Castellana and Luisiana soils, which are primarily clay
or clay loam soils (Alicante & Rosell, 1948). The safe bearing capacity of such is
estimated to be 9.5 ton/m2 (Morse, 1953). Furthermore, the foundations must use a
1:2:4 ratio.

For all the components, the foundations to be considered are the length, width
and lower width, the depth, volume, and the weight. For the steam turbine with
generator, the calculations for such foundations are to be followed:

Length:
𝐿𝑏 = 16 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 ; Length of Bed Plate
𝐶 = 0.14 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 ; Clearance
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑏 + 2𝐶
= 16 + 2(0.14)
= 𝟏𝟔. 𝟐𝟖 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔

Width:
𝑊𝑏 = 6 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 ; Width of Bed Plate
𝐶 = 0.14 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 ; Clearance
𝑎 = 𝑊𝑏 + 2𝐶
= 6 + 2(0.14)
= 𝟔. 𝟐𝟖 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔

Weight:
𝑊𝑚 = 4800 𝑘𝑔 (Assumption)

𝑊𝑓 = 5𝑊𝑚
 = 5(4800)
= 𝟐𝟒, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈

Lower Width:
𝑠𝑏 𝑊𝑚+𝑊𝑓
=
2 𝑏𝐿

9500 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2(0.00981 𝑘𝑁)

→
2
(4800 𝑘𝑔 + 2400 𝑘𝑔)(0.00981 𝑘𝑁)
=
𝑏(16.28 𝑚)

𝑏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟐 𝒎

Since b < a, let b = a (Rectangular)

Volume:
𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 = 2406 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑊𝑓
𝑉𝑓 =
𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒

24000 𝑘𝑔
=
2406 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

= 𝟗. 𝟗𝟖 𝒎𝟑

Depth:

2Vf
ℎ=
(𝑎 + 𝑏𝐿)

2(9.98m3)
ℎ=
(6.28 m + 6.28 m)(16.28 m)
= 0.097 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠

For the condenser:

Length:
𝐿𝑏 = 14 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 ; Length of Bed Plate
𝐶 = 0.14 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 ; Clearance
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑏 + 2𝐶
= 14 + 2(0.14)
= 𝟏𝟒. 𝟐𝟖 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔
 Width:
𝑊𝑏 = 2.5 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 ; Width of Bed Plate
𝐶 = 0.14 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 ; Clearance
𝑎 = 𝑊𝑏 + 2𝐶
= 2.5 + 2(0.14)
= 𝟐. 𝟕𝟖 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔

Weight:
𝑊𝑚 = 550 𝑘𝑔 (Assumption)
𝑊𝑓 = 5𝑊𝑚

= 5(550)
= 𝟐, 𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈

Lower Width:
𝑠𝑏 𝑊𝑚 + 𝑊𝑓
=
2 𝑏𝐿
9500 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2(0.00981 𝑘𝑁) (550 𝑘𝑔 + 2750 𝑘𝑔)(0.00981 𝑘𝑁)
→ =
2 𝑏(14.28 𝑚)

𝑏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟗 𝒎

Since b < a, let b = a (Rectangular)

Volume:
𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 = 2406 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑊𝑓
𝑉𝑓 =
𝜌, 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒
2750 𝑘𝑔
𝑉𝑓 =
2406 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

= 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒 𝒎𝟑

Depth:
2𝑉𝑓
ℎ=
(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝐿)
2(1.14 𝑚3)
ℎ=
(2.78 𝑚 + 2.78 𝑚)(14.28 𝑚)

= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟕 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔

For the Feedwater heater with deaerator:

 Length:
𝐿𝑏 = 4 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 ; Length of Bed Plate
𝐶 = 0.14 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 ; Clearance
= 𝐿𝑏 + 2𝐶
= 14 + 2(0.14)
= 𝟒. 𝟐𝟖 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔

Width:
𝑊𝑏 = 1.5 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 ; Width of Bed Plate
𝐶 = 0.14 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 ; Clearance
𝑎 = 𝑊𝑏 + 2𝐶
= 1.5 + 2(0.14)
= 𝟏. 𝟕𝟖 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔

Weight:
𝑊𝑚 = 4015 𝑘𝑔
𝑊𝑓 = 5𝑊𝑚

= 5(4015)
= 𝟐𝟎, 𝟎𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝒈
Lower Width:
𝑠𝑏 𝑊𝑚+𝑊𝑓
=
2 𝑏𝐿

9500 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2(0.00981 𝑘𝑁)

→
2

(4015 𝑘𝑔 + 20075 𝑘𝑔)(0.00981 𝑘𝑁)

=
𝑏(4.28 𝑚)

𝑏 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 𝒎

Since b < a, let b = a (Rectangular)

Volume:
𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 = 2406 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑊𝑓
𝑉𝑓 =
𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒
20075 𝑘𝑔
=
2406 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

= 𝟖. 𝟑𝟒 𝒎𝟑
Depth:
2𝑉𝑓
ℎ=
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝐿
2(8.34 𝑚3)
=
(1.78 𝑚 + 1.78 𝑚)(4.28 𝑚)
= 𝟏. 𝟎𝟗𝟓 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔

For the Cooling Tower:

Length:
𝐿𝑏 = 7.4 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 ; Length of Bed Plate
𝐶 = 0.14 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 ; Clearance
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑏 + 2𝐶
= 7.4 + 2(0.14)
= 𝟕. 𝟔𝟖 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔

Width:
𝑊𝑏 = 7.4 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 ; Width of Bed Plate
𝐶 = 0.14 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 ; Clearance
𝑎 = 𝑊𝑏 + 2𝐶
= 1.5 + 2(0.14)
= 𝟕. 𝟔𝟖 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔
Weight:
𝑊𝑚 = 18,450 𝑘𝑔
𝑊𝑓 = 5𝑊𝑚

= 5(18,450)
= 𝟗𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈

Lower Width:
𝑠𝑏 𝑊𝑚 + 𝑊𝑓
=
2 𝑏𝐿
 𝑏 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟑 𝒎

Since b < a, let b = a (Rectangular)

Volume:
𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 = 2406 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑊𝑓
𝑉𝑓 =
𝜌
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒

92250 𝑘𝑔
=
2406 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

= 𝟑𝟖. 𝟑𝟒 𝒎𝟑

Steam Generator and Accessories

The cogeneration plant's high-pressure steam generator must provide the

required amount of steam. The system must use circulating fluidized bed (CFB)
combustion for this design. This design is highly desired since it minimizes SOx and
NOx emission concentrations. This is accomplished by directly trapping these
compounds within the furnace using a combination of inert materials, such as
limestone grains, which function as sorbents (Sumitomo, n.d.). As they are continually
cycled and confined within the system, the supply would be maintained, hence the
term. Since Antique has an extensive supply of limestone, this would also be a viable
option (Region 6 Profile, 2019). Additionally, it can operate with a variety of fuels,
including coal. Air pre-heater, economizer, and superheater will be required for the
steam generator beside the boiler to enhance the efficiency of the generator.

Boiler

According to the stated design, the entire steam generating unit will generate
a total of 28 MW from the combustion of sub-bituminous coal. With the basis of its
rated steam pressure and temperature of 8 MPa and 540 degrees Celsius, the Taishan
Group TG220-9.8-M CFB coal-fired boiler design was chosen. This basically can
suffice for all sorts of fuels with a fuel particle size of 10 mm or less, a limestone particle
size of 2 mm, a design efficiency of 88%, and a desulphurization efficiency of 90%.
LHV 12670 KJ/Kg (3026kcal/kg) is used to determine its heat efficiency and fuel
consumption. Shown in Table is the design summary of the steam generator.

Figure TG220-9.8-M CFB coal-fired boiler

It constitutes a vertical CFB system, essentially adopting a water-tube boiler

design wherein the tubes are positioned vertically, forming a water wall around the
inside of the furnace. Following a fluid route typical of drum boilers, the steam drum is
situated at the top, allowing continuous feedwater input from below and upward steam
flow. The system incorporates beams designed to capture and recycle particles at
lower velocities, alongside a dust collector resembling a cyclone separator. The
furnace maintains a highly uniform heat flow, with temperatures ranging from 850 to
900°C. Consequently, the unit operates in a manner that significantly enhances the
efficiency of water entry and steam generation at saturated temperatures.
 Operating Temp. 295.008 °C
Flue Gas Temp. 150 °C
Primary Air Temp. 200 °C
Secondary Air Temp. 200 °C
Evaporation Capacity 23.8 ton/hr
Primary Fuel Sub-bituminous Coal
Fuel Flow Rate 8201.19 lb/hr
Fuel Consumption 51256 kg/h
Length 23.2 m
Width 16.7 m
Height 41.5 m
Air Temperature 26 °C

General assumptions in this analysis:

• Steady operating conditions take places for all components.

• Changes in kinetic and potential energy are negligible.

@ 𝑃 = 8 𝑀𝑃𝑎:
ℎ𝑓 = 1317.3

𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 =

1441.4 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ℎ𝑔 =

2758.7 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

Boiler Load:
𝑄 = 𝑚̇ ℎ𝑓𝑔

𝑄 = (44.06) (1441.4)
𝑄 = 63.50 𝐌𝐖
Economizer Load:

𝑄 = 𝑚̇ (ℎ𝑓 − ℎ11)

𝑄 = (44.06) (1317.3 − 721.28)

𝑄 = 26260.64K𝐖
𝑄 = 26.260 M𝐖
 Superheater Load:

𝑄 = 𝑚̇ (ℎ1 − ℎ𝑔)

𝑄 = (44.06) (3497.6 − 2758.7)

𝑄 = 32.55 𝐌𝐖

According to the calculations, the boiler and the other heating auxiliaries use a set
proportion of the total heat input from the fuel to finally create superheated steam at
540 °C. The chosen model already has such auxiliary components, particularly those
for handling the fluidized bed. Nonetheless, the manufacturer provides some
modification on the overall setup and other elements of the unit to meet the design
requirements. With such, the actual dimensions of each component would slightly
deviate from the stock selections.

Economizer

The economizer plays a crucial role in curbing fuel consumption by recycling

heat, thereby reducing the heating requirement in the boiler process. Its application in
boilers involves the recovery of a significant amount of sensible heat, utilized for
preheating the boiler feedwater. This contributes to a notable enhancement in the
power plant's efficiency, resulting in an approximately 4 to 6% increase in boiler
efficiency, as indicated by Fleming and Church.

In the selected boiler type, a non-condensing economizer is deemed

necessary. Non-condensing economizers are widely employed in thermal power
plants, particularly as heat exchanger coils with spiral fins positioned within the flue
gas duct near the boiler's exit area. These economizers effectively decrease a boiler's
fuel consumption by transferring heat from the exiting flue gas to the feedwater of the
steam boiler. Their predominant use is in coal-fired boilers, where the minimum
temperature to which flue gas can be cooled is around 250°F (120°C).

Superheater

The Steam Superheater is a coil-type heat exchanger that is used to create

superheated steam or to convert wet steam generated by a boiler to dry steam. It
differs from a boiler in that a boiler uses both sensible and latent heat to turn water
into steam, but a superheater solely uses sensible heat to superheat the steam in
order to enhance its enthalpy (Taneja, 2020). The same with the economizer, the
superheater is joined with the steam generator.
 The superheater tubes are positioned at the boiler's hottest area. In the
superheater, the saturated steam produced in the boiler tubes is superheated to
approximately 540 °C. The steam turbine is then fed superheated high-pressure
steam.

Air Pre-heater
Air preheaters function as heat exchangers installed in the flue gas line at
the exit of the boiler. The primary objective of an air preheater is to reclaim heat
from the boiler flue gas, thereby enhancing the thermal efficiency of the boiler by
reducing the loss of usable heat in the flue gas. By capturing additional heat in the
flue gases that would otherwise be wasted, air preheaters contribute to an overall
improvement in the boiler's thermal efficiency. The retrieved heat is utilized for
preheating in the combustion process through the air preheater. As per Rakhoh,
when the outgoing heat is at 180°C, air preheaters extract 100°C for combustion
in the boiler. In this particular design, the preferred air preheater is of the
regenerative type, packaged alongside the superheater and economizer in the
boiler selection.

Stoker and Grate

When burning coal, fluidized bed combustion (FCB) utilizes a stoker firing
method. To create the inert fluidized bed inside the CFB boiler, the manufacturer's
boiler package has a specialized stoker and grate system. The primary feature of
this stoker's layout is its underfeed type, in which crushed coal is supplied below
the air entry point. Because of this, and the overall CFB setup, a broad variety of
fuels, notably low-quality coal, may be burned effectively (Bright Hub Engineering,
2009). This is especially promising given that the fuel will mostly be sub-bituminous
coal. 40–50% carbon.
 Figure 13 Underfeed Stoker

Figure 14 FCB System

Figure 14 FCB System

Fans

According to Power Plant and Calculations on 2020, in theory, 1 kilogram of

carbon (C) required 2.67 kg of oxygen (O2) to complete combustion. With a supporting
description, 12 kg of carbon takes 32 kg of oxygen to produce 44 kg of carbon dioxide.
This indicates that to burn 1 kg of carbon, 32/12 kg = 2.67 kg of oxygen is required. In
this situation, sub- bituminous coal has around 47% carbon and 23% of the mass of
air (Kopp, 2019). However, the content of sub-bituminous coal can vary greatly; hence,
additional air is injected to accommodate for such fluctuation and maximize
combustion. In general, roughly 20% extra air is required (Study, n.d.).

The following are considered:

1 kg C requires 2.67 kg O2

𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 = 47% 𝐶 ; 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 23% 𝑂2 ; 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 20%

1𝑘𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 = 0.47𝐶

1
1𝑘𝑔 𝐶 = 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙
0.47

1𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 0.23𝑂2

1
1𝑘𝑔 𝑂2 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟
0.23

1𝑘𝑔 𝐶 = 2.67(1 + 0.2)𝑘𝑔 𝑂2

1 2.67(1 + 0.2)
𝑘𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 = 𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑖𝑟
0.47 0.23
2.67(1 + 0.2)0.47
𝑚𝑎 =
0.23

= 𝟔. 𝟓𝟓 𝒌𝒈 𝒂𝒊𝒓/𝒌𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍

𝑚̇ 𝑎 = 6.55𝑚̇ 𝑓

= (6.55)(6.25)
= 40.93 𝒌𝒈/𝒔

Q = (ṁ a)/ (ρ)

= 40.93/ (1.1808)
 𝒎𝟑
= 𝟑𝟒. 𝟔𝟔 ≈ 𝟕𝟑𝟒𝟒𝟎. 𝟑𝟖 𝐜𝐟𝐦
𝒔
Using the previously mandated computations, the air flow rate in CFM will serve
as the basis for fan selection. The BISW 542 Model fan was chosen because its
anticipated output of 73440.38 CFM can handle a fuel input of 3.72 tons per hour.
Types of Centrifugal Fans Used in Power Plant | Blowerfab, 2020 BISW centrifugal
fans are forced draft fans that pump air through the combustion air supply system and
into the furnace to deliver the necessary air for fuel combustion. The selected fan has
an 8-inch W.G. and can produce about 32,100 CFM. basically having 1,990 Pa.
Additionally, it possesses an AMCA license, which enhances air and fan efficiency and
reduces noise pollution. In essence, the former will function as a forced draft (FD)

Figure BISW542 Model of Centrifugal fan

 Figure BISW 542 specifications

Pump
The comprehensive setup comprises four separate water pumping units, each
serving distinct functions within the system. Firstly, one pump is designated for
gathering condensate from the condenser. Secondly, there's a pump dedicated to
supplying feedwater to the boiler. Thirdly, another pump is tasked with circulating
cooling water. Lastly, a fourth pump is responsible for providing make-up water to the
cooling tower.

Each of these pumps operates under different configurations tailored to the specific
requirements of their corresponding flow receivers. These configurations are primarily
determined by the expected flow rate of the associated supply line, such as from the
pump to the steam generator or from the pump to the condenser, among others. This
design ensures optimal performance and efficiency within the system by aligning the
pump settings with the demands of each stage of the water circulation process.

Stack

The carefully balanced airflow generated by the fans plays a crucial role in determining
the overall height of the chimney or stack. This height limitation is primarily influenced
by the potential emissions of sulfur compounds resulting from the combustion of coal.
Specifically, in this scenario, sub-bituminous coal, known for its relatively low sulfur
content, is predominantly used, typically containing less than 1% sulfur. For the
purposes of this discussion, an average sulfur content of 0.5% is assumed.
The selected CFB boiler consistently produces flue gas at an average temperature of
150 degrees Celsius. To facilitate efficient combustion and emission control, the
specified draft fans exert an artificial total draft pressure of 1.99 kPa. It's worth noting
that sub-bituminous coal, as previously mentioned, typically exhibits sulfur content
below 1%, with an average value of 0.5% in this context.

To estimate the minimum theoretical height of the stack or chimney (denoted by 𝑚̇ 𝑓

in kg/hr), the following equation can be employed, considering the parameters
mentioned above.

0.3
𝐻′ = 14(𝑚 𝑓𝑆)

𝐻′ = 14(3379.03 × 0.005)0.3
𝐻′ = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟔𝟗 𝒎

ℎ𝑤′ = 𝐻′(𝜌𝑎 − 𝜌𝑔)

= 32.69(1.1808 − 0.851)
= 𝟏𝟎. 𝟕𝟖 𝒎𝒎

For the Stack or Chimney:

𝑚 𝑔 = (𝑚𝑎 + 1)𝑚 𝑓

= (6.16 + 1)(0.94)

= 𝟔. 𝟕𝟑 𝒌𝒈/𝒔 ≈ 𝟓𝟑𝟒𝟏𝟑. 𝟔 𝒍𝒃/𝒉𝒓

However, when the flue gas flows through the numerous auxiliary heating
devices, draft losses are incurred (i.e., superheater, economizer, air pre-heater).
Assumed here, they are as follows:
 Height:
ℎ𝑤 = 𝐻 (𝜌𝑎 − 𝜌𝑔)
ℎ𝑤
𝐻=
𝜌𝑎 − 𝜌𝑔
7.926
𝐻=
1.1808 − 0.851

𝐻 = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟎𝟑 𝒎

Flow Rate:
𝑚𝑔𝑅𝑇
𝑄𝑔 =
𝑃
(6.73) (0.287)(150 + 273)
𝑄𝑔 =
101.325 + 1.99

𝑄𝑔 = 𝟕. 𝟗𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝟑/𝒔

Diameter:
= 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟑 𝒎

Based on the sulfur level of the coal, a preliminary evaluation is done to establish
the potential height of the stack. Nonetheless, the sulfur content that is expected would
considerably be more than the real as the boiler unit utilizes CFB technology. This
overshoot is therefore simply accepted as a buffer to guarantee safer circumstances.
The stack should contain the following parameters based on the calculations above:

Height 24.03 m
Diameter 0.863 m
Mass of Flue Gas 6.73 kg/s
Flue Gas Rate 73440.38 cfm
Draft Head 7.926 mm
Artificial Draft 1.99 kPa ≈ 203 mm
Steam Turbine

Certain conditions/parameters are followed as basis in choosing the type of

steam turbine. These conditions are presented in the table below.

Gross Power Output 28 MW

Inlet Pressure 8 MPa
Inlet Temperature 540 °C
Condenser Pressure 0.005 MPa
Extraction Pressure 0.75 MPa

Figure New Siemens SST400 Model

The New Siemens SST400 Steam Turbine Generator Set represents a cutting-
edge advancement in power generation technology. Engineered by Siemens, a global
leader in innovative energy solutions, this turbine generator set embodies efficiency,
reliability, and sustainability. New Siemens SST400 is a single-casing turbine that may
be geared or driven directly, making it suitable for both generator and mechanical
driven. Leveraging state-of-the-art design principles and advanced materials, the
SST400 offers superior performance and operational flexibility. Its modular
construction allows for seamless integration into various power plant configurations,
catering to the diverse needs of modern energy infrastructure. With optimized steam
paths and advanced blade designs, the turbine ensures maximum energy conversion
while minimizing environmental impact. Moreover, Siemens' dedication to continuous
research and development ensures that the SST400 remains at the forefront of
efficiency and reliability, empowering industries worldwide to meet their energy
demands while minimizing their carbon footprint.

Table Design Summary for New Siemens SST400 Model

Power Output up to 30 MW
Frequency 50/60
Speed up to 14,600 rpm
Inlet Pressure up to 1740 Psi
Inlet Temperature up to 540 °C/1004 °F
Condenser Pressure 0.005 to 0.15 MPa
Controlled Extraction up to 1.6 MPa (at 1
point)
Uncontrolled up to 6 MPa (at 3
Extraction points)
Length 4 m /13.1 ft
Width 2 m / 6.5 ft
Height 2.5 m / 8.2 ft

Steam Condenser
As previously stated, while the cogeneration plant will utilize most of the steam
for work and process heating, a portion will also be directed towards the condenser.
Steam, flowing at a rate of 10.5259 kg/s and at a pressure of 5 kPa, is directed to the
condenser where 22.40 MW of heat is discharged from the system. During the
condensation process, the temperature of the working fluid remains nearly constant at
its saturation temperature of 32.874 °C at both the intake and outflow. Conversely,
according to WaterTemp data, the cooling water drawn from the river is estimated to
have an average temperature of 26°C and is expected to increase by approximately
5°C in the process.
 The following parameters are considered.

Table 6 Parameters considered for Steam Condenser

Operating Pressure 5 kPa

Fluid Temperature 32.874 °C (in and out; Tsat)
Cooling Water Temp. 26 °C (in)
31 °C (out; 5°C rise)
Steam Flow Rate 6.609 kg/s
Mass fraction of steam (1-x) = 0.2389

Basic assumptions considered in this analysis are:

• All components operate under constant and stable conditions.

• Alterations in kinetic and potential energy are deemed insignificant or

negligible.

It is anticipated that the river water utilized for cooling will have an average
temperature of 26 degrees Celsius. When it exits the condenser, it is predicted to have
reached 31 °C. Since the condenser tube's material can withstand up to 7.65 f/s, or
2.33 m/s, the water velocity in the tubes is estimated to be around 2 m/s (Powermag,
2011). An estimate of the average total heat transfer coefficient (U) between the moist
steam and cooling water is 2800 W/m2-K (Engineering Toolbox, 2003). The tubes are
1" 18 BWG stainless steel UNS S44660 in size and have a wall thickness of 0.028
inches. As a result, the following requirements are met.

Recall that the condenser mass flow is 10.5259 kg/s and the condenser
load is the heat rejected equal to 22.40 MW.
 LMTD:
(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑡𝑖) − (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑡𝑜)
𝜃𝑚 =
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑡𝑖
ln (𝑇 − 𝑡 )
𝑜 𝑜

= (32.874 − 26) − (32.874 − 31)

32.874 − 26
ln (
32.874 − 31)

Circulating Water:
𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑤𝐶𝑝(𝑡𝑜 − 𝑡𝑖)
𝑄
𝑚𝑤=
𝐶𝑝(𝑡𝑜 − 𝑡𝑖)

3365.7
=
4.187(31 − 26)
= 𝟏𝟔𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝟗 𝒌𝒈/𝒔 ⟹ 𝟐𝟓𝟒𝟖. 𝟐𝟒 𝒈𝒑𝒎

For a two-pass system in the condenser, the number of tubes is divided

evenly. It has been agreed that this sort of condenser will have two passes.

Number of Tubes (for two-pass):

= 177.985 ≈ 178 per pass

𝑁𝑝(2−𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠) = 178 × 2 = 𝟑𝟓𝟔 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆𝒔

Length of Tubes:
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑁𝑝(2−𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠) 𝑑𝑜𝐿
 For the shell diameter, in theory, the best packing of 356 1-in diameter
tubes in a big cylinder would necessitate a diameter of at least 21.48 inches
(Engineering Toolbox, 2013). In this case, the actual condenser tubes would still
need to be somewhat spaced apart and staggered to optimize turbulence and
efficiency while identifying the set of tubes for each pass; hence, the acquired value
would simply be modified to a higher value.
𝐷 = 21.48 𝑖𝑛 ⟹ 3 0 𝒊𝒏

From the calculations above, the following parameters were determined.

Table Parameters for Steam Condenser Tubing and Shell

Water flow rate 160.769 kg/s

Number of Tubes 356 (178 per pass)
Length of Tube 10.998 m (432.992 in)
Shell Diameter 30 in

Figure Two-pass Surface Condenser

As a result, the OP 3043-3-UU-1 model from API Heat transfer was selected
for the two-pass type BASCO Heat exchanger. The condenser design is a down flow
surface type. The shell side can withstand up to 0.15 MPa of operating pressure, while
the tube side may withstand up to 0.075 MPa. This can handle the 22.40 MW of heat
rejection and the necessary cooling water flow rate of 160.769 kg/s. The tubes are
made of super ferritic stainless-steel tubing and are intended for a two-pass
configuration. The condenser arrangement and other aspects can be modified by the
manufacturer to comply with design requirements. For example, the shell orientation
can be changed to be upwards, and the channels can be positioned horizontally while
the shell is considered in the model.

Table Parameters for OP 3043-3-UU-1

Condenser Load 3.37 MW

Operating Pressure 5 kPa
Circulating Water 2548.24 GPM
Number of Passes two-pass
Number of Tubes 356 (178 per pass)
Length of Tubes 432.992 in (10.99 m)
Size and Material of 1” 18 BWG (0.028-in thick); Stainless
Tubes Steel
Shell Diameter 30 in
Length 433 in
Width 99.5 in

Feedwater System (Feedwater Loop)

There is only one open feedwater heater in the system. This contains 5 kPa of
feedwater pumped from the condenser and 0.75 MPa of steam extracted from the
turbine. Since it's an open type, the steam heats the feedwater directly; nevertheless,
to prevent corrosion damage, the feedwater needs to be cleared of any leftover
dissolved gases before being fed to the boiler. The open feedwater heater will therefore
primarily serve as a deaerator.

The following parameters are considered.

Pressure 0.75 MPa

Flow Rate 44.06 kg/s
Mass fraction of steam (1-y) = 0.3

Total mass flow:

𝑚̇ ℎ = 𝑚̇ (1 − 𝑦)
= 44.06 × 0.3
= 13.218 𝒌𝒈/𝒔 ≈ 104906.526𝒍𝒃/𝒉𝒓
 Figure TR125M tray deaerator.

The calculations computed above indicate that the system has a total flow rate
of 104 906 lb/hr. This was done using Precision Boilers' TR125M tray deaerator. It
essentially provides a few design advantages, including improved heat transfer
through the elimination of non-condensable gases, a decrease in thermal shock, the
removal of corrosive oxygen and carbon dioxide, the use of oxygen scavengers,
exhaust and flash steam recovery, and several guarantees. The lower tank collects
condensate, which powers the system's later components. Additional components of
the apparatus are modifiable.
Figure Dimensions of TR125M
 Figure Specifications of TR125

Cooling Tower

The efficiency of the cooling tower is intricately connected to the performance

of the condenser. The heat absorbed by the cooling water within the condenser
corresponds to the heat discharged to the cooling tower. Consequently, the design
specifications of the cooling tower are dictated by the conditions prevailing within the
condenser. This symbiotic relationship underscores the importance of optimizing both
the condenser and the cooling tower parameters to achieve optimal overall system
performance. Factors such as condenser heat load and cooling water temperature
directly influence the design and operation of the cooling tower, emphasizing the need
for careful coordination between these two components in thermal management
systems.
Cooling Load:
𝑄 = 𝑚̇ 𝑐 (ℎ3′ − ℎ4)
= 10.5259(2267.94 − 137.75)
= 22.422 𝐌𝐖
Circulating Water:
𝑄 = 𝑚̇ 𝑤𝐶𝑝(𝑡𝑜 − 𝑡𝑖)
 𝑄
𝑚̇ 𝑤 =
𝐶
𝑝
(𝑡𝑜 − 𝑡𝑖)

3365.70
=
4.187(31 − 26)
= 𝟏𝟔𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝟗 𝒌𝒈/𝒔

Volume Flow Rate of Water:

𝑣 = 1.00354 × 10−3 𝑚3/𝑘𝑔 @26°C

𝑉𝑠 = 𝑣𝑚𝑤

= (1.00354 × 10−3) (160.769)

= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟏𝟑 𝒎𝟑/𝒔 ≈ 𝟓𝟖𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟕 𝒎𝟑/𝒉𝒓

Based on the calculations, the cooling water system necessitates the circulation
of approximately 580.817 cubic meters per hour of cooling water to function effectively.
In response to this requirement, the NTG-800 cooling tower, manufactured by Newin,
was selected. This industrial cooling tower features a rated flow rate of 800 cubic
meters per hour per unit cell and boasts a cooling capacity of up to 9.30 MW through
induced draft and counterflow operation. Notably, it efficiently dissipates heat into the
atmosphere, thereby mitigating thermal pollution to the river water source.
Consequently, only one unit of the NTG-800 cooling tower is required for operation. Its
specified capacity exceeds the system's needs, facilitating operation under elevated
conditions. In summary, the specifications of a single unit are as follows.
 Table Specifications of NTG-800

Cooling Capacity up to 9.30 MW

Circulating Water up to 800 m3/hr
Entrance Temp. max of 43 °C
Leaving Temp. max of 33 °C
Wet Bulb Temp. 28 °C
Dry Bulb Temp. 31.5 °C
Length 7.4 m
Width 7.4 m
Height 7.8 m
Operating Weight 18,450 kg

It also has an installed fan with a diameter of 4.7 meters and a power in KW of
30. Its water pressure is 80 MPa.

Figure NTG Cooling Tower Structure

Make-up Water
Make-up water is essential for replenishing the water lost during the cooling
cycle, primarily due to evaporation and the discharge of accumulated solids during
blowdown control. Typically, surface water from rivers or lakes is employed as make-
up water for cooling towers. This water source serves to replenish the water lost
through evaporation. The cooling tower receives hot water from heat exchangers, and
the water discharged from the cooling tower is then returned to the heat exchangers
or other units for further cooling, as noted by Mahato (2022).
 In general, approximately 1% of the cooling liquid is lost to evaporation in
the operation of a cooling tower for every 5.5 °C of water cooling.

(31 − 26)
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝 = ×1
5.5

𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎𝟗%

The total evaporation loss in the process is about 0.909%, with this, the
necessary mass flow rate of make-up water can be computed in the following:

𝑚𝑚𝑢 = 𝑚𝑤𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝

= (160.769) (0.00909)
= 𝟏. 𝟒𝟔 𝒌𝒈/𝒔

Fuel and Ash Handling System (Gas Loop)

Fuel Handling System

The fuel handling system in a coal-fired power plant plays a pivotal role in
ensuring the efficient and reliable supply of coal to the boiler for combustion. This
system encompasses a series of processes aimed at managing coal from its initial
arrival at the plant to its delivery to the boiler. Initially, coal is typically transported to
the power plant via rail, barge, or truck, where it undergoes inspection for quality and
size consistency. Upon arrival, the coal is unloaded and stored in large coal yards or
silos. From there, it is moved through a series of conveyors and crushers, where it is
crushed into smaller, uniform pieces to facilitate combustion. The crushed coal is then
stored in bunkers before being fed into pulverizes, where it is further pulverized into a
fine powder. This pulverized coal is then blown into the boiler furnace through a series
of burners, where it ignites and generates heat to produce steam. Throughout this
process, sophisticated monitoring and control systems ensure the proper handling of
coal, including maintaining consistent flow rates, controlling dust emissions, and
preventing potential hazards such as fires and explosions.

Additionally, modern coal-fired power plants often incorporate advanced

technologies such as coal washing and blending to improve fuel quality and reduce
environmental impacts. Overall, the fuel handling system is a critical component of
coal-fired power plants, ensuring the reliable and efficient conversion of coal into
electricity while adhering to stringent safety and environmental standards.
Ash Handling System

The ash handling system in a coal-fired power plant is a crucial component

responsible for managing the byproducts generated during the combustion of coal. As
coal burns in the boiler furnace, it produces ash, which consists of both bottom ash
and fly ash. Bottom ash settles at the bottom of the boiler, while fly ash is carried up
with the flue gases and collected in electrostatic precipitators or baghouses. The ash
handling system is designed to safely and efficiently transport, store, and dispose of
these ash residues. Initially, bottom ash is typically removed from the boiler through
submerged scraper conveyors or ash slurry pumps and transported to ash ponds or
dry ash storage areas for temporary storage.

A bottom ash handling system is recommended for coal-fired steam power

plants because it recognizes the coal burned in the boiler, which is an important
consideration. The ash is gathered in the bottom hopper of this type, which is situated
underneath the furnace boiler, according to its operating principle. Clinkers and
grinders are employed to reduce the size of the bottom ash because of its coarse
nature. After that, it is slurry-transported to an ash pond or bottom ash silo for short-
term storage. The plant's ash handling system layout is depicted in Figure, and the
bottom ash handling system's operation is explained in Figure.

Figure Bottom ash handling system

 VI. Design of Diesel Power Plant
6.1 Land Availability
The proposed area stands out due to its strategic proximity to a readily
available water source. This proximity ensures convenient access to the necessary
water supply crucial for the plant's operations, enhancing its efficiency and reliability.
This location also features a large surface area, making it ideal for a diesel power plant.

6.2 Environmental Considerations

Running a power plant poses environmental drawbacks due to its emission of
substantial exhaust gases and considerable noise levels. These emissions can
adversely affect the surrounding environment, impacting the air quality, vegetation,
crops, and the land in the vicinity of the plant. Noise pollution generated by the plant's
operations also contributes to its environmental impact. Hence, careful consideration
of the power plant's location is crucial, aiming to place it at a distance from residential
areas, industrial zones, and agricultural production sites. This strategic placement
helps mitigate the pollution's impact on these areas, minimizing potential harm to air
quality, vegetation, and the well-being of nearby communities. Additionally,
implementing noise mitigation measures alongside strategic positioning can
significantly reduce the plant's overall environmental footprint, safeguarding both the
environment and the health of local ecosystems and communities.

6.3 Power Plant Layout

Figure. Diesel Power Plant Schematic Diagram

6.4 Power Plant System and Components
6.4.1 Machine Foundation Calculation:

UNIT 1:

Engine Type: KU44 (Bore 440mm Stroke 580m) 50Hz.

Engine Model: 18KU44

𝑛𝑐 = 18 cylinders

Rating = 15 MW

Wm = 210 tons or 210,000 kg

L =12,320 mm = 12.32 m

W = 4,820 mm = 4.82 m

Subsoil = sand

Calculation:

From table 4-4; Safe Bearing Power

𝑆𝑏 = 19.5 tonnes/m2

𝑊𝑓 = 5 × Wm

WF = 5 × 210,000 kg
WF = 1,050,000 kg or 1,050 tons

Width of the foundation = 4.82 m + 0.3 m = 5.12 m

Length of the foundation = 12.32 m + 0.3 m = 12.62 m

1,050,000 12.62
𝑀𝑥 ( )( )
fb = 𝐼
= 3 2
(5.12)(12.62)3
12

fb = 2,575.31658 kg/m2

𝑆𝑏 𝑊𝐹 +1𝑊𝑚
2
= (𝑏)(ℎ)
+ fb
 19500 1,050,000 +210,000
= (12.62)(𝑊 ) + 2,575.31658
2 2

W2 = 13.915 m

Density = 2403 kg/m3

1,050,000 𝑘𝑔
VF = 2403 kg/m3

VF = 436.954 m3

𝑎+𝑏
VF = ( 2
) ℎ𝑙
5.12 m+13.915 m
436.954 m3 = ( 2
) ℎ(12.62)

h = 3.637921 m

Dimension:
Top = 12.62 m × 5.12 m
Bottom = 12.62 m × 13.915 m
Height = 3.637921 m

From Morse
Using Table 4-1 1:3:5

1 m3 concrete
6.2 sacks of cement
0.52 m3 sand
0.86 m3 stone

Sacks of Cement
6.2 𝑠𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑠
𝑚3 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒
× 436.954 m3 concrete
= 2,710 sacks

m3 sand
0.52 𝑚3 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑚3 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒
× 436.954 m3 concrete
= 227.216 m3 sand
 m3 stone
0.86 𝑚3 stone
× 436.954 m3 concrete
𝑚3 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒

= 375.780 m3 stone

Anchor Bolts
Based on The PSME Code of 1993, Anchor Bolts should be embedded in the
concrete at least 30 times to the Bolt Diameter. Assuming a diameter of 25 mm of the
Anchor Bolts then the length of the Anchor Bolts is….

LAB = 25 mm x 30
LAB = 750 mm or 0.75 m
Length of Sleeves, LS:
Based on The PSME Code of 1993, Chapter 2; Commercial and Industrial
Building; Article 2.4 Machinery & Equipment; Section 2.4.1.7, page 9; the length of
the sleeve should be 18 times that of the bolt diameter. Therefore, we have…

LS = Bolt Diameter x 18
= 25 mm x 18
LS = 450 mm or 0.45 m

Internal Diameter of Sleeves, DS:

Based on The PSME Code of 1993, Chapter 2; Commercial and Industrial

Building; Article 2.4 Machinery & Equipment; Section 2.4.1.7, page 9; the internal
diameter of the sleeve should be 3 times that of the bolt diameter. Therefore, we
have…

Ds = Bolt Diameter x 3
= 25 x 3
Ds = 75 mm or 0.075 m

Number of Steel Bars, NSB:

Number of Steel Bars, NSB: Based on Mark’s Standard Handbook for

Mechanical Engineers; 9th Edition; Section 6: Materials of Engineering; 6.2 Iron &
Steel; Weights of Square & Round Bars; page 6-46; with a 1 in (25.4 mm) round steel
bar for our foundation it is given that it has 2.670 lb/in. Converting we have 3.97 kg/m
as for its weight. Using the given formula we have…
 NSB = WF x m%/ WSB
Where: NSB = Number of Steel Bars
WF = Weight of the Machine Foundation
m% = percent multiplier; ½ % to 1%
WSB = Weight of the Steel Bars; kg

Computing for the required number of steel bars as obtained from the data
above, we have…

NSB = WF x m% / WSB
= 1,050,000 kg x 0.01 / 3.97 kg
NSB = 2645 pieces

Total Length of the Steel Bars, LSB:

Since most of the manufactured steel bars in the market have a standard
length of 6.1 m, then we simply have…

LSB = NSB x 6.1 m

= 2645 x 6.1 m
LSB = 16160.95 m

UNIT 2:

Engine Type: KU44 (Bore 440mm Stroke 580m) 50Hz.

Engine Model: 12KU44

𝑛𝑐 = 18 cylinders

Rating = 10 MW

Wm = 147 tons or 147,000 kg

L = 9,560 mm = 9.56 m

W = 4,820 mm = 4.82 m

Subsoil = sand
Calculation:

From table 4-4; Safe Bearing Power

𝑆𝑏 = 19.5 tonnes/m2

𝑊𝑓 = 5 × Wm

WF = 5 × 147,000 kg
WF =735,000 kg or 735 tons

Width of the foundation = 4.82 m + 0.3 m = 5.12 m

Length of the foundation = 9.56m + 0.3 m = 9.86 m

735,000 9.86
𝑀𝑥 ( )( )
fb = 𝐼
= 3 2
(5.12)(9.86)3
12

fb = 2,953.205 kg/m2

𝑆𝑏 𝑊𝐹 +1𝑊𝑚
2
= (𝑏)(ℎ)
+ fb
19500 735,000 + 147,000
2
= (12.62)(𝑊 ) + 2,953.205
2

W2 = 10.283 m

Density = 2403 kg/m3

735,000 𝑘𝑔
VF = 2403 kg/m3

VF = 305.868 m3

𝑎+𝑏
VF = ( 2
) ℎ𝑙
5.12 m+10.283 m
305.868 m3 = ( 2
) ℎ(9.86)

h = 4.028 m

Dimension:
Top = 9.86 m × 5.12 m
Bottom = 9.86 m × 10.283 m
Height = 4.028 m
From Morse
Using Table 4-1 1:3:5

1 m3 concrete
6.2 sacks of cement
0.52 m3 sand
0.86 m3 stone

Sacks of Cement
6.2 𝑠𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑠
× 305.868 m3 concrete
𝑚3 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒

= 1,896.3816 sacks

m3 sand
0.52 𝑚3 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑚3 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒
× 305.868 m3 concrete
= 159. 05136 m3 sand

m3 stone
0.86 𝑚3 stone
𝑚3 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒
× 305.868 m3 concrete
= 263.046 m3 stone
Anchor Bolts

Based on The PSME Code of 1993, Anchor Bolts should be embedded in the
concrete at least 30 times to the Bolt Diameter. Assuming a diameter of 25 mm of the
Anchor Bolts then the length of the Anchor Bolts is….

LAB = 25 mm x 30
LAB = 750 mm or 0.75 m

Length of Sleeves, LS:

Based on The PSME Code of 1993, Chapter 2; Commercial and Industrial

Building; Article 2.4 Machinery & Equipment; Section 2.4.1.7, page 9; the length of
the sleeve should be 18 times that of the bolt diameter. Therefore, we have…

LS = Bolt Diameter x 18
= 25 mm x 18
LS = 450 mm or 0.45 m
Internal Diameter of Sleeves, DS:

Based from The PSME Code of 1993, Chapter 2; Commercial and Industrial
Building; Article 2.4 Machinery & Equipment; Section 2.4.1.7, page 9; the internal
diameter of the sleeve should be 3 times that of the bolt diameter. Therefore, we
have…

Ds = Bolt Diameter x 3
= 25 x 3
Ds = 75 mm or 0.075 m

Number of Steel Bars, NSB:

Number of Steel Bars, NSB: Based on Mark’s Standard Handbook for

Mechanical Engineers; 9th Edition; Section 6: Materials of Engineering; 6.2 Iron &
Steel; Weights of Square & Round Bars; page 6-46; with a 1 in (25.4 mm) round steel
bar for our foundation it is given that it has 2.670 lb/in. Converting we have 3.97 kg/m
as for its weight. Using the given formula we have…

NSB = WF x m%/ WSB

Where: NSB = Number of Steel Bars
WF = Weight of the Machine Foundation
m% = percent multiplier; ½ % to 1%
WSB = Weight of the Steel Bars; kg

Computing for the required number of steel bars as obtained from the data
above, we have…

NSB = WF x m% / WSB
= 735,000 kg x 0.01 / 3.97 kg
NSB = 1852 pieces

Total Length of the Steel Bars, LSB:

Since most of the manufactured steel bars in the market have a standard
length of 6.1 m, then we simply have…
 LSB = NSB x 6.1 m
= 1852 x 6.1 m

Engine
The engine of a diesel power plant is the primary component responsible for
generating electricity. It is typically a large internal combustion engine specifically
designed to run on diesel fuel. The engine works by igniting the diesel fuel in the
combustion chamber, which produces high-pressure gases that drive the pistons. As
the pistons move, they convert the linear motion into rotational motion, powering the
generator to produce electricity. Diesel engines used in power plants are known for
their efficiency, durability, and ability to generate a significant amount of power. They
are commonly used in both small-scale and large-scale power generation applications.

In this design, the Diesel power plant uses diesel Engine from Mitsubishi KU
series specifically model 18KU44 that generates 15 MW (unit 1) and 12KU44 that
generates 10 MW (unit 2 and 3).

Figure Mitsubishi KU Engine

 Unit 1

GIVEN

Po = 15 MW k = 1.4
N = 500 rpm; 50 Hz L, Stroke = 580 mm
Nc = 18 cylinders D, Bore = 440 mm
Number of Strokes = 4 L/D = 1.318181818

ASSUMPTION
P1 = 101.325 kPa T1=300K
Rating Load = 75% rk=14
nm = 75% rc = 2

GENERATOR EFFICIENCY, ng

0.055
𝑛𝑔 = 0.98 − 3 𝑥 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑜𝑎d
Po
√
1000

0.055
𝑛𝑔 = 0.98 − 3 15000
𝑥 0.75
√
1000

𝑛𝑔 = 0.9632739445
𝑛𝑔 = 96.32739445%
BRAKE POWER OF ENGINE, Pb n0

Po
𝑷𝒃 = ng

15000
𝑷𝒃 =
0.9632739445

𝑷𝒃 = 15571.89425 KW

INDICATED POWER OF ENGINE, Pind

Pb
𝑷ind =
nm
15571.89425
𝑷ind = 0.75
𝑷ind = 20762.52567 KW

ENGINE SPEED, Ns

N
Ns = (2)(60)
500
Ns = (2)(60) = 12.5
Ns = 4.166666667 rps

PERCENT CLEARANCE, c

1
c=
r𝑘 −1
1
c = 14−1
c= 7.692307692 %

MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE, Pmep

k(r𝑘 )k−1 (r𝑐 −1)−(r𝑐𝑘 −1)

Pmep = P1 (rk)[ (r𝑘 −1)(k−1)
]
1.4(14)1.4−1 (2−1)−(21.4 −1)
Pmep = 101.325 kPa (14)[ (14−1)(1.4−1)
]

Pmep = 650.4202344 kPa

 Figure 27: P-V Diagram of Diesel Cycle

Diesel Cycle Processes:

1 - 2: Isentropic Compression (ΔS = 0)

2 - 3: Isobaric Heat Addition (ΔP = 0)

3 - 4: Isentropic Expansion (ΔS = 0)

4 -1: Isochoric Heat Rejection (ΔV = 0)

PISTON DISPLACEMENT, Vpd

π(𝐷 2 )(𝐿)
Vpd = 4

π(0.44)2 (0.58)
Vpd = 4

Vpd = 0.08819078897 𝑚3

VOLUME CLEARANCE, VC

Vc = 𝑐(𝑉𝑝𝑑 )

Vc = (0.07692307692)(0.08819078897 𝑚3 )

Vc = 0.006783906844 𝑚3

VOLUME VALUES AT EACH POINT

V1 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑝𝑑
𝑉1 = 0.006783906844 𝑚3 + 0.08819078897 𝑚3

V1 = 0.09497469581 𝑚3

𝑉2 = 𝑉C

V2 = 0.006783906844 𝑚3

V3 = 𝑉2(𝑟𝑐)

V3 = 0.006783906844 𝑚3 (2)

V3 = 0.01356781369 𝑚3

V4 = 𝑉 1

V4 = 0.09497469581 𝑚3

PRESSURE VALUES AT EACH POINT

P1 = 101.325 𝑘𝑃a

P2 = 𝑃1(𝑟𝑘) k

P2 = (101.325 kPa)(14) 1.4

P2 = 4,076.578995 kPa

P3 = 𝑃2

𝑃3 = 4,076.578995 𝑘𝑃a

P4 = 𝑃1(𝑟𝑐) K

𝑃4 = 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎 (2) 1.4

 𝑃4 = 267.3982781 𝑘𝑃a

Figure 27: T-S Diagram of Diesel Cycle

TEMPERATURES AT EACH POINT

T𝟏 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 K
T𝟐 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝑲(𝟏𝟒) 𝟏.𝟒−𝟏
𝑻𝟐 = 𝟖𝟔𝟐. 𝟏𝟐𝟗𝟒𝟐𝟔𝟖 K

𝑻𝟑 = 𝑻𝟐(𝒓𝒄)

T𝟑 = 𝟖𝟔𝟐. 𝟏𝟐𝟗𝟒𝟐𝟔𝟖 𝑲(𝟐)

𝑻𝟑 = 𝟏, 𝟕𝟐𝟒. 𝟐𝟓𝟖𝟖𝟓𝟒 K

T𝟒 = 𝑻𝟏(𝒓𝒄) K
T𝟒 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝑲(𝟐) 𝟏.4
𝑻4 = 𝟕𝟗𝟏. 𝟕𝟎𝟒𝟕𝟒𝟔𝟓 K

WORK DONE, Wnet

𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑾𝟏𝟐 + 𝑾𝟐𝟑 + 𝑾𝟑𝟒 + 𝑾𝟒𝟏 ; 𝑾𝟒𝟏 = 0

𝐏𝟐 𝑽𝟐 − 𝐏𝟏 𝑽𝟏
𝑾𝟏𝟐 = 𝟏−𝐤
 (𝟒,𝟎𝟕𝟔.𝟓𝟕𝟖𝟗𝟗𝟓 𝐤𝐏𝐚))(0.006783906844 𝑚3 )− (𝟏𝟎𝟏.𝟑𝟐𝟓 𝐤𝐏𝐚)(0.09497469581 𝑚3 )
𝑾𝟏𝟐 = 𝟏−𝟏.𝟒

W12 = - 45.07955273 𝑘J

𝑾𝟐𝟑 = 𝑷𝟐(𝑽𝟑 − 𝑽𝟐)

𝑾𝟐𝟑 = 4,076.578995 kPa (0.01356781369 𝑚3 − 0.006783906844 𝑚3 )

𝑾𝟐𝟑 = 27.65513215 𝒌J

𝑷𝟒 𝑽𝟒 – 𝑷𝟑 𝑽𝟑
𝑾𝟑𝟒 = 𝟏 −𝑲

(𝟐𝟔𝟕.𝟑𝟗𝟖𝟐𝟕𝟖𝟏 𝒌𝑷𝒂)( 0.09497469581 𝑚3 ) −(𝟒,𝟎𝟕𝟔.𝟓𝟕𝟖𝟗𝟗𝟓 𝒌𝑷𝒂)(0.01356781369 𝑚3 )

𝑾𝟑𝟒 = 𝟏 −𝟏.𝟒

𝑾𝟑𝟒 = 74.78548544 𝒌J

𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = -45.07955273 𝑘J + 27.65513215 𝒌J + 74.78548544 𝒌J

𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 57.36106486 𝒌J

MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE, Pmep

𝑾𝐧𝐞𝐭
Pmep = 𝑽𝐩𝐝

𝟓𝟕.𝟑𝟔𝟏𝟎𝟔𝟒𝟖𝟔 𝐤𝐉 𝐤𝐉
Pmep = 0.08819078897 𝑚3

Pmep = 650.4201349 𝒌𝑷𝒂

MASS FLOW RATE, m

P1𝑉1 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏
m= 𝑹𝑻𝟏

(𝟏𝟎𝟏.𝟑𝟐𝟓 𝐤𝐏𝐚)(0.09497469581 𝑚3 )
m= 𝐊𝐉
𝟎.𝟐𝟖𝟕 (𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝑲)
𝒌𝒈−𝑲

m= 0.1117690018 kg

HEAT ADDED, Qa

𝑸𝒂 = 𝒎𝑪𝒑(𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐)
 𝐊𝐉
𝑸𝒂 = (0.1117690018 kg ) (𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟕 𝒌𝒈−𝑲
)(𝟏, 𝟕𝟐𝟒. 𝟐𝟓𝟖𝟖𝟓𝟒 K− 𝟖𝟔𝟐. 𝟏𝟐𝟗𝟒𝟐𝟔𝟖 K)

𝑸𝒂 = 96.90859377 K𝑱

HEAT REJECTED, Qr

𝑸r = 𝒎𝑪𝒑(𝑻4 − 𝑻1)
𝐊𝐉
𝑸r = = (0.1117690018 kg ) (𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟕𝟖 )(𝟕𝟗𝟏. 𝟕𝟎𝟒𝟕𝟒𝟔𝟓 K − 𝟑𝟎𝟎 K)
𝒌𝒈−𝑲

𝑸r = 39.44838489 K𝑱

WORK NET HEAT, Wnet

𝑸𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑸𝒂 − 𝑸r

𝑸𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 96.90859377 K𝑱 − 39.44838489 K𝑱

𝑸𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 57.46020888 K𝑱

THERMAL EFFICIENCY, e

𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕
e = 𝑸𝒂
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎 %

𝟓𝟕.𝟑𝟔𝟏𝟎𝟔𝟒𝟖𝟔 𝐤𝐉
e = 𝟗𝟔.𝟗𝟎𝟖𝟓𝟗𝟑𝟕𝟕 𝐊𝐉𝑱 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 %

e = 59.19089589 %

6.5 Air Intake System

The air intake system in a diesel power plant typically includes an air intake
duct or pipe that is appropriately supported, a silencer, an air cleaner, and flexible
connections as needed. This setup allows the air intake to be located away from the
engine, reduces noise from the airflow, and protects critical engine components from
airborne impurities. The design aims for a short and direct air intake path with minimal
friction loss. The air filter is designed to handle expected dust levels, require simple
maintenance, and have a low pressure drop. Both oil bath and dry filter element air
cleaners may be used, and the air filter and silencer can be combined for efficiency.
 According to the information provided in "Power Plant Engineering" by
Frederick T. Morse, Chapter 6: Internal Combustion Engine Power Plant; 6 – 6:
Auxiliary Systems; Intake & Exhaust Passages; pages 174; an engine needs from
0.056 to 0.084 𝑚3 of air per min per hp developed.

Assuming we have maximum intake of 0.084 𝑚3 /min of air per hp developed

during operation, with 15 MW (20115.331 hp) and 10 MW (13410.22 hp) then the flow
rate of the discharge would be.

UNIT 1

0.084 𝑚3
Q =( min−hp ) (20115.331 hp)
Q = 1689.687804 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛

UNIT 2

0.084 𝑚3
Q =( min−hp ) (13410.22 hp)
Q = 1126.45848 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛

Assuming we have a flow velocity of 800 m/min, then the dimensions of the
intake pipe would be.

Unit 1
A = (1689.687804 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛)/ (800 m/min)
A = 2.112109755 m2

Unit 2
A = (1126.45848 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛)/ (800 m/min)

A = 1.4080731 m2

Thus, the area of the pipe is.

A = πd2 /4
Where: A – Area
d – Diameter
d = (4A/π)1/2

Unit 1

1
(4)(2.112109755 𝑚2 ) 2
d=( 𝜋
)
 d = 1.639884649 m

Unit 2
1
(4)(1.4080731 m2 ) 2
d=( 𝜋
)
d = 1.338960176 m

The diameter of the intake pipe would be Unit 1 1.639884649 meter or

1639.8846 mm and Unit 2 1.338960176 m or 1338.960176 . Therefore, we are to use
a pipe with such diameter.

Unit 1

GIVEN

Po = 15000 KW k = 1.4
N = 500 rpm; 25 Hz L, Stroke = 580 mm
Nc = 18 cylinders D, Bore = 440 mm
Number of Strokes = 4 L/D = 1.318181818
ASSUME
Volumetric Efficiency 90%

Unit 2
GIVEN

Po = 10000 KW k = 1.4
N = 500 rpm; 25 Hz L, Stroke = 580 mm
Nc = 12 cylinders D, Bore = 440 mm
Number of Strokes = 4 L/D = 1.318181818
ASSUME
Volumetric Efficiency 90%

Unit 1

𝑁
𝜋𝐷 2 (𝐿)( )(𝑁𝑐 )(𝑁𝑣 )
Vair = 4
2×60

500
𝜋(0.440)2 (0.580)( )(18)(0.9)
Vair = 4
2×60

Vair = 23.81151302 m3/s

Unit 2

𝑁
𝜋𝐷 2 (𝐿)( )(𝑁𝑐 )(𝑁𝑣 )
Vair = 4
2×60

500
𝜋(0.440)2 (0.580)( )(12)(0.9)
Vair = 4
2×60

Vair = 15.87434201 m3/s

6.6 Exhaust System
The exhaust system includes a muffler and piping that connects it to the
ambiance with the proper supports, insulation, and expansion joints. In By including a
waste heat boiler that can be used for space heating, absorption refrigeration, or other
beneficial uses, cogeneration plants also allow for the exploitation of exhaust heat
energy. In parallel with the vapor phase cooling system, this boiler generates steam.
The exhaust silencer reduces the noise produced by the pulsations of exhaust gas,
puts a stop to sparks, and occasionally even recovers waste heat. The needed sound
attenuation will be provided by the muffler design with the least amount of pressure
loss.

Based on Based on Power Plant Engineering (Adapted to MKS Units) by

Frederick T. Morse; Chapter 6: Internal Combustion Engine Power Plant; 6 – 6:
Auxiliary Systems; Intake & Exhaust Passages; pages 175 to 76; the exhaust system
must carry approximately 0.168 – 0.224 m3 /min of gases per hp developed.

Assuming we have a maximum discharge of 0.224 m3 /min of gases per hp

developed on an average exhaust temperature, with 15,000 kW (or 20,115.331 hp)
and 10,000 KW (or 13,410.22 hp) then the flow rate of the discharge would be.

Unit 1
0.224 𝑚3
Q =( ) (20,115.331 hp)
min−hp

Q = 4505.834144 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛

Unit 2
0.224 𝑚3
Q =( ) (13,410.22 hp)
min−hp

Q = 3003.88928 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛

Assuming we have a flow velocity of 1500 m/min, then the dimensions of the
exhaust pipe would be.

Unit 1

A = (4505.834144 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛) / (1500 m/min)

A = 3.003889429 m2
Unit 2

A = (3003.88928 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛) / (1500 m/min)

A = 2.002592853 m2

Thus, the area of the pipe is

A = πd2 /4

Where: A – Area

d – Diameter

d = (4A/π)1/2

Unit 1
1
(4)( 3.003889429 m2 ) 2
d=( 𝜋
)

d = 1.96 m

Unit 2
1
(4)(2.002592853 m2 ) 2
d=( 𝜋
)

d = 1.6 m

The diameter of the intake pipe would be 1.96 meter or 1960 mm and 1.6 meter or
1600 mm. Therefore, we are to use a pipe with such diameter.

6.7 Fuel Handling and Storage Systems

Fuel handling and storage systems are critical components of a diesel power
plant, ensuring a reliable and efficient fuel supply. The fuel storage tanks are designed
to store enough diesel fuel to meet the power plant's operational requirements. These
tanks are constructed with robust materials and adhere to safety regulations to ensure
the safe storage of fuel. Fuel transfer systems, consisting of pumps, pipes, valves, and
fittings, facilitate the smooth and reliable transfer of fuel from the storage tanks to the
engines. These systems are designed for efficient fuel delivery, minimizing downtime
and interruptions in power generation.
 Proper filtration and treatment systems are essential to maintain the quality of
the fuel. These systems remove impurities, water, and contaminants from the diesel
fuel, ensuring optimal engine performance and reducing the risk of fuel system issues.
Regular monitoring and quality control measures are implemented to assess fuel
quality, including testing for impurities, water content, and degradation. This allows for
early detection of any potential issues and facilitates necessary adjustments or
treatments.

Safety and environmental considerations are of utmost importance in fuel

handling and storage systems. Spill prevention measures, such as secondary
containment systems and proper equipment for fuel transfer operations, are in place
to minimize the risk of fuel spills and protect the environment. Safety systems, including
fire detection and suppression systems, emergency shutdown mechanisms, and
safety protocols, are implemented to ensure the safety of personnel and equipment
involved in fuel handling. Regular training and inspections are conducted to maintain
a safe working environment and comply with safety regulations.

By incorporating efficient fuel handling and storage systems, a diesel power

plant can optimize fuel supply, minimize downtime, and ensure the safe and reliable
operation of the power generation facility. Proper fuel monitoring, quality control, and
safety measures contribute to the overall efficiency, longevity, and environmental
sustainability of the diesel power plant. Figure below show the block diagram of Diesel
Power Plant.

Figure show the block diagram of Diesel Power Plant

6.8 Design
Fuel Oil Consumption
 Our Plant design requires 3 units, 3 units operating 1 is reserve. Unit 1 is 15
MW and Unit 2 and 3 is 10 MW. The model for the 10 MW is 18KU44 and for the Unit
15 MW 12KU44. The 2 gen-set units is continuous in operation while the third unit is
only open/on from 10am-12am. A future expansion is also provided. Our plant capacity
factor is given at 60%.
Based on Power Plant Engineering (Adapted to MKS Units) by Frederick T.
Morse; Table A – 16: Normal Efficiencies of Engine type Synchronous Generators;
page 675; at a kilowatt rating of 15MW and 10 MW with 500 rpm, by interpolation we
have 94.46 %. Deductions upon this efficiency are also given. Based on Power Plant
Engineering (Adapted to MKS Units) by Frederick T. Morse; Table 6 – 3: Standard
Deduction (Engine Generator Efficiency); page 185; at a generator efficiency of 94.1
% to 95 % with a full load operation we deduct 1.2 so we have a 93.26 % Net Generator
Efficiency.

From the statement above we can now obtain the fuel consumption for the
plant. Based on Power Plant Engineering (Adapted to MKS Units) by Frederick T.
Morse; Figure 6 – 15: Range of Variable Load Performance of Diesel Plants; page 164;
at 60% rated load the fuel consumption is about 0.1625 kg/kW-hr. With such the
maximum rate of fuel usage would be as follows…

Unit 1

(15000 𝐾𝑊)
Maximum Rate of Fuel = 0.9326
Maximum Rate of Fuel = 16,084.06605 KW (0.1625 𝑘𝑔/𝐾𝑊 − ℎ𝑟)

Maximum Rate of Fuel = 2613.660733 kg/hr

Unit 2
(10,000 𝐾𝑊)(2)
Maximum Rate of Fuel = 0.9326

Maximum Rate of Fuel = 21445.4214 KW (0.1625 𝑘𝑔/𝐾𝑊 − ℎ𝑟)

Maximum Rate of Fuel = 3484.880978 kg/hr

For a 24 hours operation of the 3 units, then maximum rate of fuel usage would be
given as follows…

Maximum Rate of Fuel Use = (2613.660733 + 3484.880978) kg/hr x 24 hr/day

Maximum Rate of Fuel Use = 146,365.0011 kg/day

Based on Mark’s Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 9th Edition,

Section 7: Fuels & Furnaces; Table 7.1.9 Analyses and High Heat Values of Crude
Petroleum, Typical Distillates, and Fuel Oils; page 7 – 13; assuming we are using a
California grade fuel oil, with a specific gravity of 0.9554 at 60° F, then the fuel
consumption in terms of mass would be.

Fuel Consumption = (146,365.0011 kg/day) / 0.9554

Fuel Consumption = 153,197.6147 kg/day

Based on Mark’s Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 9th Edition;

Section 6: Materials of Engineering; 6.1 General Properties of Materials; 19
Approximate Specific gravities & Densities; page 6 – 8; as most industrial oils have an
average density of 914 kg/m3 and obtaining for its specific volume then we have 1.094
x 10-3 m3 /kg then the fuel consumption in terms of volume would be.

Fuel Consumption = (153,197.6147 kg/day) (1.094 x 10-3 m3 /kg)

Fuel Consumption = (167.5981905 𝑚3 /day)(1000𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠/𝑚3 )

Fuel Consumption = 167,598.1905 Liters/day

Required Storage of Fuel Oil:

Based on Power Plant Engineering (Adapted to MKS Units) by Frederick T.

Morse; Figure 6 – 15: Range of Variable Load Performance of Diesel Plants; page 164;
at 60% plant capacity the kilowatt-hour per liter oil ranges from 2.5 to 3.49 liters. two
(2) Diesel Genset unit will operate continuously while another 0ne is 15 hours each per
day at peak loads. For fuel consumption for within a 45 day supply we have…

Required Storage = 45 days (167,598.1905 Liters/day)

Required Storage = 7,541,918.573 Liters

Dimensions of the Fuel Oil Storage Tank:

Based on Power Plant Engineering (Adapted to MKS Units) by Frederick T. Morse;

Table 12 – 4: Dimension of the Bulk Storage Tank; page 459; with a required storage
of 7541918.573 Liters Liters then we are to use 69 tanks with a capacity of 109716
liters each, the dimensions of a cylindrical bulk tank is given as follows…

Diameter: 3.05 m
Length: 15.04 m
Plate Thickness 7.94
Weight: 10399

Required Storage of Day Tank:

Each diesel engine will operate at its maximum fuel consumption when the
operation is in motion. The day tank volume should be sufficient for a 24-hour
operation. Maximum full load consumption at full load rating would be…

6098.541711 kg/hr x 24 hrs = 146365.0011 kg

For a 1-day operation, assume that the day tank will charge 146365.0011 kg
per day. Since the fuel oil is cooled during the transfer & operation, we must obtain the
value to compute the volume. Assuming we are using a California grade fuel oil, based
on Mark’s Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 9th Edition, Section 7: Fuels
& Furnaces; Table 7.1.9 Analyses and High Heat Values of Crude Petroleum, Typical
Distillates, and Fuel Oils; page 7 – 13; at 60° F (15.6° C) the specific gravity of it would
be 0.9554. Based on Power Plant Engineering (Adapted to MKS Units) by Frederick
T. Morse; Chapter 5: Fuels & Combustion; Internal Combustion Engine Fuel;
pages117 to 119; Using API 20 (American Petroleum Institute) standard, assuming an
oil temperature of 6° C and the equations 5 – 3, the °API would be…

141.5
°API = 15.6 − 131.5
𝑆.𝐺 𝑎𝑡 °
15.6

141.5
API =0.9554 − 131.5

°API = 16.61° API or 17° API

The density of oil at 15.6°C (60° F) would be equal to the specific gravity at
such temperature. Based on Power Plant Engineering (Adapted to MKS Units) by
Frederick T. Morse; Chapter 5: Fuels & Combustion; Internal Combustion Engine Fuel;
pages117 to 119; the volumetric coefficient of expansion of oil is 0.0007 per °C. The
contractions of oil at 6° C we have…
 Contraction from a 6° C cooling = 0.0007 x 6

= 0.0042

The density of fuel oil at 6° C would be

Density at 6° C = 0.9554 / 0.9958

= 0.9981 kg/liter

The volume would now be equal to…

V = 146365.0011 kg / 0.9981 kg/liter

V = 146643.624 kg (1m3 /1000 Liters)

V = 146.643624 m3

Assuming a 15-minute charging for the day tank, the volume flow rate would be…

Q = 146.643624 m3/ 15 min

Q = 9.7762416 m3/min (1000 Liters/m3 )

Q = 9776.2416 Liters/min

1. Dimensions of the Fuel Oil Day Tank:

Given a volume of 146.643624 m3 m3 and assuming we have a cylindrical

day tank, then using the following equation below we can obtain the dimension
required for the day tank…

𝜋𝑑 2
V= 4
ℎ

Where:
V = Volume of the cylinder; m3
d = Diameter of the cylinder; m
h = Height or Length of the m
cylinder;

Assuming we have a 2.5 m length of the day tank, deviating from the dimension
and computing for the diameter we have…

4V
𝑑2 = 𝜋ℎ
4(146.643624 m3)
𝑑2 = 𝜋(2.5)
 𝑑2 = 74.68498442 m2
d = 8.642047467 m

Therefore, the dimension of the day tank is 8.642047467 m diameter by 2.5 m

length cylindrical tank per Diesel Engine.

Fuel Oil Transfer Pump:

Based from Mark’s Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 9th Edition;
Section 8: Machine Elements; 8.7 Pipe, Pipe Fittings and Valves; Table 8.7.3
Properties of Commercial Steel Pipes; page 8 – 148; assuming we are to use a nominal
pipe size of 1 ½ in outside diameter schedule 40 for the suction line pipe and a nominal
pipe size of 1 ¼ in outside diameter schedule 40 for the discharge line pipe, the
following data is given as follows…

Suction Line Pipe: Discharge Line Pipe:

Schedule 40 Schedule 40
Outside Diameter 1 ½ in (true Outside Diameter 1 ¼ in (true
size of 1.9 in) size of 1.660 in)
Inside Diameter 1.610 in (or Inside Diameter 1.380 in (or
0.0409 m) 0.0351 m)

Computing for the specific velocity rate at both the suction and
discharge we simply use the given equation below…
Q = AV

Where:
Q = Volume Flow Rate; m3 /min
A = Cross-Sectional Area; m2
V = Velocity of Fluid; m/min

Also given for the area and deviating from the equation we have…

A = π d2 /4
 Where:
A = Cross-sectional Area; m2
d = Internal Diameter; m

4𝑄
VS = 𝜋𝑑2

Computing now for the velocity at the suction we have…

4𝑄
VS = 𝜋𝑑2
m3
4(9.7762416 )
min
VS = 𝜋(0.0409 m)2
1𝑚𝑖𝑛
VS = 7441.070656 m/min ( 60𝑠
)
VS = 124.0178443 m/sec

Computing now for the velocity at the discharge we have…

4𝑄
VD =
𝜋𝑑 2
m3
4(9.7762416 )
min
VD = 2
𝜋(0.0351 m)
1𝑚𝑖𝑛
VD = 10,103.40614 m/min ( 60𝑠
)
VD = 168.3901024 m/sec

Assuming that the pump is in the datum line, the height of delivery is 4.5 meters,
the storage is placed 2.5 meters below, a friction loss of 0.75; then with the given &
computing now for the discharge head…

Discharge head = FL+ZD+V

𝑉2
Discharge head = FL+ZD+2𝑔
𝐷

𝑉2
Discharge head = FL+ZD+2𝑔
𝐷

Where:
FL – FrictiDischarge head = 0.75
𝑉𝐷2
FL+ZD+2𝑔 on losses for discharge;
ZD – Elevation from datum to 4.5 m
discharge;
VD – Velocity head at discharge; 168.3901024 m/sec

(168.3901024 m/sec)2
Discharge head = 0.75 + 4.5 m + 𝑚
2(9.81 )
𝑠𝑒𝑐2
 Discharge head = 1450.470519 m

Computing now for the suction head…

Suction head = FL + ZS + V
𝑉2
Suction head = FL + ZS + 2𝑔
𝑠

Where:
FL = Friction Losses at Suction; 0.75
ZS = Elevation from Datum to 2.5 m (- due to location)
Suction;
VS = Velocity Head at Suction; 0.6803264598 m/sec

𝑉2
Suction head = FL + ZS + 2𝑔
𝑠

( 124.0178443 m/sec)2
Suction head = 0.75 – 2.5 m + 𝑚
2(9.81 )
𝑠𝑒𝑐2

Suction head = − 782.1656832 m

Based from Power Plant Engineering (Adapted to MKS Units) by Frederick T.

Morse; Chapter 13: The Gas Loop; 13 – 10 Water Pumps; pages 545 to 546; we use
the equations provided to obtain the required pump. As both the suction and discharge
heads are given, we can now obtain the pump operating head. With the given, the
pump operating head is…

Pump Operating Head = Discharge Head – Suction head

Pump Operating Head = 1450.470519 m + 782.1656832 m

Pump Operating Head = 2232.636202 m

Assuming that the pump efficiency is 70 %, and then we have…

Where:
Q – Volume flow rate; 9776.2416 Liters/min
D0 – Density of oil; 914 kg/m3 (or 0.914 kg/liters)
H – Pump operating head; 2232.636202 m
ηp – Pump efficiency; 70%

𝑄𝑑 𝐻
Pump supply power = 4500000𝔶
𝑜
𝑝
 (9776.2416)(914 kg/𝑚3 )(2232.636202 m)
Pump supply power = 4500000(0.70)

Pump supply power = 6333.233936 hp

Therefore, we are to use 6333.233936 hp oil pump for the raw oil transfer.

General Diagram

Figure the fuel system of diesel power plant

6.9 Fuel pumps

 Fuel pumps are essential components in diesel power plants, responsible for
transferring diesel fuel from storage tanks to the engines. They provide a controlled
and consistent flow of fuel to meet the power plant's demand. Electric fuel pumps are
commonly used due to their reliability and precise fuel delivery. Positive displacement
pumps, known for their high pressure and accurate metering, are suitable for smaller
power plants, while centrifugal pumps are preferred for larger-scale operations with
high fuel transfer requirements. Regular maintenance and monitoring are crucial to
ensure the proper functioning of fuel pumps, including inspections, filter cleaning or
replacement, and lubrication. Redundancy measures, such as installing multiple
pumps in parallel or as backups, are often implemented to minimize the risk of fuel
supply disruptions and maintain uninterrupted power plant operation.

Efficiency is a key consideration when selecting fuel pumps for diesel power plants.
Opting for pumps with high efficiency ratings helps minimize energy losses during fuel
transfer, contributing to overall energy efficiency in the power plant. By reducing energy
consumption and optimizing fuel consumption, efficient fuel pumps can help lower
operational costs and improve the power plant's environmental footprint. Engineers
carefully evaluate factors such as capacity, fuel consumption rate, pressure
requirements, and system design to choose the most suitable fuel pumps for the
specific needs of the diesel power plant.

Fuel Pump Design Summary:

VS 124.0178443 m/sec
VD 168.3901024 m/sec
Discharge head 1450.470519 m
Suction head − 782.1656832 m
Pump Operating Head 2232.636202 m
Pump supply power 6333.233936 hp (7500 hp)

Table fuel pump design summary

In the context of raw oil transfer in a diesel power plant, using a 7500 horsepower
(hp) oil pump would be appropriate. The 7500hp rating indicates the power output or
capacity of the pump, specifically designed for the task of transferring raw oil. This
pump would be capable of providing sufficient power to move the oil efficiently through
the system.
 The 7500 hp oil pump would be selected based on factors such as the viscosity
and flow characteristics of the raw oil, as well as the distance and elevation
requirements for the transfer. It is important to ensure that the pump is adequately
sized to handle the anticipated volume and pressure requirements of the oil transfer
process.

By utilizing a pump with the appropriate power rating, the 7500 hp oil pump
would effectively facilitate the transfer of raw oil within the diesel power plant. It would
provide the necessary flow and pressure to ensure a smooth and reliable transfer of
the oil, contributing to the overall efficiency and performance of the power plant's fuel
handling system.

6.10 Piping System

The piping system in the fuel handling and storage system of a diesel power plant
is a vital component for the efficient and safe transport of fuel throughout the facility. It
consists of a network of pipes, fittings, valves, and associated equipment that connect
various fuel system components. The selection of piping materials depends on factors
such as the type of fuel, operating conditions, and environmental considerations.
Proper pipe sizing and layout are crucial to ensure adequate fuel flow and minimize
pressure losses. Valves and fittings play a critical role in controlling and regulating the
fuel flow, while safety features such as flame arrestors and pressure relief valves are
incorporated to mitigate risks. Regular maintenance and inspection of the piping
system are essential to identify any issues such as leaks or corrosion and ensure the
system operates reliably.

Safety considerations play a significant role in the design and operation of the fuel
system's piping system. Pressure and leak testing are conducted to verify the integrity
and reliability of the piping system before commissioning. Pipe insulation may be
employed in cold climates to prevent fuel solidification. Maintenance and inspection
activities, including visual checks, non-destructive testing, and filter replacement, help
ensure the system operates smoothly. By implementing a well-designed and properly
maintained piping system, diesel power plants can ensure the safe and efficient
transportation of fuel, supporting the reliable operation of the power generation
process.
 Fuel Piping System Design Summary
Suction Line Pipe: Discharge Line Pipe:
Schedule 40 Schedule 40
Outside Diameter 1 ½ in (true Outside Diameter 1 ¼ in (true
size of 1.9 in) size of 1.660 in)
Inside Diameter 1.610 in (or Inside Diameter 1.380 in (or
0.0409 m) 0.0351 m)

Fuel Piping System Design Summary

6.11 Instruments and Control

Instruments and control systems are integral parts of the fuel handling and
storage systems in a diesel power plant. They provide monitoring, measurement, and
control capabilities to ensure the safe and efficient operation of the fuel system.
Here's an overview of the instruments and control systems used in the fuel handling
and storage systems:

1. Level Sensors: Level sensors are used to measure the fuel level in storage
tanks, providing real-time information about the fuel inventory. They help
prevent overfilling or running out of fuel by triggering alarms or control actions
when the fuel level reaches predefined thresholds.

2. Flow Meters: Flow meters are used to measure the rate of fuel flow within the
system, providing accurate data on fuel consumption and ensuring proper fuel
distribution. They help monitor fuel usage and detect any abnormalities or leaks
in the system.

3. Pressure Sensors: Pressure sensors are utilized to measure and monitor the
fuel system's pressure levels. They help ensure that the fuel is being delivered
at the required pressure to the engines and alert operators to any pressure
fluctuations that may indicate system issues.

4. Temperature Sensors: Temperature sensors are employed to monitor the

temperature of the fuel at various points in the system. They help ensure that
the fuel remains within the desired temperature range to prevent issues such
as fuel degradation, waxing, or solidification.
 5. Control Valves: Control valves are used to regulate and control the flow of fuel
within the system. They can be automated and actuated based on signals from
the control system to adjust the fuel flow rate, pressure, or direction as needed.

6. Control System: The control system oversees the operation of the fuel handling
and storage systems. It receives input from the instruments and sensors,
processes the data, and initiates control actions to maintain optimal fuel levels,
pressure, and flow rates. The control system may also integrate with the overall
plant control system for coordination and monitoring.

7. Alarms and Safety Systems: Instruments and control systems incorporate

alarm and safety features to ensure the safe operation of the fuel handling and
storage systems. These features can include high-level alarms, low-pressure
alarms, temperature alarms, and emergency shutdown systems that are
triggered when abnormal conditions are detected.

The instruments and control systems in the fuel handling and storage systems of a
diesel power plant provide vital information and control capabilities for safe and
efficient fuel management. They enable operators to monitor fuel levels, flow rates,
pressures, and temperatures, allowing for proactive maintenance and timely
adjustments to ensure optimal fuel utilization and system performance.

6.12 Selection of handling capacity

The selection of handling capacity in the fuel handling and storage systems of a
diesel power plant is a critical aspect of system design to ensure optimal fuel supply.
The handling capacity is determined by considering factors such as the power plant's
load requirements and fuel consumption rates at different load levels. By
understanding the fuel consumption characteristics of the engines, the system can be
sized to provide a continuous and reliable fuel supply, avoiding the risk of fuel
shortages during peak demand. Adequate storage capacity is essential to
accommodate planned maintenance activities or unexpected delays in fuel deliveries.
It is important to consider factors such as the power plant's operational strategy,
frequency of fuel deliveries, and future expansion plans when determining the storage
capacity.
 The selection of transfer pump capacity is also crucial in the handling capacity of
the fuel system. The transfer pumps must be able to deliver fuel at the required flow
rate and pressure to ensure efficient fuel transfer from the storage tanks to the engines.
Redundancy and backup systems, including backup pumps and fuel supply lines,
should be considered to minimize the risk of fuel supply disruptions due to equipment
failure or maintenance activities. This ensures the reliability of the fuel handling system
and helps mitigate potential downtime.

Overall, the selection of handling capacity in the fuel handling and storage systems
of a diesel power plant requires a comprehensive assessment of the power plant's load
requirements, fuel consumption rates, storage capacity, transfer pump capacity, and
future expansion plans. By carefully considering these factors, engineers can design
a fuel handling system that meets the power plant's fuel supply needs efficiently,
ensuring reliable and uninterrupted power generation.

Criteria Selection of Handling Capacity

Required Storage of Fuel Oil:
Required Storage 7,541,918.573 Liters
3 tanks with a capacity of 109716 liters each
Day Tank
V 146.643624 m3
Q 9776.2416 Liters/min
Fuel Oil Transfer Pump:
VS 124.0178443 m/sec
VD 168.3901024 m/sec
Pump Operating Head 2232.636202 m

Table Criteria Selection of Handling Capacity

6.13 Outdoor storage

In a diesel power plant, outdoor storage refers to the storage of diesel fuel in open-
air environments, typically using above-ground storage tanks (ASTs) or underground
storage tanks (USTs). These tanks are designed with safety measures and
constructed to meet regulatory standards for fire protection, venting, and containment.
The outdoor storage tanks are strategically located away from buildings, ignition
sources, and environmentally sensitive areas, ensuring compliance with local
regulations and safety guidelines. They have the capacity to store the necessary
volume of diesel fuel required for the power plant's operation over a specified period.
Security measures such as fencing, access control systems, and surveillance cameras
are implemented to prevent unauthorized access, vandalism, or theft.

Maintenance and inspections are crucial for the integrity of outdoor fuel storage
tanks. Regular monitoring of fuel levels, visual inspections, and testing of tank integrity
are performed to identify and address any maintenance issues promptly.
Environmental considerations are also important, with spill prevention measures,
proper handling of fuel additives, and adherence to environmental regulations being
key aspects of outdoor storage in a diesel power plant. Power plant operators must
ensure compliance with safety and environmental regulations specific to their
jurisdiction to ensure the safe and efficient storage of diesel fuel in outdoor storage
tanks.

Fuel Oil Storage Tank Summary

69 tanks with a capacity of 109716 liters each
Diameter: 3.05 m
Length: 15.04 m
Plate Thickness 7.94
Weight: 10399
Fuel Oil Storage Tank Summary

6.14 Plant storage

In a diesel power plant, plant storage refers to the storage of diesel fuel within
the facility itself. This involves the use of specially designed above-ground storage
tanks (ASTs) or underground storage tanks (USTs) located within designated areas of
the power plant premises. These tanks are strategically positioned for convenient
access during refueling operations and are designed to meet safety standards and
regulations. The capacity of the fuel storage tanks is determined based on the power
plant's fuel consumption rate and operational requirements, ensuring an adequate
supply of diesel fuel for a specified period. Safety measures, such as fire suppression
systems, emergency shutdown mechanisms, and proper signage, are implemented in
the plant storage areas to prevent accidents, spills, and leaks.

Plant storage areas within the power plant facility are closely monitored and
controlled to manage fuel inventory effectively. This includes monitoring fuel levels,
implementing automated fuel monitoring systems, and maintaining accurate records
of fuel usage. Regular maintenance and inspections of the fuel storage tanks and
associated equipment are conducted to ensure their integrity and functionality.
Compliance with safety, environmental, and regulatory requirements is of utmost
importance, including adherence to tank design standards, proper installation and
operation, and compliance with environmental protection measures. By adhering to
these practices, power plants can ensure safe and efficient plant storage of diesel fuel,
supporting uninterrupted power generation operations.

Fuel Oil Storage Tank Summary

Fuel Oil Storage Tank
Tank Type cylindrical bulk tank
69 tanks with a capacity of 109716 liters each
Diameter: 3.05 m
Length: 15.04 m
Plate Thickness 7.94
Weight: 10399
Day Tank
V = Volume of the cylinder; 146.643624 m3
Q = volume flow rate 9776.2416 Liters/min
d = Diameter of the cylinder; 8.642047467 m
h = Height or Length of the 2.5 m
cylinder;

Table Fuel Oil Storage Tank Summary

6.15 Equipment and system

In the context of the fuel handling and storage systems of a diesel power plant,
equipment and systems play a critical role in the safe and efficient management of
fuel. Here are some key points related to equipment and systems within this
framework:

1. Fuel Transfer Equipment: This includes pumps, hoses, and pipelines used for
transferring diesel fuel from storage tanks to the power generation equipment.
These components are designed to handle the flow of fuel safely and efficiently,
ensuring proper delivery and supply to the engines or generators.

2. Filtration Systems: Diesel fuel often undergoes filtration to remove impurities and
contaminants before it is supplied to the power generation equipment. Filtration
systems, such as fuel filters and water separators, help maintain the quality of the
fuel and prevent damage to the engines or generators.

3. Monitoring and Control Systems: To ensure optimal fuel management, diesel

power plants are equipped with monitoring and control systems. These systems
provide real-time information on fuel levels, pressure, temperature, and other
relevant parameters. They help operators track fuel consumption, identify any
anomalies, and take proactive measures to maintain efficient fuel usage.

4. Emergency Shutdown Systems: In case of emergencies or abnormal conditions,

diesel power plants are equipped with emergency shutdown systems. These
systems can automatically stop the fuel supply and shut down the power
generation equipment to prevent accidents or further damage.

5. Spill Containment Systems: To mitigate the risks of fuel spills during fuel handling
and transfer operations, spill containment systems are installed. These systems
include containment berms, drip pans, or secondary containment measures to
prevent fuel from reaching the environment in the event of a spill or leak.

6. Fire Protection Systems: Diesel power plants employ fire protection systems, such
as fire suppression systems and fire extinguishers, to prevent and control fires that
may occur in the fuel handling and storage areas. These systems are designed to
 rapidly detect and suppress fires, safeguarding personnel, equipment, and fuel
storage facilities.

7. Inspection and Maintenance Equipment: Regular inspection and maintenance of

fuel handling and storage systems are essential for their proper functioning.
Equipment such as fuel samplers, pressure gauges, and leak detection devices
are used to assess the condition of the equipment, identify any issues, and
perform necessary maintenance tasks.

Proper selection, installation, and maintenance of equipment and systems within

the fuel handling and storage systems of a diesel power plant are vital to ensure the
reliable and safe operation of the power generation facility. Compliance with industry
standards and regulatory requirements is critical to safeguard personnel, protect the
environment, and maintain the efficiency of the fuel handling processes.

6.16 Lubricating System

The lubricating system in a diesel power plant is responsible for circulating and
distributing lubricating oil to various components, such as engines, generators, and
rotating machinery, to ensure smooth operation and prolong equipment life. It involves
storing the lubricating oil in dedicated tanks, utilizing pumps to circulate the oil at the
required pressure, and employing filters to remove contaminants. The system also
includes oil coolers to regulate oil temperature, proper distribution mechanisms to
deliver oil to lubrication points, and regular oil analysis to monitor oil condition.
Maintenance and inspections play a crucial role in ensuring the system's effectiveness
by monitoring oil levels, checking for leaks, and conducting necessary oil changes. By
providing adequate lubrication, the lubricating system contributes to the overall
efficiency and reliability of the diesel power plant's equipment.

6.17 Daily Lubricating Oil Consumption:

Lubrication is essential to any machine element; this includes the diesel engines as
well as their auxiliaries. Our Plant design requires 3 units, 3 units operating 1 is
reserve. Unit 1 is 15 MW and Unit 2 and 3 is 10 MW. The model for the 10 MW is
18KU44 and for the Unit 15 MW 12KU44. The 2 gen-set units is continuous in
operation while the third unit is only open/on from 10am-12am. A future expansion is
also provided. Our plant capacity factor is given at 60%.
From the discussion above we have a 93.26 % Net Generator Efficiency for each
engine during the operation. The brake horsepower would then be the same as the
obtained. Therefore, the brake horsepower is equal to…

𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Rated Bhp =
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

11.66666667
Rated Bhp = 0.9326

Rated Bhp = 12.50982915 MW

For a continuous operation, the generated power would be…

Generated Power = (12.50982915 MW × 2 ) × 24 hours

Generated Power = 600.5 MW– hour

Based on Power Plant Engineering (Adapted to MKS Units) by Frederick T.

Morse; Chapter 6: Internal Combustion Engine Power Plant; 6 – 6: Auxiliary Systems;
Lubrication; page 174; most diesel power plants have an average consumption of 1
gallon of Lubricating oil per 1600 kW-Hour generated at full load rating. For both the
diesel engines that operates continuously, then the total generated power would be..

Generated Power = 600.5 MW– hour + ( 12.50982915 MW × 11 hours)

Generated Power = 738.08 MW-hour

Since 1 gallon of Lubricating oil per 1600 kW-Hour generated at full load rating
is give as an average consumption for lubrication, for one day consumption, we have…

1000
Oil Consumption = (738.08 MW-hour) x (1 gallons / 1600 kW-Hr)(1𝑀𝑊)

Oil Consumption = 461.3 gallons/day

 Similarly with the fuel oil, assuming that the delivery of lube oil is every 45 days,
the oil consumption…

Oil Consumption = 461.3 gallons/day × 45 days

Oil Consumption = 20758.5 gallons

Dimensions of the Lube Oil Storage Tank:

By conversion…

Volume = (20758.5 gallons)(3.7854 Liters/gallons)(1 x 10−3 𝑚3 /1 Liters)

Volume = 78.57921737 m3

Assuming that the tank is filled within 5 minutes as compared for the fuel oil, then…

Volume Flow Rate = 78.57921737 m3/ 5 min

Volume Flow Rate = 15.71584347 m3/min

Volume Flow Rate = 15715.84347 Liters/min

Using a cylindrical drum for storage with a 1-meter diameter, the length could
be obtained and so is the dimension…

(π)(d)2
Volume = ( 4
) ( L)

Length = (78.57921737 m3 x 4) / (π x 1 m2)

Length = 100.05 m

The dimensions of the lube oil tank would be in 1 m diameter by 100.05 m length.

Lube Oil Transfer Pump:

Assuming that the fuel oil and the lube oil storage tanks and discharge settings
are the same, together with the assumptions, then the requirements would be close
and be useful for the lube oil transfer pump computation…
Computing now for the velocity at the suction we have…

4𝑄
VS =
𝜋𝑑 2

m3
4(15.71584347 )
min
VS = 𝜋(0.0409 m)2

1𝑚𝑖𝑛
VS = 11961.93 m/min ( 60𝑠
)

VS = 199.37 m/s

Computing now for the velocity at the discharge we have…

4𝑄
VD = 𝜋𝑑2

m3
4(15.71584347 )
min
VD = 𝜋(0.0351 m) 2

1𝑚𝑖𝑛
VD = 16241.78 m/min ( 60𝑠
)

VD = 270.6963064 m/s

Assuming that the pump is in the datum line, the height of delivery is 4.5 meters,
the storage is placed 2.5 meters below, a friction loss of 0.75; then with the given &
computing now for the discharge head…

(270.6963064 m/s)2
Discharge head = 0.75 + 4.5 m + 𝑚
2(9.81 )
𝑠𝑒𝑐2

Discharge head = 3740.035438 m

Computing now for the suction head…

(199.37 m/s)2
Suction head = 0.75 - 2.5 m + 𝑚
2(9.81 )
𝑠𝑒𝑐2

Suction Head = 2031.162176 m

As both the suction and discharge heads are given, we can now obtain the
pump operating head. With the given, the pump operating head is…

Pump Operating Head = Discharge Head – Suction head

 Pump Operating Head = 3740.035438 m - 2031.162176 m

Pump Operating Head = 1708.873262 m

Assuming that the pump efficiency is 70 %, and then we have…

𝑄𝑑𝑜 𝐻
Pump supply power =
4500000𝔶𝑝

Where:
Q = Volume Flow Rate; 15715.84347 Liters/min
dO = Density of oil; 914 kg/m3 (or 0.914 kg/liters)
H = Pump Operating Head; 1708.873262 m
ηP = Pump Efficiency; 70 %

𝑄𝑑𝑜 𝐻
Pump supply power =
4500000𝔶𝑝

(15715.84347 Liters/min)(914 kg/𝑚3 )(1708.873262 m)

Pump supply power = 4,500,000(0.70)

Pump supply power = 7792.61448 hp (10,000 hp)

Therefore, we are to use 10,000 hp oil pump for the raw oil
transfer.

6.18 Cooling and Circulating Water System

Required Circulating Cooling Water:

Based from Power Plant Engineering (Adapted to MKS Units) by Frederick T.

Morse; Cooling System; pages 177 to 178; we are to use a cooling (preferably a forced
draft cooling tower) as it is minimal upon consideration cost, bulk, and auxiliary power.
This would provide an immediate cooling for the Diesel Engine’s frame jackets in the
heated parts. To obtain the circulating cooling water requirements, we are to use the
equation provided by several references. Based from Power Plant Engineering
(Adapted to MKS Units) by Frederick T. Morse; Cooling System; page 178; using the
equation below we are to use the given equation to obtain the required circulating
cooling water.
 Rated Bhp
W =(674.58) ( 𝑡1 −𝑡2
)

Where: W – circulating cooling water; liter per hour

Rated Bhp – Rated Brake horsepower.

t1 – inlet temperature; °C

t2 – outlet temperature; ° C

Accordingly, we must first obtain the rated brake horsepower as readily

provided in the Diesel Engine type SC4H160D2 Specification. Deviating from the law
of conservation of energy (simply stated as Energy In = Energy Out) then the rated
horsepower of the engine would be equal to the generator output. Losses would be
present so the net efficiency would be used to offset the generator output. Based from
Power Plant Engineering (Adapted to MKS Units) by Frederick T. Morse; Table A – 16:
Normal Efficiencies of Engine type Synchronous Generators; page 675; at a kilowatt
rating of 15 MW with 1500 rpm, by interpolation we have 94.46%. Deductions upon
this efficiency are also given. Based from Power Plant Engineering (Adapted to MKS
Units) by Frederick T. Morse; Table 6 – 3: Standard Deduction (Engine Generator
Efficiency); page 185; at a generator efficiency of 94.1% to 95% with a full load
operation we deduct 1.2 so we have a 93.26% Net Generator Efficiency. Therefore the
rated break horsepower is equal to the equation below.

Generator Output
Rated Bhp =( )
Net Generator Efficiency

1 hp
= 12.50982915 MW ( )
0.7457 KW

Rated Bhp = 16.77595434 hp

Assuming that the temperature range would be 10° C, as most of the cooling
tower range applied in the industry from the manufacturer ranges from 5.6° C to 16.7°
C, then we use an assumed values of 75° C & 65° C for the inlet water temperature
and outlet water temperature respectively, we can now obtain the required circulating
cooling water for the cooling tower. With the 3 units we have 50.32786301 hp. So the
required circulating cooling water is.

Rated Bhp
Wc =(674.58) ( )
𝑡1 −𝑡2

50.32786301 hp.
Wc =(674.58) ( 75° C −65° C
)

Wc = 3395.016983 Liters / hr

Based from Mark’s Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 9th Edition;
Section 6: Materials of Engineering; 6.1 General Properties of Materials; Specific
Gravity and Density of Water at Atmospheric Pressure; page 6 – 10; at 75° C the
density of water is 974.86 kg/m3.

= 3395.016983 Liters / hr (1hr/60mins) (1m3 /1000L) (974.86 kg/m3 )

Wc = 55.16110427 kg / min

Therefore, we need 3395.016983 Liters / hr or 55.16110427 kg / min for the circulating

cooling water for the 2 Diesel Engine Genset units.

Water Jacket Circulating Pump:

Based from Mark’s Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 9th Edition;
Section 8: Machine Elements; 8.7 Pipe, Pipe Fittings and Valves; Table 8.7.3
Properties of Commercial Steel Pipes; page 8 – 149; assuming we are to use a nominal
pipe size of 3 in outside diameter schedule 40 for the suction line pipe and a nominal
pipe size of 2 ½ in outside diameter schedule 40 for the discharge line pipe, the
following data is given as follows…

Suction line pipe:

Schedule 40
Outside diameter 3 in (3.5 in)
Inside diameter 3.068in (0.0779 m)
 Discharge line pipe:
Schedule 40
Outside diameter 2.5 in (2.875 in)
Inside diameter 2.469 in (0.0627 m)

Computing for the specific velocity rate at both the suction and discharge we
simply use the given equation below…

Q = AV
Where: Q – volume flow rate; m3 /min
A – Cross-sectional area; m2
V – Velocity of fluid; m/min
Also given for the area and deviating from the equation we
have…
A = π d2 /4
Where: A – Cross-sectional area; m2
d – Internal diameter; m
Thus,
4𝑄
V = 𝜋𝑑2

Computing now for the velocity at the suction we have…

4𝑄
Vs = 𝜋𝑑2

m3
4(0.311 )
min
Vs = 𝜋(0.0779 m)2

1𝑚𝑖𝑛
Vs = 65.25226516 m/min ( 60𝑠
)

Vs = 1.087537753 m/s

Computing now for the velocity at the discharge we have…

4𝑄
Vd = 𝜋𝑑2

m3
4(0.311 )
min
Vd =
𝜋(0.0627 m)2

Vd = 100.73 m/min (1min/60secs)

 Vd = 1.68 m/s

Assuming that the pump is in the datum line, the height of delivery is 2.302
meters, the storage is placed 4.5 meters below, a friction loss of 0.75; then with the
given & computing now for the discharge head…

Discharge head = FL+ZD+V

𝐷 𝑉2
Discharge head = FL+ZD+2𝑔

Where: FL – Friction losses for discharge; 0.75

ZD – Elevation from datum to discharge; 2.302 m

VD – Velocity head at discharge; 1.68 m/s

𝐷 𝑉2
Discharge head = FL+ZD+2𝑔

(1.68 m/s)2
Discharge head = 0.75 + 2.302 m + 𝑚
2(9.81 )
𝑠𝑒𝑐2

Discharge head = 3.195853211 m

Computing now for the suction head

Suction head = FL + ZS + V

𝑠 𝑉2
Suction head = FL + ZS + 2𝑔

(1.087537753 m/s )2
Suction head = 0.75 – 4.5 m + 𝑚
2(9.81 )
𝑠𝑒𝑐2

Suction head = − 3.689717718 m

Based from Power Plant Engineering (Adapted to MKS Units) by Frederick T.

Morse; Chapter 13: The Gas Loop; 13 – 10 Water Pumps; pages 545 to 546; we use
the equations provided to obtain the required pump. As both the suction and discharge
heads are given, we can now obtain the pump operating head. With the given, the
pump operating head is…

Pump operating head = Discharge head – Suction head

Pump operating head = 3.195853211 m + 3.689717718

m

Pump operating head = 6.885570926 m

 Assuming that the pump efficiency is 70 %, and then we have…

𝑤 𝑄𝑑 𝐻
Pump supply power = 4500000𝔶
𝑝

Where:
Q – Volume flow rate 311 liters/min
dw – Density of water 1000 kg/m3
H – Pump operating head 6.885570926 m
ηp – Pump efficiency 70%

𝑄𝑑𝑤 𝐻
Pump supply power =
4500000𝔶𝑝

(311 liters/min)(1000 kg/m3)(6.885570926 m)

Pump supply power = 4500000(0.70)

Pump supply power = 0.68 hp

Therefore, we are to use ¾ hp water pumps for the water jacket transfer for
each Diesel Genset units.

Required Raw Water for the Cooling Tower:

Since most heat exchangers experience a steady state equation and deviating
from the energy balance equation [mC (hC1 – hC2) = mR (hR1 – hR2)] assuming that
the continuous flow would nullify the offsetting effects of density and enthalpy, and
assuming that temperature difference with 6° C of 34° C at inlet and 28° C at outlet,
then we can use the equation below for simplicity…

QC (tC1 – tC2) = QR (tR1 – tR2)

Where:
QR - Quantity of Raw Water circulating Liter/min
the cooling tower,
QC - Quantity of Circulating Cooling Liter/min
Water;
 tR1 - temperature of raw water at outlet; 34° C

tR2 - temperature of raw water at inlet; 28° C

tC1 - temperature of jacket cooling water 75° C

at inlet;
tC2 - temperature of jacket cooling water 65° C
at outlet;

Using the equation, the quantity of raw water is…

𝑄𝑐 (𝑡𝑐1 −𝑡𝑐2 )
QR = (𝑡𝑅1 −𝑡𝑅2 )

311 liters/min(75° C−65° C)

QR = (34° C−28° C)

QR = 518.3333333 L/min

Based on Mark’s Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 9th Edition;

Section 6: Materials of Engineering; 6.1 General Properties of Materials; Specific
Gravity and Density of Water at Atmospheric Pressure; page 6 – 10; at 28° C the
density of water is 996.242 kg/m3…

= 518.3333333 L/min (1m3 /1000L) (996.242 kg/m3 )

WR = 516.39 kg/min

Raw Water Pump:

The requirements would be near and helpful for the computation of the raw water pump
assuming that the parameters for the circulating water jacket pumps are the same as
the raw water pump.

Computing now for the velocity at the suction we have…

4𝑄
VS = 𝜋𝑑2

m3
4(0.5183333333 )
min
VS = 𝜋(0.0779 m)2
 1𝑚𝑖𝑛
VS = 108.7537753 m/min ( )
60𝑠

VS = 1.812562921 m/s

Computing now for the velocity at the discharge we have…

4𝑄
VD = 𝜋𝑑2

m3
4(0.5183333333 )
min
VD = 𝜋(0.0627 m) 2

1𝑚𝑖𝑛
VD = 167.8742849 m/min ( 60𝑠
)

VD = 2.797904748 m/s

Assuming that the pump is in the datum line, the height of delivery is 5 meters,
the storage is placed 4.5 meters below, a friction loss of 0.75; then with the given &
computing now for the discharge head…

Discharge head = FL+ZD+V

𝐷 𝑉2
Discharge head = FL+ZD+2𝑔

Where:
FL – Friction losses for discharge; 0.75
ZD – Elevation from datum to 5 m
discharge;
VD – Velocity head at discharge; 2.797904748 m/s

𝐷 𝑉2
Discharge head = FL+ZD+2𝑔

(2.797904748 m/s)2
Discharge head = 0.75 + 5 m + 𝑚
2(9.81 )
𝑠𝑒𝑐2

Discharge head = 6.15 m

Computing now for the suction head…

Suction head = FL + ZS + V

𝑠 𝑉2
Suction head = FL + ZS + 2𝑔
 Where:
FL = Friction Losses at Suction; 0.75
ZS = Elevation from Datum to 4.5 m (- due to location)
Suction;
VS = Velocity Head at Suction; 1.812562921 m/s

𝑉𝑠2
Suction head = FL + ZS +
2𝑔

(1.812562921 m/s)2
Suction head = 0.75 – 4.5 m + 𝑚
2(9.81 )
𝑠𝑒𝑐2

Suction head = − 3.582549218 m

Based from Power Plant Engineering (Adapted to MKS Units) by Frederick T.

Morse; Chapter 13: The Gas Loop; 13 – 10 Water Pumps; pages 545 to 546; we use
the equations provided to obtain the required pump. As both the suction and discharge
heads are given, we can now obtain the pump operating head. With the given, the
pump operating head is…

Pump Operating Head = Discharge Head – Suction head

Pump Operating Head = 6.15 m + 3.582549218 m

Pump Operating Head = 9.732549218 m

Assuming that the pump efficiency is 70 %, and then we have…

𝑤 𝑄𝑑 𝐻
Pump supply power = 4500000𝔶
𝑝

Where:
Q – Volume flow rate; 518.3333333 L/min
dw – Density of water; 1000 kg/m3
H – Pump operating head; 9.732549218 m
ηp – Pump efficiency; 70%

𝑄𝑑 𝐻
𝑤
Pump supply power = 4500000𝔶
𝑝
 (518.3333333 L/min)(1000 kg/m3)(9.732549218 m)
Pump supply power = 4500000(0.70)

Pump supply power = 1.601493548 hp (1.75 hp)

Therefore, we are to use 1 ¾ hp water pump for the raw water transfer.

Required Quantity of Make-up Water:

Based from Power Plant Engineering (Adapted to MKS Units) by Frederick T.

Morse; Chapter 6: Internal Combustion Engine Power Plant; 6-7 Evaporative Cooling;
page 181; using the given mass balance and heat balance equations we can obtain
the required make up water for the cooling tower.

For mass balance we use…

1 kg air + SH1 + WW + ΔW = 1 kg air + SH2 + WW

Deviating for simplicity we have…

ΔW = SH2 – SH1

For heat balance we use…

h1 + WWhfa + ΔWhf = h2 + WWhfb

Deviating for simplicity we have…

−∆𝑊ℎ𝑓 +(ℎ1 −ℎ2 )

WW =
ℎ𝑓𝑎 −ℎ𝑓𝑏

Where:
SH1 = Humidity Ratio of Entering Air; kg moisture/kg dry air
SH2 = Humidity Ratio of Leaving Air; kg moisture/kg dry air
WW = Water Circulating per kg of dry air; kg
ΔW = Make-up Water per kg of dry air; kg
h1 = Enthalpy of Moist Air Leaving; kJ/kg of dry air
h2 = Enthalpy of Moist Air Entering; kJ/kg of dry air
 hfa = Enthalpy of Water in the Spraying kJ/kg
Nozzles;
hfb = Enthalpy of Water in the Basin; kJ/kg
hf = Enthalpy of Make-up Water; kJ/kg

Assuming we are given the following relative humidity and

temperatures…

Relative Humidity: Temperature:

Entering Air = 60% Entering = 28° C DB
Leaving Air = 90% Leaving = 34° C DB
WBT = 21° C

Based from Mark’s Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers; 9th Edition;
Figure 12.4.13: Psychometric Chart in SI Units; page 12 – 97; the following are given
and obtained so we have..

@ a R.H. 60% and dry bulb temperature of 28° C @ entering point…

SH1 = 0.01425 kg moisture/kg dry air

@ a R.H. 90% and dry bulb temperature of 34° C @ leaving point…

SH2 = 0.031 kg moisture/kg dry air

Based on Refrigeration & Air Conditioning by W. F. Stoecker & J. W. Jones;

Table A-2: Moist Air; pages 418 to 419, with the assumed temperatures the enthalpy
are as follows…

@ 28° C, h1 = 89.952 KJ/kg

@ 34° C, h2 = 122.968 KJ/Kg

Using the equation of mass balance we use…

ΔW = SH2 – SH1
ΔW = (0.031 – 0.01425) kg moisture/kg dry air
ΔW = 0.01675 kg moisture/kg dry air
 Based on Refrigeration & Air Conditioning by W. F. Stoecker & J. W. Jones;
Table A-1: Water: Properties of Liquid and Saturated Vapor; pages 416 to 417, with
the assumed temperatures the enthalpy are as follows…

@ 34° C, hfa = 142.38 KJ/Kg

@ 28° C, hfb = 117.31 KJ/kg

Assuming we have a make-up water temperature of 18° C; based from

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning by W. F. Stoecker & J. W. Jones; Table A-1: Water:
Properties of Liquid and Saturated Vapor; pages 416 to 417; with the assumed
temperature the enthalpy and pressure is…

hf = 75.50 KJ/kg, P = 2.062 kPa

Using the equation of energy balance we have…

−∆𝑊ℎ𝑓 +(ℎ1 −ℎ2 )

WW = ℎ𝑓𝑎 −ℎ𝑓𝑏

−(0.01675)(75.50)+(122.968 − 89.952)
WW = 142.38 − 117.31

WW = 1.27 kJ/kg dry air

Since 516.39 kg/min of raw water is given, the air flow is…

516.39 kg/min
Air flow = 1.27 kJ/kg dry air

Air flow = 406.6062992 kg/min

Based from Mark’s Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers; 9th Edition;
Figure 12.4.13: Psychometric Chart in SI Units; page 12 – 97; the following are given
and obtained so we have…

DB temperature = 28° C
WB temperature = 21° C

The specific volume, v, is 0.87 m3 /kg dry air…

Then the air flow would be…
 Air Flow = 406.6062992 kg/min (0.87 m3 /kg)
Air Flow = 353.7474803 m3 /min
The required make-up water then is…
Make-up Water = 406.6062992 kg/min x 0.01675
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
6.810655512 kg/min(1000 )
𝑚3
Make-up Water = 𝑘𝑔
(999.706 3 )
𝑚

Make-up Water = 6.812658434 L/min

Forced Draft Fan:

To meet the requirement of an air flow capacity of 353.7474803 m3/min or
12492.474370360852845 ft3/min, you need to select a fan that can provide this specific
airflow rate. The chosen fan should be capable of delivering the desired volume of air
per minute to meet the cooling requirements of your application.

When selecting a fan, it's important to consider factors such as fan efficiency,
pressure capabilities, and power requirements, in addition to the desired airflow
capacity. These factors will help determine the appropriate fan size and specifications
to achieve the desired airflow rate.

It is recommended to consult fan manufacturers or suppliers who can provide

options suitable for your specific needs and ensure that the selected fan meets the
required air flow capacity while considering any additional constraints or preferences
for your application.

We select a fan with the following size…

Fan Size: DAYTON Tubeaxial Fan: Clean Air, 34 in
Blade, 61 sones Max Noise Level @ 5 Feet,
Belt Drive
Model: 166208A
Minimum Motor Horsepower 2 hp
Maximum Motor Horsepower 5 hp
Maximum Static Pressure 1 in wc
Minimum Airflow 12,430 cfm
Maximum Airflow 15,290 cfm
Type of Cooling System

The chosen type of cooling system for the diesel power plant is fresh water
forced circulation. In this system, water is circulated through the equipment and heat
exchangers using pumps to remove heat generated during the power generation
process.

Major Components
Components Type
Water pump Centrifugal type driven by
belt
Thermostat Wax–pellet type
Cooling fan Blower type, plastic

Condenser Auxiliaries

Condenser auxiliaries are additional components that support the operation of

the condenser in the cooling system. These can include:

1. Air Extraction System: Removes non-condensable gases from the condenser to

maintain optimal performance.
2. Condensate Extraction Pump: Collects and removes condensed steam or water
from the condenser for further processing or reuse.
3. Hotwell: A reservoir or tank where the condensate is collected before being pumped
back to the steam generator or boiler.

6.19 Cooling Tower Design

Size of Cooling Tower:

For the total cooling requirements, we must first obtain the total cooling water
requirements…

Water Requirements = Circulating Jacket Water + Raw Water

Water Requirements = 311 liters/min + 518.3333333 L/min Water Requirements =
829.3333333 liters/min
= 829.3333333 liters/min x (1 gallon/3.7854 Liters)
Water Requirements = 219.0873708 gallons/min

Assuming we have water concentration of 3.0 gpm per ft2 , then the area of the cooling
tower is…

Area of Cooling Tower = 219.0873708 gpm / (3.0 gpm/ft2)

Area of Cooling Tower = 73.0291236 ft2

Assuming we have a square sized cooling tower, then the size of the cooling
tower would be…

Side of the Cooling Tower = √73.0291236 𝑓𝑡 2

Side of the Cooling Tower = 8.545707905 ft

So, the dimensions of the cooling tower that would service the diesel engines
are 8.545707905 ft x 8.545707905 ft or 2.604731769444 m x 2.604731769444 m.

Feed water System.

The feed water system in a diesel power plant is responsible for supplying water to
the steam generator or boiler to produce steam for driving the turbine and generating
electricity. It plays a critical role in the overall operation and efficiency of the power
plant. Here's an overview of the feed water system in a diesel power plant:

1. Makeup Water Source: The feed water system typically receives makeup water
from an external source, such as a treated water supply or a dedicated water
treatment plant. This makeup water source provides the initial water feed for the
system.
2. Clarification and Filtration: The makeup water often goes through a clarification
and filtration process to remove impurities and suspended solids. This process
helps ensure the water quality meets the requirements for boiler feed water.
3. Deaeration: The feed water system includes a deaerator, which removes
dissolved gases, primarily oxygen, from the water. Deaeration helps prevent
corrosion and reduces the risk of oxygen-related issues in the boiler and steam
system.
4. Chemical Treatment: Depending on the specific needs of the power plant, the feed
water may undergo chemical treatment to control corrosion, prevent scaling, and
inhibit microbial growth. Common chemicals used include oxygen scavengers, pH
adjusters, and antiscalants.
5. Feedwater Pumps: Feedwater pumps are used to pressurize and deliver the
treated water to the boiler. These pumps ensure a continuous flow of feed water
at the required pressure and volume.
6. Economizer: In some power plant configurations, an economizer is incorporated
into the feed water system. The economizer recovers heat from the flue gases
before they are released into the atmosphere. This recovered heat is used to
preheat the feed water, improving the overall thermal efficiency of the power plant.
7. Control and Monitoring: The feed water system is equipped with instruments and
control devices to monitor and control parameters such as water level, pressure,
temperature, and flow rate. These control systems ensure safe and efficient
operation of the feed water system and the associated boiler.
8. Blowdown System: The feed water system may include a blowdown system, which
is responsible for removing impurities and concentrated solids from the boiler.
Blowdown helps maintain the water quality within acceptable limits and prevent
the buildup of harmful deposits.
9. Water Treatment and Condensate Recovery: After the steam has passed through
the turbine, it is condensed back into water in a condenser. The condensed water,
known as condensate, is often treated and recovered for reuse in the feed water
system, reducing water consumption and improving overall efficiency.
The design of the feed water system in a diesel power plant is crucial for maintaining
the performance, reliability, and efficiency of the power generation process. It involves
careful consideration of water quality, treatment processes, pump selection, control
systems, and the integration of various components to ensure the safe and efficient
operation of the steam generator or boiler.

6.20 Engine Starting System

The student has specifically chosen the electric starting method, utilizing a 24-volt
electric starter motor, as the preferred engine starting system for the diesel power
plant. This decision showcases a deliberate selection of a particular voltage
requirement to ensure optimal performance and compatibility with the diesel engine.
 By opting for a 24-volt electric starter motor, the student recognizes the advantages
it offers in terms of cranking power and reliability. The higher voltage allows for
increased torque generation, enabling the starter motor to efficiently crank the diesel
engine, especially in cold weather or under heavy load conditions. This choice
demonstrates a thorough understanding of the power requirements of the diesel
engine and the need for a robust starting system to ensure successful engine startup.

The 24-volt electric starter motor, when connected to the battery, receives the
necessary electrical power to initiate the engine cranking process. As the ignition is
engaged, the starter motor rotates the engine's flywheel through a system of gears,
providing the required rotational force to start the engine. The starter motor continues
supplying torque until the engine achieves self-sustained operation.

The student's selection of a 24-volt electric starter motor for the diesel power plant's
engine starting system indicates a thoughtful consideration of the power demands and
a commitment to ensuring a reliable and efficient startup for the diesel engine. This
choice aligns with industry standards and best practices, reflecting the student's
dedication to engineering principles and optimizing the performance of the diesel
power plant. The Figure shows the electric starter motor and its specification.
 Figure the electric starter motor and its specification.

6.21 Wastewater Treatment

Wastewater treatment is a critical aspect of managing the environmental

impact of a diesel power plant. During power plant operations, various activities
generate wastewater that may contain pollutants and contaminants. To address this,
wastewater treatment processes are implemented to remove or mitigate these
contaminants before the water is discharged or reused.

The first step in wastewater treatment is the collection and separation of

different wastewater streams. This ensures that each stream receives appropriate
treatment based on its specific characteristics. Filtration and sedimentation processes
are then employed to remove suspended solids and particulate matter from the
wastewater. This is typically achieved using filters and settling tanks, allowing solids to
settle at the bottom while clear water is separated for further treatment.

Chemical treatment methods may be utilized to enhance the removal of

contaminants. Coagulants, flocculants, and pH adjustment chemicals can be added to
facilitate the separation of pollutants and improve sedimentation. Biological treatment
processes can also be employed to break down organic contaminants present in the
wastewater. Microorganisms are used to consume and metabolize organic
substances, converting them into harmless byproducts. Techniques such as activated
sludge systems and biological filters are commonly utilized for this purpose.

Once the wastewater has undergone appropriate treatment, disinfection

processes such as chlorination or UV radiation may be applied to ensure the removal
of any remaining bacteria or pathogens. The treated wastewater can then be
discharged in compliance with local regulations and environmental standards.
Alternatively, it can be recycled and reused within the power plant for non-potable
purposes, minimizing water consumption and promoting sustainable operations.
By implementing effective wastewater treatment processes, a diesel power plant can
minimize its environmental impact, protect water resources, and contribute to
sustainable practices in line with regulatory requirements. Figure below show the water
treatment for the power generation industry / pall water.

Figure below show the Pall water treatment.

Pall Water refers to a division of Pall Corporation, a global leader in filtration,

separation, and purification technologies. Pall Water specializes in providing advanced
water treatment solutions for various industries, including power generation, municipal
water, industrial processes, and more.

Pall Water offers a wide range of products and services to address water
treatment challenges, such as filtration systems, membrane technologies, and water
treatment chemicals. Their solutions are designed to improve water quality, enhance
process efficiency, and ensure compliance with environmental regulations.

Pall Water's expertise lies in the application of innovative filtration and

separation technologies, including membrane filtration, reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration,
and microfiltration. These technologies help remove impurities, suspended solids,
bacteria, and other contaminants from water sources, resulting in clean and purified
water for various applications.

In summary, Pall Water is a leading provider of advanced water treatment

solutions, utilizing state-of-the-art filtration and separation technologies to deliver clean
and high-quality water for industries around the world.

6.22 Generator and Electrical Facilities Design

In the design of a diesel power plant, the generator and electrical facilities are
crucial components responsible for the conversion and distribution of electrical energy.
The selection of an appropriate generator is a critical consideration, taking into account
factors such as power demand, load requirements, and operating conditions. The
generator should be chosen based on its capacity to provide the required electrical
power output, while also considering factors such as efficiency and future expansion
possibilities. Synchronization and load sharing systems are implemented in larger
power plants or when multiple generators are used to ensure synchronized operation
and optimal distribution of electrical power. These systems enable generators to
operate in parallel, synchronizing their frequency and voltage levels, and facilitate the
sharing of electrical load to achieve balanced operation and maximize the utilization of
equipment.

The electrical distribution system is responsible for transmitting and distributing

electrical power within the power plant and to the connected loads. It comprises
components such as switchgear, transformers, circuit breakers, distribution panels,
and protective devices. The design of the electrical distribution system should consider
the electrical load, provide protection against overloads and faults, and ensure reliable
power delivery to different areas or equipment within the power plant. A control and
monitoring system is integrated to oversee the operation of the generator and electrical
facilities. This system includes instrumentation and control devices that monitor key
parameters such as voltage, current, frequency, power factor, and temperature.
Operators can use the control system to monitor performance, make necessary
adjustments, and implement protection and safety measures to ensure efficient and
secure operation of the power plant's electrical system.

6.23 Voltage Ratings and Systems Voltages

In the design of a diesel power plant's generator and electrical facilities, voltage
ratings and system voltages are crucial aspects that need careful consideration.
Voltage ratings define the maximum voltage that electrical equipment can handle,
ensuring safe and effective operation. It is essential to select equipment with
appropriate voltage ratings that align with the power plant's requirements. This
includes generators, transformers, switchgear, and other electrical components. By
choosing the correct voltage ratings, the equipment can reliably handle the electrical
load and contribute to the efficient functioning of the power plant.

System voltages, on the other hand, pertain to the actual voltage levels at which
electrical power is generated, transmitted, and distributed within the power plant. The
selection of system voltages depends on factors such as the power demand, load
characteristics, and compliance with regional or national electrical standards. It is
crucial to determine the optimal system voltages that can effectively meet the power
plant's needs while maintaining compatibility with the equipment used. Adhering to
established system voltage standards ensures proper operation, efficient power
transmission, and adherence to safety regulations.

Proper voltage regulation is vital in maintaining stable and consistent voltage

levels throughout the power plant's electrical system. Automatic voltage regulation
(AVR) systems are commonly employed to control and stabilize the generator's output
voltage, compensating for fluctuations and ensuring a steady voltage supply to the
connected loads. Effective voltage regulation helps protect equipment from damage,
maintain power quality, and enable the reliable operation of electrical systems. By
implementing appropriate voltage regulation mechanisms, the diesel power plant can
ensure optimal performance and reliability in delivering electrical power to its intended
consumers.

Based on the computations conducted by the designer, it has been determined

that the diesel power plant has a low voltage rating. This means that the voltage levels
within the power plant's electrical system fall within the low voltage range, typically
below 1 kV.

Having a low voltage rating implies that the electrical equipment used in the
power plant, including generators, transformers, and switchgear, are designed to
operate at lower voltage levels. It also suggests that the power plant's electrical system
is configured to transmit and distribute power at these lower voltage levels.

Designing the power plant with a low voltage rating has implications for various
aspects of the electrical facilities. It influences the selection of suitable electrical
equipment with appropriate voltage ratings that can effectively handle the power
demand and load requirements within the power plant. Additionally, it dictates the
design and implementation of voltage regulation systems to ensure stable and
consistent voltage levels throughout the power plant's electrical system.

Considering the low voltage rating of the power plant is crucial for ensuring the
safe, efficient, and reliable operation of the electrical facilities. It helps to maintain
compatibility among the electrical components, supports proper load distribution, and
enables compliance with safety regulations specific to low voltage systems. By
accounting for the low voltage rating in the design process, the power plant can
optimize its electrical infrastructure and achieve effective power generation,
transmission, and distribution. Computation found in the (4.2 and 4.4).

Generators

Given:

Max. Demand= 33.2857143

 Demand Factor= 80%

Sol.:

33.28571430
Calculated Total Connected load= = 41.60714288 𝑀𝑊
0.80

10% Extra Load of the T.C.L= 0.10 × 41.60714288 = 4.160714288 MW

Final Total Connected load = 45.76785717 MW

Max. Demand Load as per 80% Demand Factor = 45.76785717 × 0.80 = 36.6143
MW

Final Calculated Max. Demand Load = 36.6143 MW

Power Factor = 0.80

36.6143
Calculated Max. Demand Load in KVA= = 45.767875 MVA
0.80

Final Calculated Max. Demand Load = 45.767875 MVA

Generator Capacity With 80% Efficiency = 45.767875 × 0.80 = 36.6143 MVA

Calculated Generator Capacity = 36.6143 MVA

Proposed DG Set Size is = range 35 MVA to 40 MVA

6.24 Generator Leads and Switchyards

In a diesel power plant with a generator rating of 15 MW unit 1, unit 2 and 3 are
10 MW the design of generator leads and switchyards plays a crucial role in ensuring
efficient power transmission and distribution. Generator leads are the cables or
conductors that connect the generator terminals to the switchyard or electrical
distribution system.

When designing the generator leads, factors such as the generator rating,
voltage rating, and distance between the generator and switchyard need to be
considered. The conductor size should be chosen appropriately to minimize voltage
drop and facilitate efficient power transfer. The selection of conductor material, such
as copper or aluminum, should consider factors like electrical conductivity and cost-
effectiveness.
 Switchyards are outdoor facilities where multiple generators and electrical
components are connected to the main electrical grid or distribution system. The
design of the switchyard should consider the layout, equipment placement, and safety
measures. Adequate space should be allocated for the installation of switchgear,
transformers, circuit breakers, and other necessary equipment. Proper clearances and
safety distances must be maintained to ensure safe operations and prevent electrical
hazards. Additionally, implementing effective grounding and lightning protection
systems is crucial to protect the switchyard and connected equipment from lightning
strikes.

In summary, in a diesel power plant with a 15 MW unit 1, unit 2 and 3 are 10

MW generator rating, the design of generator leads and switchyards should prioritize
efficient power transmission, appropriate conductor sizing, and adherence to safety
standards. By carefully considering these factors, the power plant can ensure effective
power distribution and reliable operation of its electrical infrastructure. Figure below
show the generator leads.

Figure show the generator leads.

6.25 Transformers
Sol.:

33.2857143
Calculated Total Connected load = 0.80
= 41.60714288 𝑀𝑊

10% Extra Load of the T.C.L= 0.10 × 41.60714288 𝑀𝑊 = 4.160714288 MW

Final Total Connected load = 45.76785717 MW

Max. Demand Load as per 80% Demand Factor = 45.76785717 × 0.80 = 36.6143 MW

Final Calculated Max. Demand Load = 36.6143 MW

Power Factor = 0.80

36.6143 MW
Calculated Max. Demand Load in KVA= = 45.767875 MVA
0.80

Final Calculated Max. Demand Load = 45.767875 MVA

45.767875
Transformer Capacity With 90% Efficiency = 0.90
= 50.85319444 MVA

Calculated Transformer Capacity is = 50.85319444 MVA

Proposed DG Set Size is = 60 MVA

Station Service Power Systems

In the design of a diesel power plant's generator and electrical facilities, an

important consideration is the design of the station service power systems. These
systems are responsible for providing electrical power to the auxiliary equipment and
systems within the power plant that support its overall operation. Station service power
systems typically consist of a dedicated electrical distribution system that supplies
power to equipment such as pumps, fans, motors, control systems, lighting, and other
auxiliary loads. These loads are critical for functions such as fuel handling, cooling
systems, lubrication systems, and control room operations.

The design of the station service power systems involves determining the
power requirements of the auxiliary equipment and sizing the distribution system
accordingly. This includes selecting appropriate transformers, switchgear, circuit
breakers, and other components to deliver power safely and efficiently to the various
loads. The station service power system should be designed to accommodate the
expected load demands, ensuring sufficient capacity and redundancy for reliable
operation. Proper protection devices, such as fuses and relays, should be incorporated
to safeguard the auxiliary equipment from electrical faults and overload conditions.
Additionally, effective grounding and bonding practices should be implemented to
ensure electrical safety and mitigate the risk of electrical hazards.
 By carefully designing the station service power systems, a diesel power plant
can ensure that the auxiliary equipment and systems receive the necessary electrical
power for their smooth and reliable operation. This contributes to the overall efficiency
and effectiveness of the power plant, supporting its ability to generate and deliver
electrical energy to the intended consumers. Figure shows below is the station services
of power system.

Figure shows below is the station services of power system.

6.26 Emergency Power System

The Emergency Power Supply System (EPSS) consists of several vital components
that require regular maintenance. The Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) plays a crucial
role in starting the generator and needs routine testing and troubleshooting. The diesel-
powered generator must undergo load banking to ensure efficient combustion and
prevent fire hazards. Circuit breakers protect electrical equipment and should be
regularly tested. Prime Power specializes in EPSS maintenance and diagnostics,
offering comprehensive services for generators and power infrastructures to ensure
uninterrupted power supply and enhance safety. The Figure shows the Automatic
Transfer Switch, and its specification.
 Figure Automatic Transfer Switch

An automatic air circuit breaker is a type of circuit breaker used in low-voltage

systems. It automatically controls and protects electrical circuits by detecting and
responding to abnormalities such as overload, short circuit, and undervoltage. When
a fault occurs, it automatically interrupts the circuit to prevent damage and ensure
safety. It uses air to extinguish the arc created during interruption. Automatic air circuit
breakers are commonly used in power distribution systems and industrial machinery
for reliable circuit protection and control. Figure shows the automatic air circuit breaker.
 Figure automatic air circuit breaker.

6.27 Motors
A diesel power plant typically consists of various motors that play important
roles in the generation and distribution of electrical power. These motors are designed
to perform specific functions within the power plant. Here are some of the key motors
you would find in a typical diesel power plant:

• Prime Mover: The primary motor in a diesel power plant is the diesel engine itself,
which serves as the prime mover. The diesel engine drives the generator through
a coupling or a gearbox, converting the chemical energy of diesel fuel into
mechanical energy.

• Generator: The generator is an essential component of the power plant that

converts mechanical energy from the prime mover into electrical energy. It
comprises an electrical generator coupled to the diesel engine, where the
rotating motion of the engine generates an alternating current (AC) in the stator
windings of the generator.
• Exciter: The exciter motor is a smaller motor that is responsible for providing a
direct current (DC) field current to the rotor windings of the generator. The exciter
motor ensures that the generator produces a stable and controlled output
voltage.
 • Cooling System Motors: Diesel power plants require various motors for cooling
purposes. These motors drive fans or pumps that circulate cooling air or coolant
through the engine and other components to dissipate excess heat generated
during operation.

• Fuel System Motors: The fuel system of a diesel power plant includes motors
that drive pumps responsible for transferring diesel fuel from storage tanks to the
engine. These motors ensure a continuous and controlled fuel supply to the
engine for efficient combustion.

• Lubrication System Motors: Lubrication is crucial for maintaining the

performance and longevity of the diesel engine. Motors drive lubrication pumps
that deliver oil to various engine parts, ensuring smooth operation and reducing
friction.

• Auxiliary Motors: Diesel power plants also have auxiliary motors for different
purposes. These can include motors for driving air compressors, which provide
compressed air for starting the engine or other pneumatic systems, and motors
for controlling valves and switches in the power plant's electrical and mechanical
systems.

These motors work together to ensure the efficient operation of the diesel power
plant, providing reliable and continuous electrical power. Their functions range from
power generation and voltage regulation to cooling, fuel supply, lubrication, and overall
system control.

6.28 Communication System

The communication system of a diesel power plant typically includes the following
components:

1. Intercom Systems: Intercom systems are used for internal communication

within the power plant. They allow staff members to communicate with each
other across different areas of the plant, such as control rooms, engine rooms,
and maintenance areas.

2. Radio Communication: Radio communication systems, such as two-way

radios, are used for both internal and external communication. They enable
effective communication between operators, technicians, and other personnel
 within the power plant, as well as with external teams, such as maintenance
crews or emergency services.

3. Telephones: Telephones are used for voice communication within the power
plant. They provide a reliable means of communication between different
departments and can be used for both internal and external calls.

4. Computer Networks: Computer networks are essential for data communication

within the power plant. They enable the transfer of information between
different systems and departments, facilitating real-time monitoring, control,
and coordination of power plant operations.

5. SCADA Systems: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems

are used for remote monitoring and control of the power plant. They allow
operators to monitor various parameters, receive alarms and notifications,
and control equipment from a centralized location.

6. Alarm Systems: Alarm systems are used to alert operators and personnel about
any abnormalities or critical events within the power plant. These systems can
include audible alarms, visual indicators, and notification systems that ensure
timely response to any potential issues.

7. Public Address Systems: Public address systems are used for making
announcements or broadcasting important messages to personnel within the
power plant. They are particularly useful during emergencies or when general
information needs to be communicated to many people.

These communication systems help ensure smooth operations, effective

coordination, and prompt response to any situations within a diesel power plant.

The designer has chosen to incorporate an intercom wireless communication

system into the design of the diesel power plant. This wireless intercom system will
enable seamless communication between personnel in different areas of the power
plant, ensuring efficient coordination and enhanced safety. By opting for a wireless
solution, the designer can eliminate the need for extensive wiring, simplify
maintenance, and promote effective communication even in remote or hazardous
locations within the power plant. The selection of the intercom wireless communication
system demonstrates a commitment to modern and reliable communication
technology in the diesel power plant design. Figure shows the wireless intercom
system.

Figure wireless intercom system.

The designer has chosen to incorporate a two-way radio communication

system into the design of the diesel power plant. This choice reflects the understanding
of the importance of effective communication in ensuring the safety and smooth
operation of the power plant. By implementing a two-way radio system, personnel
working in different areas of the power plant can easily communicate with each other,
facilitating quick response to emergencies, troubleshooting, and efficient coordination.
The selection of a two-way radio communication system demonstrates a commitment
to reliable and instant communication within the diesel power plant design. Figure
shows the two way radio communication system.

Figure two-way radio communication.

The designer has chosen to incorporate a computer network into the design of
the diesel power plant. This choice highlights the importance of digital connectivity and
data management in optimizing the operation and monitoring of the power plant. By
implementing a computer network, various systems and devices within the power plant
can be interconnected, allowing for seamless communication, real-time data
exchange, and centralized control. The computer network enables efficient monitoring
of the power plant's performance, remote access for troubleshooting, and data analysis
for improved operational efficiency. The selection of a computer network demonstrates
a commitment to leveraging technology for enhanced control and management of the
diesel power plant. Figure shows the computer network communication.
 Figure shows the computer network communication.

6.29 Generator Power Plant Facilities Design

The design of generator power plant facilities is a crucial aspect of diesel power
plant engineering. These facilities are responsible for housing and supporting the
generator units and associated equipment. Here are some key considerations in the
design of generator power plant facilities:

Generator Building: The generator building provides a dedicated space for housing
the generator units. It should be designed to accommodate the size, weight, and
ventilation requirements of the generators. The building should have proper insulation,
soundproofing, and fire protection measures to ensure the safety and comfort of
personnel working in the facility. Adequate access points should be provided for
maintenance and servicing of the generators.

Ventilation and Cooling Systems: Generators generate significant heat during

operation, and effective ventilation and cooling systems are necessary to maintain
optimal operating conditions. The design should incorporate ventilation systems that
ensure adequate air exchange and temperature control within the generator building.
Cooling systems, such as radiators or cooling towers, should be installed to dissipate
heat generated by the generators and maintain their temperature within acceptable
limits.
 Fuel Storage and Handling: Diesel power plants require an efficient fuel storage
and handling system. The design should include appropriate fuel storage tanks with
sufficient capacity to store an adequate supply of diesel fuel. Fuel transfer and handling
equipment, such as pumps, filters, and piping, should be properly designed and
installed to ensure safe and reliable fuel supply to the generators. Adequate safety
measures, such as spill containment systems and fire suppression equipment, should
also be incorporated to mitigate potential fuel-related hazards.

Maintenance and Workshop Areas: The generator power plant facilities should
include designated maintenance and workshop areas. These areas provide space for
conducting routine maintenance, inspections, and repairs of the generators and
associated equipment. They should be equipped with necessary tools, equipment, and
workbenches to facilitate maintenance activities and ensure the safety of maintenance
personnel.

Control Room and Monitoring Systems: A control room is essential for monitoring
and controlling the operation of the generators and associated systems. The design
should incorporate a centralized control room that allows operators to monitor critical
parameters, adjust settings, and respond to alarms or system abnormalities. It should
be equipped with suitable control panels, monitoring devices, and communication
systems for effective supervision and control of the power plant.

The design of generator power plant facilities should consider factors such as
safety, efficiency, accessibility, and compliance with applicable regulations. By
carefully planning and designing these facilities, the diesel power plant can provide a
suitable and conducive environment for the generators, ensuring their optimal
performance and longevity. Figure below show the Genset facilities.
 Figure show the Genset facilities.

6.30 Instrument and Control Systems

In the design of a diesel power plant's generator power plant facilities, the
instrument and control systems play a critical role in monitoring, controlling, and
protecting the generators and associated equipment. Here are some key aspects to
consider in the design of instrument and control systems:

Control Room Design: The control room serves as the central hub for monitoring
and controlling the operation of the generators. It should be designed to provide a
comfortable and ergonomic working environment for operators, with clear visibility of
control panels, monitoring screens, and alarms. The layout should be intuitive,
facilitating easy access to critical controls and information. Adequate space should be
allocated for equipment racks, control consoles, and operator workstations.

Instrumentation: The instrumentation system comprises various sensors and

devices that measure and monitor parameters such as voltage, current, frequency,
temperature, pressure, and fuel levels. These instruments provide real-time data to
operators and control systems, allowing for effective monitoring of the generators'
performance and early detection of any abnormal conditions. The selection and
installation of appropriate instruments should be based on the specific requirements of
the power plant and in accordance with industry standards.

Control Systems: The control systems are responsible for regulating and adjusting
the operation of the generators to maintain optimal performance and respond to
changing load demands. This includes control mechanisms for starting and stopping
the generators, load sharing among multiple units, synchronization with the electrical
grid, and automatic control of various operating parameters. The control systems
should be designed to ensure reliable and accurate control, with appropriate feedback
loops, interlocks, and safety measures.

Protection Systems: Protection systems are essential to safeguard the generators

and associated equipment from damage during abnormal operating conditions or
electrical faults. This includes protective relays, circuit breakers, and emergency
shutdown systems that detect and respond to overloads, short circuits, and other
potentially hazardous situations. The protection systems should be designed to
provide fast and reliable fault detection, isolation, and tripping to prevent further
damage and ensure the safety of personnel and equipment.

Communication and Data Management: Effective communication and data

management systems are crucial for seamless integration of the instrument and control
systems. This includes network infrastructure, protocols, and software interfaces that
enable data exchange and integration with other systems, such as the control room,
monitoring systems, and remote monitoring facilities. Robust communication systems
facilitate remote monitoring and diagnostics, enabling timely decision-making and
troubleshooting.

The design of instrument and control systems in generator power plant facilities
should prioritize safety, reliability, and ease of operation. It should comply with relevant
industry standards and regulations, ensuring the efficient and effective control of the
generators to meet the power plant's operational goals and objectives. Figure below
shows the instrument and control System.

Figure shows the instrument and control System.

6.31 Heating, Ventilating and Air-conditioning Systems

When designing the heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems

for a diesel power plant, several factors need to be considered. Firstly, the HVAC
system should be designed to handle the cooling and ventilation requirements specific
to the power plant. This involves considering the size of the facility, the number of
generators, and the heat generated by the equipment. Cooling systems, such as air-
cooled or water-cooled heat exchangers, may be necessary to dissipate the heat
produced by the engines and exhaust systems. Additionally, proper ventilation is
crucial to maintain air circulation and remove harmful gases and exhaust fumes.
Ventilation systems should comply with safety regulations and provide a healthy
working environment for personnel. Effective air filtration systems should also be
incorporated to remove particulate matter and contaminants that can impact
equipment performance.

Furthermore, the design should encompass control systems that monitor and
regulate temperature, humidity, and air quality. These systems often include sensors,
actuators, and automated controls to ensure optimal operation and energy efficiency.
Backup HVAC systems or redundant components may be required to ensure
uninterrupted operation in the event of system failures. Accessibility for maintenance
and repair should be considered, providing sufficient space for servicing and
implementing safety measures for personnel during maintenance activities. It is crucial
to consult experienced HVAC engineers and professionals to ensure compliance with
local regulations and to meet the unique requirements of the diesel power plant facility.
Figure shows the air-conditioning system.

Figure the air-conditioning system.

6.32 Power and Service Piping Systems

When designing the power and service piping systems for a diesel power plant,
several considerations need to be considered. Firstly, it is crucial to identify the types
of fluids that will be distributed throughout the facility, such as diesel fuel, lubricants,
and cooling water. Each fluid will have specific requirements in terms of pressure, flow
rate, and temperature, which will guide the design of the piping system. Proper layout
planning is essential, considering equipment locations, flow paths, and connections to
ensure efficient fluid distribution. The selection of appropriate pipe materials, such as
corrosion-resistant steel or compatible plastic piping, should be based on the nature of
the fluid being transported.

Secondly, the design should account for pressure and flow considerations to meet the
demands of the power plant equipment. Proper sizing of pipes, inclusion of valves,
pumps, and pressure regulation devices should be incorporated to achieve the desired
fluid distribution. Insulation may be required to maintain fluid temperatures within the
required range and minimize heat loss or gain. Safety measures, including pressure
relief valves, emergency shutdown systems, and leak detection systems, should be
implemented to ensure the integrity and safety of the piping system. Additionally, the
design should allow for easy maintenance and accessibility, with components, valves,
and fittings positioned for convenient inspection, repairs, and routine maintenance
activities. Proper labeling and identification of pipes and their contents facilitate easy
identification and troubleshooting.

To ensure a well-designed power and service piping system, it is advisable to

collaborate with experienced mechanical engineers, piping designers, and
professionals who can provide expertise in diesel power plant facilities and adhere to
relevant industry standards and regulations. Figures shows the piping system.
 Figures the piping system.

6.33 Fire Protection

Fire protection is a vital aspect of the design for a diesel power plant facility,
prioritizing the safety of personnel, equipment, and the surrounding environment. The
fire protection system should include reliable fire detection systems, such as smoke
detectors and flame detectors, strategically placed throughout the facility to promptly
identify and alert personnel in case of a fire. Additionally, appropriate fire suppression
systems should be installed to control and extinguish fires effectively. This may involve
water-based systems like sprinklers or deluge systems, as well as gaseous
suppression systems like carbon dioxide (CO2) or clean agents. Fire barriers and
compartments should be incorporated into the design to confine fires to specific areas
and prevent their rapid spread. These fire-resistant enclosures, made of fire-rated
walls, floors, and ceilings, help contain flames, smoke, and heat.

Furthermore, the design should account for emergency exits and well-defined
evacuation routes with proper lighting, signage, and training for personnel to facilitate
safe and swift evacuation during a fire or emergency. Adequate firefighting equipment,
including fire extinguishers, fire hoses, and fire hydrants, should be readily accessible
at strategic locations throughout the facility. Regular fire safety training programs
should be conducted to educate plant personnel on fire prevention, detection, and
response procedures. Compliance with relevant fire protection codes, standards, and
regulations specific to the jurisdiction is essential to ensure that the fire protection
system meets the required safety standards.
 To ensure the design of an effective fire protection system, it is recommended
to consult with fire protection engineers and professionals experienced in power plant
design and fire safety. Their expertise will help ensure that the fire protection system
is appropriately designed, implemented, and compliant with the necessary regulations,
minimizing the risks associated with fires in a diesel power plant facility. Figure show
the diesel engine driven fire pump system.

Figure the diesel engine driven fire pump system.

6.34 Environmental Impact Evaluation and Consideration

When evaluating the environmental impact of a diesel power plant, it is

essential to consider various factors and implement mitigation measures. Firstly,
emissions control is crucial to minimize the plant's impact on air quality. Technologies
such as selective catalytic reduction (SCR) systems and diesel particulate filters (DPF)
can be employed to reduce pollutants like nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx),
particulate matter (PM), and carbon dioxide (CO2). Additionally, using high-quality,
low-sulfur diesel fuel can further reduce emissions and promote cleaner combustion.

Secondly, addressing noise pollution is important, especially in proximity to

residential areas or sensitive environments. Proper acoustic design, including the use
of sound barriers and insulation, can help mitigate noise generated by the power plant
during operation. Additionally, implementing water conservation measures is essential
to minimize the plant's water usage and its impact on local water resources. Alternative
cooling technologies and closed-loop cooling systems can help reduce water
consumption.

Waste management practices should be established to handle the various

waste materials generated by the power plant, including used lubricants and filters.
Implementing appropriate recycling, treatment, and disposal methods in accordance
with regulations will ensure responsible waste management. Obtaining the necessary
environmental permits and ensuring compliance with local regulations and standards
is vital. Monitoring and reporting emissions, adhering to limits, and conducting regular
environmental assessments will help assess and mitigate the plant's impact. Exploring
the integration of renewable energy sources alongside the diesel power plant, such as
solar or wind power, can further reduce environmental impact and promote sustainable
energy generation. Consulting environmental experts and professionals will provide
valuable insights and ensure comprehensive environmental impact evaluation and
consideration for the diesel power plant. Figure shows the Environmental Impact and
Consideration of diesel power plant.

Figure shows the Environmental Impact and

Consideration of diesel power plant.
 VII. Design of Solar Power Plant

The transition to sustainable energy sources is crucial for addressing global

warming and environmental issues, especially in the Philippines, which relies
heavily on agriculture and eco-tourism. The country has made significant
strides in transitioning to renewable energy sources, such as hydroelectric,
geothermal, wind, solar, and biomass. The development of renewable energy
projects has created job opportunities in the construction, operation, and
maintenance of renewable energy facilities, contributing to overall economic
growth.

To address the energy problem and its socioeconomic impacts, the Philippines
is prioritizing energy diversification, promoting the development of renewable
energy sources and exploring emerging technologies like nuclear energy and
SMRs. Adopting renewable energy sources can enhance energy security,
reduce electricity costs, and promote economic growth. The country has also
integrated large-scale solar farms into its energy infrastructure, with notable
solar farms located in Cavite, Pampanga, Ilocos Norte, and Cagayan de Oro.

7.1 Components of Photovoltaic Power Plant

A photovoltaic power plant, or solar power system, consists of many
components that collaborate to gather and transform sunlight into electricity,
rendering solar power systems indispensable in the realm of renewable energy.

Figure 8.5 Basic Components of a PV System

7.2 PV Array
A photovoltaic (PV) array, often known as a solar array, is a
connected assemblage of solar modules. A photovoltaic system is a
comprehensive power generation unit that comprises multiple PV modules and
panels. PV modules and arrays are typically evaluated based on their maximum
DC power output (in watts) under Standard Test Conditions (STC). A solar
panel is a device that harnesses the energy from sunshine and converts it into
electrical energy through the utilization of photovoltaic cells. Photovoltaic cells
consist of materials that generate energized electrons upon exposure to light.
A photovoltaic system generally consists of a collection of photovoltaic
modules, an inverter, a battery pack for storing energy, a charge controller,
connector cable, circuit breakers, fuses, disconnect switches, voltage meters,
and optionally a solar tracking device. The selection of equipment is done
meticulously to maximize output, store energy efficiently, and ensure the
reliability of the system. Aside from PV modules, a PV system may require
additional components such as a battery charge controller, batteries, an inverter
or power control unit (for AC loads), safety disconnects and fuses, a grounding
circuit, and wiring.

Module quality loss in a photovoltaic (PV) system pertains to the

discrepancy between the actual performance of the module and the standards
provided by the manufacturer. The parameter represents the level of
confidence in the actual performance of the module and can be adjusted to
accommodate considerations such as production warranty reserves or
expected performance levels. The module quality loss is largely manufacturer-
dependent, however it is widely estimated to range from 0.5% to 1%. This
parameter is crucial for precisely simulating the performance of a photovoltaic
(PV) system and should be meticulously taken into account during the design
and analysis of the system.
7.3 The Mounting Structure
Mounting structures are a crucial element of a photovoltaic (PV) system,
since they offer the required support to secure solar panels in position and
enhance their efficiency. Various mounting structures are available for PV
systems, such as:

1. Roof Mounting: This mounting mechanism is utilized for the installation

of solar panels on rooftops without causing any damage to the roof
surface. The ballasted roof mount is a widely utilized racking structure
for photovoltaic (PV) systems that are mounted on flat roofs. The system
uses the mass of concrete or sand to maintain stability and withstand
various external forces, including wind forces that attempt to pull it out.
2. Ground Mounting: This mounting mechanism facilitates the installation
of many rows of modules on the ground. Ground-mounted panels benefit
from superior airflow compared to rooftop panels, facilitating more
efficient cooling. Ground-mounted PV systems often refer to expansive
solar power installations designed for utility-scale applications. The
photovoltaic (PV) array comprises solar modules securely fastened to
the ground using racks or frames.
3. Pole Mounting: This mounting structure is utilized for the installation of
solar panels on poles or other vertical constructions. Pole mounts are
well-suited for small-scale photovoltaic (PV) systems, specifically
designed for applications such as lighting or water pumping.
4. Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) refers to a mounting structure
that incorporates solar panels into the architectural design of a building,
specifically in areas like the roof or facade. BIPV systems are specifically
engineered to possess an appealing visual appearance and may be
utilized in both residential and business settings.

The selection of the mounting structure is contingent upon several criteria, such
as the nature of the photovoltaic (PV) system, the geographical position, and
the amount of space accessible. The mounting structure must possess
sufficient robustness to endure severe weather conditions and maximize the
efficiency of the solar panels.
7.4 Inverter
An inverter is a crucial element of a photovoltaic (PV) system as it
transforms the direct current (DC) power produced by solar panels into
alternating current (AC) electricity, which is commonly utilized in residential and
commercial settings. The primary function of the inverter is to ensure the
compatibility of the electricity produced by the solar panels with the electrical
grid, enabling it to be utilized for powering appliances and other equipment.
Inverters vary in size and type, contingent upon the dimensions of the PV
system and the application. Certain inverters may also incorporate other
functionalities, such as battery storage and monitoring capabilities, in order to
enhance the efficiency of the photovoltaic system.

7.5 Transformer
A transformer is an electrical apparatus that converts electrical energy
from one electrical circuit to another circuit, or several circuits. The system
comprises of two coils that are magnetically linked. The primary coil generates
an alternating current, resulting in a fluctuating magnetic field that in turn
induces a voltage in the secondary coil. This enables the voltage of the
secondary circuit to vary, either greater or lower, compared to the voltage that
powers the primary circuit. Transformers are employed for the purpose of
voltage conversion and insulation, and their capability is measured in kilovolt-
amps (KVA). They are crucial elements in the distribution of electrical power
and other electronic devices.

7.6 Switching Equipment

Switching equipment pertains to the apparatus employed in electrical
power transmission and distribution networks for regulating the movement of
electricity. The components encompassed are circuit breakers, vacuum
interrupters, disconnecting switches, earthing switches, and load break
switches. Switching equipment is employed to isolate malfunctioning
equipment, safeguard electrical systems from excessive loads, and regulate
the transmission of electricity. The equipment is specifically engineered to
function in conditions of elevated voltage and current, necessitating a high
degree of dependability and longevity. Switching equipment is a vital element
of power systems and is employed in many applications such as power
substations, switchyards, and renewable energy systems.

7.7 Meter and Other Equipment

Solar power systems need specialized meters, such as bi-directional
meters, to monitor the energy generated and utilized by the system. These
meters are crucial for implementing net metering and accurately billing for the
energy produced and supplied to the grid.

Solar performance monitors are devices that assist in monitoring the

efficiency of solar power systems by collecting data on energy generation,
usage, and any system malfunctions.

Solar power systems commonly incorporate monitoring devices that

furnish production and consumption data, enabling users to compare and
enhance the efficiency of their solar system.

7.8 Types of Design

7.8.1 DC System Design
The design of the DC system for a solar power plant entails guaranteeing
a designated voltage range for the load equipment and batteries in different
circumstances. The design of DC power system components adheres to a
fundamental sequence, encompassing planning, data collecting, and load
analysis. The DC distribution system is employed to regulate the electrical
current and guarantee that the voltage remains within a predetermined range.
Thorough planning is necessary to meet the initial requirements and assure the
long-term durability of a DC system in a solar power plant.

The components of a DC design for a solar power system include:

1. Solar panels are devices that utilize photovoltaic cells to convert sunlight
into power. Solar panels are the primary components responsible for
generating power in a photovoltaic (PV) system.
 2. An inverter is a device that converts the direct current (DC) electricity
produced by solar panels into alternating current (AC) electricity, which
is commonly utilized in homes and businesses.
3. Auxiliary energy sources and loads encompass other energy sources,
such as generators or the power grid, as well as the appliances or loads
that require electricity from the solar energy system.
4. Mounting System: The PV system need a stable structure for installation
in order to achieve optimal output. Various mounting systems are
employed to extract optimal output.
5. Wiring and Connector Boxes: These elements establish connections
between the solar panels, charge controllers, inverters, and other
devices in the system, facilitating the efficient transmission of electricity.
6. Monitoring and control devices are utilized to monitor and assess the
operation of the solar power system. They gather data regarding energy
production, energy consumption, and any system malfunctions.

7.8.2 AC System Design

The typical components of an AC system design for a solar power plant
include:

1. Inverters are crucial devices that transform the direct current (DC)
electricity produced by solar panels into alternating current (AC)
electricity, which is commonly utilized in residential and business
settings.
2. Transformers: Transformers are utilized to increase the voltage of the
produced AC power for effective transmission across extended
distances and subsequently decrease it for secure distribution and
utilization.
3. Switchgear and Protection Equipment: This category encompasses
circuit breakers, fuses, and other safeguarding devices that guarantee
the security and dependability of the AC electrical system.
4. Metering and monitoring equipment are essential components for AC
systems, serving the purpose of measuring the electricity generated and
consumed, as well as tracking the operation of the solar power plant.
 5. Distribution Equipment: This encompasses the essential elements
required for the dissemination of AC energy to the designated loads,
such as distribution panels, switchboards, and wiring.

The integration of these components is meticulously designed to guarantee

the optimal production, transformation, and transmission of alternating current
(AC) electricity within a solar power facility.

7.9 Losses in the Design

7.9.1 Soiling Loss
Soiling losses in solar power plants arise from the gradual accumulation
of dust, dirt, and grime on solar panels and other photovoltaic surfaces,
resulting in a reduction of the amount of sunlight that reaches the panels. This
diminishes the efficiency of the photovoltaic system, as the conversion of
sunlight into electrical energy is directly dependent on the quantity of sunlight
that can reach the solar panels. The rate of soiling exhibits seasonal and
geographical variations, often ranging from 0% to 1% every day. Nevertheless,
conventional photovoltaics in concentrated solar power have been shown to
exhibit typical deposition rates of up to 2.5% per day, while places with
significant soiling rates have been seen to have soiling rates as high as 5% per
day. The accumulation of dust and grime can result in an average of 2% energy
losses in areas with consistent rainfall throughout the year.

7.9.2 Module Quality Loss

Module quality degradation in a photovoltaic (PV) system pertains to the
discrepancy between the actual performance of the module and the standards
provided by the manufacturer. The parameter represents the level of
confidence in the actual performance of the module and can be adjusted to
accommodate considerations such as production warranty reserves or
expected performance. The module quality loss is largely manufacturer-
dependent, however it is generally estimated to be between 0.5% and 1%. This
parameter is crucial for precisely simulating the performance of a Photovoltaic
(PV) system and should be thoroughly taken into account throughout the design
and analysis of the system.
7.9.3 Reflection Loss
When sunlight bounces off the surfaces of the panels instead of being
absorbed to generate a current, there is a slight decrease in output of
approximately 2.5%. Researchers in solar panel design are actively exploring
methods to enhance efficiency by minimizing surface reflectance in order to
maximize light absorption.

During the project phase, selecting the appropriate panel is a crucial

factor in minimizing reflection losses. Employing granular paint additives to
enhance the texture of panel surfaces or incorporating an additional light-
trapping mechanism can effectively minimize loss.

7.9.4 Light Induced Degradation

Solar cells do not fully convert all the wavelengths of light emitted by the
sun. However, they are designed to efficiently convert a wide range of visible
light and a significant portion of infrared light that encounters them, so
optimizing the generation of electrical energy. Manufacturers are currently
exploring methods to enhance light absorption across many wavelengths,
although this proves challenging to tackle during the project design phase.

Light-induced degradation (LID) impacts a significant proportion of

crystalline silicon cells within the initial days of installation, because of sunlight
exposure. This can result in losses ranging from 0.5% to 1.5%, although it only
impacts specific types of modules. Therefore, the selection of the module is a
crucial component in minimizing these losses.

7.9.5 DC Cable loss

DC cable loss in a photovoltaic (PV) system pertains to the power
reduction caused by the resistance of the cables that connect PV devices and
strings. The main factor contributing to DC wire losses is the ohmic resistance
of the cable, however losses can also arise from connections and fuses. The
power loss due to resistance, known as I^2 x R loss, is directly proportional to
the square of the current flowing through the array. Additionally, variations in
cable length or size across parallel strings can cause variances in voltage drop,
which in turn contributes to mismatch. In order to minimize these losses, it is
preferable to have a DC voltage drop of less than 1%, and it should not exceed
2%. An elevated DC voltage drop also leads to an increase in voltage variation
among the connected PV strings, resulting in increased losses due to
mismatch. To maintain the safe and stable operation of a PV system throughout
its lifespan, it is crucial to select the suitable cabling. This determination should
be based on the interpretation of IEC standards and take into account many
criteria, including safety, bifacial gains, cable carrying capacity, cable loss, and
voltage drop. To minimize the impact of DC cable loss, it is advisable to choose
the most economical cables and overcurrent protection devices. String
inverters possess a shorter direct current (DC) cable and experience lesser DC
voltage drop, leading to reduced mismatch loss and increased intrinsic
electricity generation.

7.9.6 Auxiliary Losses

Auxiliary losses in a photovoltaic (PV) system pertain to the energy spent
by different auxiliary components and equipment responsible for system
management. These losses are commonly linked to the energy consumption of
various system management operations, such as operating fans, air
conditioning, electrical devices, and lighting. The energy consumed by these
auxiliary components must be subtracted from the energy produced by the PV
system that is intended for sale. The magnitude of this loss will vary between
0.7% and 1%, depending on the size of the facility.

AC Cable loss

AC cable losses in a photovoltaic (PV) system pertain to the power

dissipation that arises in the alternating current (AC) cables employed for
transmitting electricity from the inverter to the interconnection point or the grid.
The primary cause of these losses is the ohmic resistance of the AC cabling,
which can result in energy losses throughout the entire system. Designers of
utility-scale PV systems generally consider AC cable losses of approximately
1%.

7.9.7 External Transformer Loss

This loss specifically pertains to the loss in the inverter transformer, with
a maximum value of 1.1% being considered.
7.9.8 Mismatch Loss
Mismatch loss in a photovoltaic (PV) system pertains to the power
reduction resulting from minor disparities in the electrical properties of distinct
solar modules or cells. Mismatch losses may arise from factors like as
shadowing, manufacturing flaws, or variations in module temperature or
orientation. Mismatch loss refers to the discrepancy between the total power
output of individual sub-modules, represented by the sum of their maximum
power points (Pmpp), and the power output of the module's resulting current-
voltage (I/V) characteristics. The magnitude of mismatch losses can vary
between 0.01% and 3%, contingent upon the configuration of the system and
the length of the strings.

7.9.9 PV Loss due to irradiance level

The decrease in irradiation pertains to the outcomes of the Standard
Test Condition (STC) rating. Under real-world conditions, the modules do not
operate at the standard test conditions (STC), resulting in an efficiency
decrease of around 1.5%.

7.9.10 Inverter Loss

Utility-scale solar systems typically utilize two types of inverters: string
inverters and central inverters. Their typical effectiveness rate ranges from 95%
to 98%, although it may vary based on other factors. Temperature and load are
crucial determinants of inverter efficiency. It is crucial to guarantee proper
ventilation and protection from direct sunlight for inverters. Additionally, plant
designers must ensure that inverters are appropriately matched to the panels,
avoiding both undersized and oversized inverters, especially if the system is
expected to be enlarged in the future. Typically, the inverters should be updated
every decade.

7.9.11 Shading Loss

Shading loss in a photovoltaic (PV) system arises when an obstacle,
such as a tree, structure, or debris, obstructs the sunlight from reaching the
solar PV panels. This can result in a substantial decrease in power production,
as shadowing on a single photovoltaic (PV) module has the capacity to diminish
the electricity generation of an entire string of modules. Partial shading of a
single cell inside a panel can result in a significant decrease in the overall solar
power generation, ranging from 50% to 80%. To resolve shading problems, one
might employ meticulous system planning that incorporates micro inverters or
power optimizers to reduce losses. Additionally, doing site assessments can
help locate and minimize potential obstacles. In addition, the influence of
shadowing can be reduced by considering the ideal panel alignment and
utilizing three-dimensional representations of the photovoltaic (PV) system to
precisely illustrate the effects of nearby objects on energy production. Shading
losses are a crucial factor in the design of photovoltaic (PV) systems and taking
steps to reduce these losses can have a substantial effect on the overall
efficiency and output of a solar energy system.

7.9.12 Thermal loss

Thermal losses in a solar photovoltaic (PV) system pertain to the
decrease in electrical power output caused by elevated operating
temperatures. These losses play a crucial role in the overall efficiency of
photovoltaic systems. Each increase of 1°C over 25°C results in a decrease of
0.5% in the output of a solar cell. Scientists are investigating different
approaches to reduce thermal losses, including optimizing cooling, lowering
thermal load, and enhancing air circulation. The effectiveness of these solutions
relies mostly on environmental factors, such as solar radiation intensity, outside
temperature, wind speed, and atmospheric clarity, which are impacted by the
placement of the solar PV panels. The heat loss factor is a crucial input
parameter utilized to assess the performance of the photovoltaic (PV) array in
response to variations in temperature. There are opportunities in design to
minimize heat loss, and taking steps to decrease these losses can have a major
effect on the overall efficiency of solar photovoltaic (PV) system.

7.10 Direction and Tilt Angle

For optimal energy production in the Philippines, it is recommended to
orient the solar modules towards the true south direction. The optimal
inclination angle might range from 10 to 40 degrees to align with the specific
local conditions. Research and research indicate that the ideal tilt angle for solar
panels in the Philippines is approximately 13°, although it can range from 10 to
40 degrees depending on local conditions. Hence, it is advisable to install a
photovoltaic (PV) system in the Philippines at an inclination ranging from 10 to
40 degrees, oriented towards the true south direction in order to optimize
energy production.

7.11 Land Cost

The price of land in Antique, Philippines fluctuates based on criteria such
as location, size, and other variables. The median value of land in the region is
approximately ₱24,564,288, with values varying from ₱18,000,000 to higher
figures based on the size and location of the property.

The price of land in Anini-y, Antique, Philippines is subject to variation

based on factors such as the precise location, size, and other relevant
considerations. According to the current listings, the cost of land in the vicinity
varies from around ₱1,500,000 to ₱35,000,000. The price per square meter
varies from approximately ₱6,667 to ₱54,475. The prices are determined by a
multitude of factors, including the closeness to facilities, road accessibility, and
distinctive characteristics of the property.

7.12 Distance
By increasing the distance between rows, the loss of shading can be
minimized. However, this will also lead to an increase in the necessary land
area, resulting in greater costs for the land. Therefore, it is imperative to strike
a balance between productivity and expenditure. The distance between rows
can be calculated by several factors that need to consider:

1. The height angle refers to the angle formed between the vertical plane
that contains the PV modules and the horizontal plane. On the other
hand, the tilt angle represents the angle between the horizontal plane
that contains the PV modules and the horizontal plane of the specific
site. These angles are crucial for determining the distance between
arrays.
2. The dimensions of the modules, specifically their width and height,
impact the spacing between arrays. Enlarging the modules or increasing
the gap between rows can result in a larger separation between arrays.
3. Shading: Ensure that there is no obstruction of sunlight to the row of
panels behind each row. To ascertain the appropriate distance between
 rows, consult the precise specifications of your photovoltaic (PV)
system.
4. The solar elevation and the amount of sunlight received by the panels
are influenced by the latitude and time, which encompass the geographic
location and time of the year. These parameters impact the spacing
between arrays to optimize solar output.
5. To prevent shade, consider the slope angle of the terrain when
determining the distance between arrays if your solar panels are
positioned on a hill, mount, or sloped roof.
6. Row width can be determined by multiplying the height difference, which
is computed based on the tilt angle and module width, by a factor that
takes into consideration the shadow created by the panels.

By considering these elements, you may precisely determine the distance

between rows of solar panels to guarantee maximum performance and
efficiency.
7.13 Methodology
7.13.1 Load Calculations
Peak Load (W) = 23.7 MW or 23700000 W

Allowance = 20 %

Plant Capacity (W) = Peak Load (W) + (0.20 ∗ Peak Load (W)

= 23700000 W + (0.20 ∗ 23700000 W )

Plant Capacity (W) = 28440000 W

Reserve Over Peak = Plant Capacity – Peak Load

Reserve Over Peak = 28440000 W – 23700000 W

Reserve Over Peak = 4740000 W

7.14 Choosing Technology
7.14.1 PV Panel Technology
For this project the group decided to use a Monocrystalline PV
panel since this module has the highest efficiency of 13-17 % compared to
Polycrystalline PV panel that has 11-15 % efficiency and has the lowest cost
compared to Hybrid PV panel even though it has the highest efficiency of 17
%+.

Calculations:

Available PV Module:

Figure 8.12 Module Specification

Computing the number of units:

Plant Capacity
No. of modules =
W of Module

28440000 W
No. of modules =
400 W

No. of modules = 71100 units

Module Area:

Module Dimension see figure 8 Module Specification

Width = 1046 mm or 1.046 m

Length = 1690 mm or 1.690 m

Area = 1.76774 m2

Module Area = Area of each module ∗ No. of modules

Module Area = 1.76774 m2 ∗ 71100 units

Figure 8.13 Land Area using Google Earth

Module Area = 125687 m2

 Spacing between modules is very important in order to reduce shading
from each module. Using meteorological datum and sun path chart we can
calculate the necessary

Figure 8.14 Sun path of Anini-y, Antique, Philippines

space between rows for each module.

Given:

Sun window: 9 am to 3 pm

Altitude = 35⁰

Azimuth = 136⁰

Tilt = 13⁰

Calculations:

By given dimension of the module we first solve the height of the module at
the given tilt.
 L =1690
H mm

ᴓ =13⁰

opposite
sin(ᴓ) =
Hypotenuse

adjacent
cos(ᴓ) =
Hypotenuse

opposite
tan(ᴓ) =
adjacent

opposite
sin(13) =
1690

opposite = 380.16 mm

H = 380.16 mm

380.16
tan(35) =
adjacent

Adjacent = 542.92 mm

D = 542.92 mm

opposite
sin(135) =
542.92

Opposite = 383.90 mm

𝐒 = 𝟑𝟖𝟑. 𝟗𝟎 𝐦𝐦
Therefore, the space between rows of each modules to avoid shading is 383.90
mm or 0.3839 m.

7.15 Inverter
Central inverters are sizable apparatuses employed in solar power
plants to transform the direct current (DC) generated by solar panels into
alternating current (AC) that can be transmitted to the electrical grid. Typically,
these devices are deployed in outdoor settings and are specifically engineered
to endure high levels of electrical energy. Central inverters are economically
advantageous, particularly in expansive solar power facilities, and exhibit a
notable efficiency, varying from 95% to 98%. These solar panels are very
manageable and require minimal maintenance, making them ideal for large-
scale power facilities that experience consistent sunlight, such as desert power
stations and ground power stations. Nevertheless, they necessitate a larger
installation area in comparison to alternative inverter types and entail a
heightened likelihood of malfunction, as the malfunction of a single panel might
impact the overall performance of the entire string, resulting in diminished
energy output. Central inverters are more cost-effective than string inverters for
large utility-scale installations, whereas string inverters may be favored for
smaller utility-scale projects due to their greater ease of maintenance.
Figure 8.14 Inverter Specification
Calculations:

Inverter AC power output = 1350 kW

Plant Capacity = 28440 kW

Plant Capacity
No. of Inverters =
Inverter AC power output

28440 kW
No. of Inverters =
1350 kW

28440 kW
No. of Inverters =
1350 kW

No. of Inverters = 21 units

Total Power = 28350 kW

Module in series for finding minimum and maximum number of modules.

Using the formula:

(VmpCoeff. )(Vmp)
Vmin = Vmp + ((TH + TR – TSTC ) ∗ )
100

(VocCoeff. )(Voc)
Vmax = Voc + ((TL – TSTC ) ∗ )
100

Given:

TH = 32⁰C (based on geographical location)

TR = 25⁰C (for Ground or Pole mounted)

Vmp = 65.8 V (Module)

TSTC = 25⁰C (Module)

VmpCoeff. = −0.29%/⁰C (Module)

VocCoeff. = −0.0023%/⁰C (Module)

Voc = 75. 6 V (Module)

TL = 26⁰C (based on geographical location)

Vstart−up = 540 V (Inverter)

Vmax,IN = 1000 V (Inverter)

Solution:
(−0.29%/⁰C)(65.8 V)
Vmin = 65.8 V + ((32⁰C + 25⁰C – 25⁰C) ∗ )
100

Vmin = 59.69 V

Vstart−up
Minimum number of modules =
Vmin

540 V
Minimum number of modules =
59.69 V

Minimum number of modules = 9.04 or 10 Units

(−0.0023%/0 C)(75. 6 V)
Vmax = 75. 6 V + ((260 C – 250 C) ∗ )
100

Vmax = 75.59 V

Vmax,IN
Maximum number of modules =
Vmax

1000 V
Maximum number of modules =
75.59 V

Maximum number of modules = 13.22 or 13 Units

Number of modules
Modules in series =
number of modules per strings
 71100 units
Modules in series =
10 units

Modules in series = 7110 strings × 10 in series

Module at operating condition:

Pmpp = 28.4445504 MW

Umpp = 65.8 Vmpp ∗ 10 in series = 658 V

Impp = 6.08 Impp ∗ 7110 strings = 43228.8 A

The maximum DC input voltage (Vmax (INV, DC)) of the inverter should
not be surpassed by the voltage generated by the modules in the string, as this
will negatively impact the operating lifespan of the inverter. The maximum
power point (MPP) of the inverter determines the minimum number of modules
in a string. This is because the system needs to maintain its voltage within the
MPP range of the inverter (Shaik, 2016). Using the formula, we determine if the
sizing is undersize or oversize.

VOC (module)@coldest module operating temperature × nmax < Vmax (INV,DC)

VMPP (module)@highest module operating temperature × nmin > VMPP (INV min)

Reference Value:

Vmax (INV,DC) = 1000Vdc

VMPP (INV min) = 520 Vdc − 850 Vdc

Given:

VMPP (module)@highest module operating temperature = 65.8 Vmpp

VOC (module)@coldest module operating temperature = 75.6 V

nmax = 13
 nmin = 10

Calculations:

75.6 V × 13 < 1000Vdc

982.2 Vdc < 1000Vdc

65.8 Vmpp × 10 > 520 Vdc − 850 Vdc

658 V > 520 Vdc − 850 Vdc

For optimal conversion of DC to AC power, the ideal ratio should be 1.

However, it is necessary to consider Standard Testing settings (STC) when
evaluating the output of PV modules, as these modules seldom run at these
settings (Solar News, 2022).

DC
Pnom ratio =
AC

Given:

DC (Module) = 28440000 W

AC (Inverter) = 28350 kW or 28350000 W

Calculations:

28440000 W
Pnom ratio =
28350000 W

Pnom ratio = 1.00317 or 1.0

7.16 Transformer Sizing
A transformer is an electrical apparatus that converts electrical energy
from one electrical circuit to another circuit or numerous circuits. This is a non-
active component that lacks any mobile elements and functions based on the
theory of electromagnetic induction. A transformer is comprised of many coils
of wire that are twisted around a magnetic core. When an alternating current
passes through the primary coil, it generates a magnetic field that causes a
voltage to be induced in the secondary coil. The voltage in the secondary coil
is directly proportional to both the number of turns in the coil and the pace at
which the magnetic field changes. Transformers have diverse applications,
encompassing power distribution, voltage management, and electrical
isolation. Transformers can be classified into various categories, such as step-
up transformers, step-down transformers, isolation transformers,
autotransformers, and instrument transformers. The selection of a transformer
is contingent upon the application and the necessary voltage conversion.

When sizing transformers for a solar PV power plant, it is important to

consider a unity power factor. This means that for a power output of 1000 kW,
the transformer should also be rated at 1000 kVA.

Given:

Reference value = 28350 kW

Figure 2.15 Power Transformer

7.17 Energy Produced at the site
Utilize the Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) data of the specific location
to determine the annual energy production. The Global Horizontal Irradiance of
the site base on Global Solar Atlas is 1913 Kwh/m2 and the module area is
125687 m2.

Losses:

Soiling Loss = 2.0%

Module Quality Loss (10 years) = 0.5%/Year

IAM Factor on Global = 2.5%

Light Induced Degradation = 2 to 4%

DC Cable Losses = 1%

Auxiliary Losses = 0.7 to 1%

AC Cable Losses = 1%

External Transformer. Losses = 1.1%

Mismatch Losses = 0.01 to 3%

Irradiation = 1.5%

Inverter Losses (Efficiency) = 95 − 98%

Total Losses (Assume minimum losses) = 21.81%

PV efficiency at STC = 22.6%

Calculations:

kWh kWh kWh

1913 − ((2.0% + 2.5%) ∗ 1913 = 1826.915
m2 m2 m2

kWh
1826.915 ∗ 125687 m2 = 229630149 kWh or 229630.149 MWh
m2

229619.4656 MWh ∗ 0.226 = 51896.41367 MWh (at module efficiency STC)

 51896.41367 MWh − (0.2181 ∗ 51896.41367 MWh) =
40577.80585 MWh (at total losses)

In comparison of the gathered data of energy produced yearly of Antique,

Philippines which is 148117 MWh, the plant energy produced in calculation at all
possible losses of the plat is 40577.80585 MWh.
 VII. Summary

7.1 Coal-fired Steam Power Plant Summary

7.2 Diesel Power Plant Summary
7.2.1 Machine Foundation
Unit 1:
RESULT OF CALCULATION

Width of the foundation = 5.12 m

Length of the foundation = 12.62 m
fb = 2,575.31658 kg/m2
W2 = 13.915 m
VF = 436.954 m3
h = 3.637921 m
Dimension:
Top = 12.62 m × 5.12 m
Bottom = 12.62 m × 13.915 m
Height = 3.637921 m

Sacks of Cement = 2,710 sacks

m3 sand = 227.216 m3 sand
m3 stone = 375.780 m3 stone
Anchor Bolts
LAB = 750 mm or 0.75 m
Internal Diameter of Sleeves, DS:
Ds = 75 mm or 0.075 m
Number of Steel Bars, NSB:
NSB = 2645 pieces
Total Length of the Steel Bars, LSB:
LSB = 16160.95 m
Unit 2:
RESULTS OF CALCULATIONS
𝑆𝑏 = 19.5 tonnes/m2
WF =735,000 kg or 735 tons
Width of the foundation = 5.12 m
Length of the foundation = 9.86 m
fb = 2,953.205 kg/m2
W2 = 10.283 m
VF = 305.868 m3
h = 4.028 m

Dimension:
Top = 9.86 m × 5.12 m
Bottom = 9.86 m × 10.283 m
Height = 4.028 m

Sacks of Cement
= 1,896.3816 sacks
m3 sand
= 159. 05136 m3 sand
m3 stone
= 263.046 m3 stone
Anchor Bolts
LAB = 750 mm or 0.75 m
Length of Sleeves, LS:
LS = 450 mm or 0.45 m

Internal Diameter of Sleeves, DS:

Ds = 75 mm or 0.075 m
Number of Steel Bars, NSB:
NSB = 1852 pieces
Total Length of the Steel Bars, LSB:
LSB = 11293.45 m
7.2.2 Engine
RESULTS OF CALCULATION
GENERATOR EFFICIENCY, ng
𝑛𝑔 = 96.32739445%

BRAKE POWER OF ENGINE, Pb n0

𝑷𝒃 = 15571.89425 KW

INDICATED POWER OF ENGINE, Pind

𝑷ind = 20762.52567 KW

ENGINE SPEED, Ns
Ns = 4.166666667 rps

PERCENT CLEARANCE, c
c= 7.692307692 %

MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE, Pmep

Pmep = 650.4202344 kPa

Diesel Cycle Processes:

Figure 27: P-V Diagram of Diesel Cycle

PISTON DISPLACEMENT, Vpd

Vpd = 0.08819078897 𝑚3
VOLUME CLEARANCE, VC
Vc = 0.006783906844 𝑚3

VOLUME VALUES AT EACH POINT

V1 = 0.09497469581 𝑚3
 V2 = 0.006783906844 𝑚3
V3 = 0.01356781369 𝑚3
V4 = 0.09497469581 𝑚3

PRESSURE VALUES AT EACH POINT

P1 = 101.325 𝑘𝑃a
P2 = 4,076.578995 kPa
𝑃3 = 4,076.578995 𝑘𝑃a
𝑃4 = 267.3982781 𝑘𝑃a

TEMPERATURES AT EACH POINT

Figure 27: T-S Diagram of Diesel Cycle

T𝟏 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 K
𝑻𝟐 = 𝟖𝟔𝟐. 𝟏𝟐𝟗𝟒𝟐𝟔𝟖 K
𝑻𝟑 = 𝟏, 𝟕𝟐𝟒. 𝟐𝟓𝟖𝟖𝟓𝟒 K
𝑻4 = 𝟕𝟗𝟏. 𝟕𝟎𝟒𝟕𝟒𝟔𝟓 K

WORK DONE, Wnet

𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑾𝟏𝟐 + 𝑾𝟐𝟑 + 𝑾𝟑𝟒 + 𝑾𝟒𝟏 ; 𝑾𝟒𝟏 = 0
W12 = - 45.07955273 𝑘J
𝑾𝟑𝟒 = 74.78548544 𝒌J
𝑾𝟐𝟑 = 27.65513215 𝒌J

𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 57.36106486 𝒌J

MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE, Pmep

Pmep = 650.4201349 𝒌𝑷𝒂

MASS FLOW RATE, m

m= 0.1117690018 kg
HEAT ADDED, Qa
𝑸𝒂 = 96.90859377 K𝑱

HEAT REJECTED, Qr
𝑸r = 39.44838489 K𝑱

WORK NET HEAT, Wnet

𝑸𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 57.46020888 K𝑱
THERMAL EFFICIENCY, e
e = 59.19089589 %

7.2.3 Air Intake System

UNIT 1 UNIT 2
Q = 1689.687804 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛 Q = 1126.45848 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛
A = 2.112109755 m2 A = 1.4080731 m2
d = 1.639884649 m d = 1.338960176 m
GIVEN GIVEN

Po = 15000 KW k = 1.4 Po = 10000 k = 1.4

N = 500 rpm; 25 L, Stroke = 580 KW
Hz mm N = 500 L, Stroke = 580
Nc = 18 D, Bore = 440 mm rpm; 25 Hz mm
cylinders Nc = 12 D, Bore = 440
Number of L/D = cylinders mm
Strokes = 4 1.318181818 Number of L/D =
ASSUME Strokes = 4 1.318181818
Volumetric 90%
ASSUME
Efficiency
Volumetric 90%
Efficiency
Vair = 23.81151302 m3/s
Vair = 15.87434201 m3/s
7.2.4 Exhaust System
UNIT 1 UNIT 2
Q = 4505.834144 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛 Q = 3003.88928 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛
A = 3.003889429 m2 A = 2.002592853 m2
d = 1.96 m d = 1.6 m

7.2.5 Fuel Handling and Storage Systems

2. Fuel Oil Consumption
UNIT 1 UNIT 2
Maximum Rate of Fuel = 2613.660733 kg/hr Maximum Rate of Fuel = 3484.880978
kg/hr

For a 24 hours operation of the 3 units,

Maximum Rate of Fuel Use = 146,365.0011 kg/day

then the fuel consumption in terms of mass would be.

Fuel Consumption = 153,197.6147 kg/day

then the fuel consumption in terms of volume would be.

Fuel Consumption = 167,598.1905 Liters/day

2. Required Storage of Fuel Oil:

For fuel consumption for within a 45 day supply we have…
Required Storage = 7,541,918.573 Liters
3.Dimensions of the Fuel Oil Storage Tank:

with a required storage of 7541918.573 Liters Liters then we are to use 69 tanks with
a capacity of 109716 liters each,
dimensions of a cylindrical bulk tank is given as follows…

Diameter: 3.05 m
Length: 15.04 m
Plate Thickness 7.94
Weight: 10399

3.1 Required Storage of Day Tank:

The day tank volume should be sufficient for a 24-hour operation. Maximum full load
consumption at full load rating would be…
Maximum full load consumption = 146365.0011 kg
°API = 16.61° API or 17° API
Contraction from a 6° C cooling = 0.0042

Density at 6° C = 0.9981 kg/liter

V = 146.643624 m3

Assuming a 15 minute charging for the day tank, the volume flow rate would be…
 Q = 9776.2416 Liters/min
4. Dimensions of the Fuel Oil Day Tank:
d = 8.642047467 m
Therefore, the dimension of the day tank is 8.642047467 m diameter by 2.5 m
length cylindrical tank per Diesel Engine.

5. Fuel Oil Transfer Pump:

Figure the fuel system of diesel power plant

Suction Line Pipe: Discharge Line Pipe:

Schedule 40 Schedule 40
Outside Diameter 1 ½ in (true Outside Diameter 1 ¼ in (true
size of 1.9 in) size of 1.660 in)
Inside Diameter 1.610 in (or Inside Diameter 1.380 in (or
0.0409 m) 0.0351 m)

VS = 124.0178443 m/sec
VD = 168.3901024 m/sec
Where:
FL – FrictiDischarge head = 0.75
𝑉𝐷2
FL+ZD+2𝑔 on losses for
discharge;
ZD – Elevation from datum to 4.5 m
discharge;
VD – Velocity head at 168.3901024 m/sec
discharge;
Discharge head = 1450.470519 m
Suction head = − 782.1656832 m
 Pump Operating Head = 2232.636202

Assuming that the pump efficiency is 70 %, and then we have…

70 %, and then we have…

Where:
Q – Volume flow rate; 9776.2416 Liters/min
D0 – Density of oil; 914 kg/m3 (or 0.914 kg/liters)
H – Pump operating head; 2232.636202 m
ηp – Pump efficiency; 70%

Pump supply power = 6333.233936 hp

Therefore, we are to use 6333.233936 hp oil pump for the raw oil transfer.

Fuel Pump Design Summary:

VS 124.0178443 m/sec
VD 168.3901024 m/sec
Discharge head 1450.470519 m
Suction head − 782.1656832 m
Pump Operating Head 2232.636202 m
Pump supply power 6333.233936 hp (7500 hp)
Table fuel pump design summary

7.2.6 Selection of handling capacity

Criteria Selection of Handling Capacity
Required Storage of Fuel Oil:
Required Storage 7,541,918.573 Liters
3 tanks with a capacity of 109716 liters each
Day Tank
V 146.643624 m3
Q 9776.2416 Liters/min
Fuel Oil Transfer Pump:
VS 124.0178443 m/sec
VD 168.3901024 m/sec
Pump Operating Head 2232.636202 m
7.2.7 Outdoor storage
Fuel Oil Storage Tank Summary
69 tanks with a capacity of 109716 liters each
Diameter: 3.05 m
Length: 15.04 m
Plate Thickness 7.94
Weight: 10399
Fuel Oil Storage Tank Summary

7.2.8 Plant storage.

Fuel Oil Storage Tank Summary
Fuel Oil Storage Tank
Tank Type cylindrical bulk tank
69 tanks with a capacity of 109716 liters each
Diameter: 3.05 m
Length: 15.04 m
Plate Thickness 7.94
Weight: 10399
Day Tank
V = Volume of the cylinder; 146.643624 m3
Q = volume flow rate 9776.2416 Liters/min
d = Diameter of the cylinder; 8.642047467 m
h = Height or Length of the 2.5 m
cylinder;

Table Fuel Oil Storage Tank Summary

7.2.9 Lubricating System

1. Daily Lubricating Oil Consumption:

Rated Bhp = 12.50982915 MW

For a continuous operation, the generated power would be…
Generated Power = 600.5 MW– hour
For both the diesel engines that operates continuously, then the total generated
power would be..
Generated Power = 738.08 MW-hour
for one day consumption, we have…
Oil Consumption = 461.3 gallons/day

Similarly with the fuel oil, assuming that the delivery of lube oil is every 45 days, the oil
consumption…
Oil Consumption = 20758.5 gallons

2. Dimensions of the Lube Oil Storage Tank:

Volume = 78.57921737 m 3

Volume Flow Rate = 15715.84347 Liters/min

Length = 100.05 m
3.Lube Oil Transfer Pump:
VS = 199.37 m/s
VD = 270.6963064 m/s
Discharge head = 3740.035438 m
Suction Head = 2031.162176 m
Pump Operating Head = 1708.873262 m
Assuming that the pump efficiency is 70 %, and then we have…
Where:
Q = Volume Flow Rate; 15715.84347 Liters/min
dO = Density of oil; 914 kg/m3 (or 0.914 kg/liters)
H = Pump Operating Head; 1708.873262 m
ηP = Pump Efficiency; 70 %

Pump supply power = 7792.61448 hp (10,000 hp)

7.2.10 Cooling and Circulating Water System

1. Required Circulating Cooling Water:
Rated Bhp = 16.77595434 hp
With the 3 units we have 50.32786301 hp. So the required circulating cooling water is.

Wc = 3395.016983 Liters / hr
Wc = 55.16110427 kg / min

Therefore, we need 3395.016983 Liters / hr or 55.16110427 kg / min for the

circulating cooling water for the 3 Diesel Engine Genset units.

2. Water Jacket Circulating Pump:

Suction line pipe:

Schedule 40
Outside diameter 3 in (3.5 in)
Inside diameter 3.068in (0.0779 m)
Discharge line pipe:
Schedule 40
Outside diameter 2.5 in (2.875 in)
Inside diameter 2.469 in (0.0627 m)
Computing now for the velocity at the suction we have…
Vs = 1.087537753 m/s

Computing now for the velocity at the discharge we have…

Vd = 1.68 m/s
Discharge head = 3.195853211 m
Suction head = − 3.689717718 m
Pump operating head = 6.885570926 m
Pump supply power = 0.68 hp
3. Required Raw Water for the Cooling Tower:
Where:
QR - Quantity of Raw Water circulating the cooling Liter/min
tower,
QC - Quantity of Circulating Cooling Water; Liter/min
tR1 - temperature of raw water at outlet; 34° C
 tR2 - temperature of raw water at inlet; 28° C
tC1 - temperature of jacket cooling water at inlet; 75° C
Where:
QR - Quantity of Raw Water circulating the cooling Liter/min
tower,
QC - Quantity of Circulating Cooling Water; Liter/min
tR1 - temperature of raw water at outlet; 34° C
tR2 - temperature of raw water at inlet; 28° C
tC1 - temperature of jacket cooling water at inlet; 75° C
tC2 - temperature of jacket cooling water at outlet; 65° C
QR = 518.3333333 L/min

WR = 516.39 kg/min
4. Raw Water Pump:
VS = 1.812562921 m/s
VD = 2.797904748 m/s
Discharge head = 6.15 m
Suction head = − 3.582549218 m
Pump Operating Head = 9.732549218 m
Pump supply power = 1.601493548 hp (1.75 hp)
5. Required Quantity of Make-up Water:
Assuming we are given the following relative humidity and temperatures…
Relative Humidity: Temperature:
Entering Air = 60% Entering = 28° C DB
Leaving Air = 90% Leaving = 34° C DB
WBT = 21° C

SH1 = 0.01425 kg moisture/kg dry air

SH2 = 0.031 kg moisture/kg dry air
ΔW = 0.01675 kg moisture/kg dry air
WW = 1.27 kJ/kg dry air
kg
Air flow = 406.6062992
min
The specific volume, v, is 0.87 m3 /kg dry air…
Then the air flow would be…
Air Flow = 353.7474803 m3 /min
Make-up Water = 6.812658434 L/min
6. Forced Draft Fan:
7.
We select a fan with the following size…
Fan Size: DAYTON Tubeaxial Fan: Clean Air, 34 in
Blade, 61 sones Max Noise Level @ 5 Feet,
Belt Drive
Model: 166208A
Minimum Motor Horsepower 2 hp
Maximum Motor Horsepower 5 hp
Maximum Static Pressure 1 in wc
Minimum Airflow 12,430 cfm
Maximum Airflow 15,290 cfm
7.2.11 Type of Cooling System
The chosen type of cooling system for the diesel power plant is fresh water
forced circulation. In this system, water is circulated through the equipment and heat
exchangers using pumps to remove heat generated during the power generation
process.

7.2.12 Cooling Tower Design

Size of Cooling Tower:
For the total cooling requirements, we must first obtain the total cooling water
requirements…
Water Requirements = 219.0873708 gallons/min
Assuming we have water concentration of 3.0 gpm per ft2 , then the area of the cooling
tower is…
Area of Cooling Tower = 73.0291236 ft2
Side of the Cooling Tower = 8.545707905 ft

7.2.13 Engine Starting System

The student has chosen a 24-volt electric starter motor for the diesel power
plant, showcasing a deliberate selection based on its advantages in cranking power
and reliability. This higher voltage ensures optimal performance, especially in cold
weather or heavy load conditions. The starter motor receives power from the battery
to initiate engine cranking, rotating the flywheel until the engine achieves self-
sustained operation. This choice reflects a thorough understanding of power
requirements and a commitment to reliable engine startup.

Figure the electric starter motor

7.2.14 Wastewater Treatment
Wastewater treatment in diesel power plants is crucial for environmental
management. It involves collecting and separating wastewater streams, followed by
filtration, sedimentation, and chemical or biological treatments to remove
contaminants. Disinfection ensures water meets regulatory standards before
discharge or reuse. Pall Water, a division of Pall Corporation, specializes in advanced
water treatment solutions, utilizing innovative filtration and separation technologies to
provide clean water for various industries, including power generation.

Figure below show the Pall water treatment

7.2.15 Generators
Calculated Generator Capacity = 36.6143 MVA

Proposed DG Set Size is = range 35 MVA to 40 MVA

7.2.16 Transformers
Calculated Transformer Capacity is = 50.85319444 MVA
Proposed DG Set Size is = 55-60 MVA
7.3 Solar Power Plant Design Summary
7.3.1 Overall Element Summary
Fixed Element PhP 31,634,649,831.72
Energy Element PhP 77,852,539.62
Customer Element PhP 4,966,666.67
Profit Element PhP 1,202,645,873.68
Annual Production Cost PhP 32,920,114,911.69

7.3.2 Return on Investment Summary

Return on Investment Amount
Income per Day PhP 4,285,858.1276
Income per Year PhP 1,564,338,216.574
Payback Period 21.0441 years

7.3.3 Overall Plant Summary

Plant Capacity 28440 kW
Number of Modules 71100 units
Nominal Power 400 W
Module Area 125687 m2
Area of single Module 1.76774 m2
Spacing between rows 383.90 mm
Inverter AC Power Output 1350 W
Number of Inverters 21 units
Total Power 28350 kW
Modules in Series 7110 strings x 10 in series
Power Ratio 1.00317 or 1.0
Transformer 30 MVA
Payback Period 21.0441 Years
 VIII. Conclusion

The return on investment (ROI) of steam power plants, diesel power plants,
and solar power plants varies significantly. Steam power plants offer a quick ROI of
just over a year due to their efficient operation and low initial investment. However,
ongoing maintenance costs and environmental concerns may need to be addressed.
Diesel power plants have a moderate ROI period of over four years, making them
suitable for areas with limited grid power or as backup generators. However, their
dependency on fossil fuels raises sustainability and operational costs. Solar power
plants, with their environmentally friendly operation and unlimited fuel source, offer a
longer ROI period of 21 years, despite substantial operational costs and potential for
long-term sustainability. The choice between these power plants depends on location,
energy requirements, environmental considerations, and financial objectives.
Appendices