INEQUALITIES IN EDUCATION BY SHAHID SIDDIQUE

… There is an increased need for a politics and notion of border crossing that can work across the fault lines of
nations, classes, races, sexualities and religion as they operate to create new forms of division, demarcation, and
separation. Henry Giroux (Border Crossings, 1992)

Education is considered a powerful tool for personal and social development. Quality of education and
economic resources are considered to be interdependent. Economically well-equipped individuals are likely to get
quality education and quality education may led to better job placement. The significance of education as a ticket
to better job prospects can be realized in contemporary when educational qualification have become indispensable
for getting a good job.

One of the important objective of education is to reduce the economic differences in a society. This can
be realized through provision of equal educational opportunities to different strata of life. In South Asia, there are
multiple stratifications in the domain of education. Realizing the potent linkage between education and prospects
in life, the dominant groups in society have always tried to deprive the marginalized groups of education.
Historically, education as a right was denied to those groups on the pretext of race, gender, class and region. For
a very long time, for instance, African Americans in the United States were not entitled to education. This
deprivation from education led to their economic poverty and impacted negatively their image in society. It is
important to note that impact of education is not just confined to the individual’s job, but it leads to one’s
recognition, respect, and ultimately influence in a certain society. Thus less economic resources may lead to
educational marginalization which leads to reduced prospects in life. Thus a number of groups get caught up in
this vicious circle.

Educational Apartheid
Educational marginalization is not just confined to caste and colour. We see a clear educational apartheid
on gender basis. This can be understood from South Asian experience where women were not supposed to go to
schools. Their role was confined to home-keeping. The early initiative in women education paved the way of
primary education of women. For a long time it was considered appropriate that women should not go beyond
primary education. Now that we come a long way in terms of expansion in women education we still find that
women, after getting higher education, cannot make use of education for personal and societal development in
terms of economy. A large number of women in Pakistan stull cannot take up or sustain their jobs under pressure
from their husbands or in-laws or brothers and fathers.

The Class Factor

Another factor that becomes the educational inequality is class. The elite class has their own schools
whose fees and related expenses are phenomenal and poor cannot even think of sending their schools to such
schools. The stratification is much varied and broad. There are posh elite English-medium schools, public schools,
forces schools, cadet colleges, madrassahs etc. The difference is just not in nomenclature but they are segregated
in many important ways, including infrastructure, curriculum, text books, faculty and physical facilities etc. Posh
schools have purpose built and well maintained campuses with arrangements for temperature control, the faculty
members are well qualified, the curriculum is very competitive, the textbooks are well written and printed in
layout with quality paper. There also have effective system of monitoring and accountability. The schools select
the students after detailed interviews of both students and their parents. Thus elite schools offer quality education
to students who are already advantaged as they come from a strong socioeconomic background. The other extreme
is the mainstream public schools where physical facilities are lacking, curricula are outdated, textbooks are boring
and are printed in an unattractive manner on poor quality paper. The faculty members are underpaid and thus lack
motivation. Proper systems of monitoring and accountability are lacking. The classes are overcrowded. Most of
the students who come to public schools are from modest socioeconomic backgrounds. One can find a huge
difference in the quality of education between public and elite schools. Thus our schools are engaged in not only
preserving the sociopolitical power structures based on inequalities but they are further widening the chasm
between the haves and have-nots.
Narrow Understanding of Quality
We see a lot of discussion about quality in education but generally quality has been confined to ivory
towers of elite schools where only a selected few can send their children. If education is a basic human right, each
individual should be entitled to get quality education. The World Bank report, Equity and development (World
Bank, 2006:2), defines the term equity thus

…Individuals should have equal opportunities to pursue a life of their choosing and be spared from
extreme deprivation in outcomes.

In the current educational scenario where the rich are getting richer and the poor poorer, it is important to focus
on the question of quality. There is a need to work for reducing the physical and academic disparities between the
elite schools and mainstream public schools. Enhanced funding, more physical facilities, better management, and
effective accountability are some areas that need attention in public schools. Since education, like health, is the
responsibility of the state, the State needs to address the issue of provision of educational opportunities. This also
means giving extra help, facilities, and encouragement to the downtrodden to enhance their prospects in life. It is
only through quality education that the have-nots can get recognition, respect, and power to influence decision-
making.

EDUCATIONAL APARTHIED
“For unto ever one that hath shall be given, and he shall have abundance, but from him that hath not shall
be taken away even that which he hath” Gospel of Mathew (XXV: 29)

The Mathew effect was popularized in education by Stanovich, (1986) a renowned psychologist, in his
article, Mathew effects in Reading, where he focused on cumulative advantage of early reading. This Mathew
effect can also be seen in the educational systems of Pakistan where the rich are getting richer and poor becoming
poorer. During a research study in Karachi, I observed some elite schools and public schools to study their English
language teaching and learning practices. I found a huge difference in educational environment that plays a central
role in developing proficiency in the language. Let us first look at the physical side of the environment. I observed
in neat schools neat and clean classrooms neat and clean classrooms where reasonable facilities were available.
On the other hand, in state-run schools I observed some classes being held in a veranda where students could see
what was happening in the playground. They were also being disturbed by the movements of other people. It was
summer and students were sweating. Most of the students in public sector schools belonged to lower middle class
where it was unthinkable to have an English newspaper at home and where parents were not proficient in English
language. On the contrary, the students in the elite schools had an early exposure to English language. In some
cases their parents would talk to them in English. They had access to English newspaper and books and belonged
to a social circle where English was part of the culture. In elite schools the faculty members were generally fluent
in English and came from a sound socioeconomic background. The faculty members in public schools came from
low socioeconomic background and not quite in proficient in English.

The Poor Get Less

The essence of this observation was that students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds who had less
or no exposure to English at home and had low proficiency in the language ended up in schools where there were
poor physical facilities (library, classroom, furniture, fans, air conditioner, heaters, safe drinking water, etc.) and
quality of teaching of the English language (especially the spoken language) was very low as the teachers
themselves were not very confident in using English. On the other hand, the students with a higher socioeconomic
background had rich exposure to English at home, greater proficiency in the language, and access to elite schools,
where there were better physical facilities. The teachers were more comfortable with the English language. This
simple comparison showed that students who needed more quality input got less and those whose English
language skills were already good got richer input. This is exactly what the Mathew effect is all about.

Access to Quality Education

It is claimed that education and development have strong correlation, i.e., education opens door to
development, including access to better jobs. But there is a need to look deeper into the question of who are the
people who can access quality education which then acts as a passport to higher economic and social status.
Bourdieu gave a succinct description of this kind of relationship by suggesting that the economic vantage point
leads to higher educational gains which in turn pave the way for many social economic, and cultural advantages.
The elite society thus enjoy the ‘positional superiority’ that enables them to get quality education and enhances
their prospects in life.

Education and Economic Disparity

Can education help in reducing the gap between the haves and have-nots? Theoretically the answer is in
the affirmative but it is certainly a daunting prospect especially in wake of neoliberalism that is seeping through
the educational system in Pakistan. The call of globalization supported the notions of privatization, de-
regularization, and maximization of profit. These three slogans capture the essence of neoliberalism and
globalization in education. In the absence of state interference, education has become completely dependent on
market forces. As neoliberalism has no preference for values, only those subjects which are sellable are taught in
schools and social sciences and humanities take the back seat.

Perpetual of Unequal Gains

Schools, under the economic model of neoliberalism, are engaged in mass production through their
outlets at various intra-city and inter-city points. These schools are not only perpetuating the unequal economic,
social, and cultural gains for those who are already affluent in this respect and those who have less resources, but
are further widening the gap by offering more to the rich and less to the poor. Such gaping differences can be seen
on the basis of social class, gender, ethnicity, etc. where the marginalized groups rare given a smaller share of
resources. This situation needs our urgent attention. The attributes of justice and equality are essential to any
civilized society. In order to help schools play a positive role, we need to make radical changes in other societal
institutions as well. Giving equal opportunity of education to our children is a first step towards the dream of
quality and justice in the country.

EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CLASS

“Class is everywhere, is all around us, and within us”

--Dave Hill (Schooling and Equality: Fact, Concept and Policy, 2001)

Social class is an elusive phenomenon which can be interpreted at different levels. Bourdieu refers to
economic, social, and cultural capitals that constitute class. People differ on factors that lead to hierarchical
distinctions. The classical Marxist perspective, which refers to two broad classes of the haves and have-nots,
hinges around the economic factor that is responsible for the chasm between classes. The Weberian perspective
adds more dimensions to the notion of social class by referring to occupation as another disguising feature in the
composition of a class. A useful concept brought in by Webber is the idea of status which can also be acquired
through sources other than wealth. Thus some defining components of class and status include power and rights
in the means of protection, wealth, income, and education.

Social Class and Domination

A related concept to social class is the idea of social relationship.

Wright suggests in approaches to Class Analysis:

When the rights and powers of people over productive resources are unequal distributed—when some
people have greater rights/powers with respect to specific kinds of productive resources that do others---these
relations can be described as class relations.

The interrelationship of class is ridden with exploitation and domination. The class boundaries are further
cemented by class consciousness of their members whose interests are linked with their respective classes. The
stratification in any society paves the hegemony of one class and exploitation of the other. The inequality in rights,
powers, resources, and access pushes classes farther apart. How can we reduce these gaps between the classes?
How can the inequality factor be taken care of? Is social mobility possible? What role can education play in it?
These are some of the central questions which constantly draw our attention.
 Education is supposed us to lead us to emancipation, justice and development by enabling us to remove the
inequalities in society. Quite ironically, the imperial powers and other dominant groups used education to create
to create inequalities and new stratifications in society. A comprador class was created in India as a result of this
policy that acquired a distinct status by identifying themselves with the rulers.

Segregation of Society Through education

After creation of Pakistan education was used by dominant groups to further segregate society and deepen
the boundaries of classes. This segregation was done at different levels. First a section of population was deprived
of access to schools and was immediately declared “illiterate”. But those who did have access to schools were
subjected to stratified class systems, e.g., the elite class schools, the high English-medium schools, the low
English-medium schools, the cadet college, the armed forces schools, e.g. Army Public Schools, Fazaia Schools,
etc. Urdu-medium schools and madrassahs. If we look at the members of ashrafia (elite) of Pakistan, who have
been ruling the country since its inception, most of them are the product of Aitchison College, Lawrence College
or schools of similar status. So, does access to schools contribute to reducing the inequality between classes? The
answer to this question is unfortunately not positive. Bourdieu suggests that schools, instead of reducing the
differences, further widen them.

This is so true of the stratified educational system of Pakistan that is not only reproducing the existing
social order but is also engaged in further widening the gulf between classes. I was involved in a study that focused
on English language teaching in elite and poor schools of Karachi. During this study I found a huge difference in
the physical facilities, socioeconomic background of students, educational qualification of teachers, proficiency
of teachers, teaching materials, and school milieu. This situation is not only true to ELT only but also reflects the
overall educational system of Pakistan.

State and Education

What is the role of state in education? In the constitution of Pakistan provision of education is declared
as the responsibility of the state. The constitution of Pakistan 1973, asserts:

The state shall promote, with special care, the educational and economic intrests of backward classes or
areas.

Unfortunately, the state schools, the “only choice for backward classes and areas” as they are economical,
are in a bad shape. A number of state schools are up for grabs and are being ‘adopted’ by the NGOs. The
stratification in our educational system is making the process of social mobility quite difficult. The affiliation to
a certain social class has become increasingly influential in the process of learning. Murray argues… Social class
largely conditions the child’s social learning because it limits his social and economic environment, and
determines largely both his social stimuli and the models to be initiated.

Change in Social Order

What is ailing the educational system in Pakistan that it has not been able to bring any change in the
social order? There could be several answers to this fundamental question. One major factor responsible for the
ailment is the overall goal of education which is determining, to a large extent, the pedagogy, assessment, and
process of education. This goal of education is confined only to getting a good job. To achieve this goal,
transmission method is used which prepares the students to find jobs. The existing assessment system that
encourages the transmission mode of teaching largely relies on memory and recall. The whole process of education
is devoid of critical thinking as it is not required in earning a degree and getting a job. As a result, the current
educational system is engaged in perpetuating the existing social order.

Goal of Education
Should the goal of education be confined only to producing students to fit the job slots and perpetuate
the existing social order? Perhaps not. The goal of education is also to develop students to make society a better
place to live in. the students should be prepared to think critically and challenge the malpractices of society. They
should have ability and courage to raise questions about injustice and exploitation in society. Can education bring
a positive change in the stratified society of Pakistan? Are different classes ordained to live in a status quo? Is
there no hope for power shift? Marx and Engel were quite optimistic when they came up with this famous
expression:

“The history of hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle.” This perspective also suggests
that the positions of power are not fixed. Edger & Sedgwick in key Concepts in Cultural Theory, suggest:

… The subordinate classes do not simply accept, passively, an account of the world that is in the interests
of the dominant class, but rather more or less successfully negotiate and resist that account, in the light of their
own experience.

From Transmission to Transformation

The kind of education needed to challenge the deep rooted stereotypes of classes requires moving away
from transmission to transformation model. McLaren is right when he says:

…If we are to engage in a revolutionary educational praxis, we need to do more than rail against the
suffering and tribulations of the oppressed and instead seek ways of transforming them.

The state needs to play its role by making conscious efforts to reduce the educational streams based on
social classes as these streams are widening the gulf between classes. Furthermore, the state is required to bring a
qualitative change in the educational system to ensure that it is based on the broader vision of improvement of
society that makes use of critical pedagogy and strives to develop thinking human beings. It is this kind of
education that can promise to empower the citizens to not just become a part of the prevailing social order but
engage in a struggle to create a better society based on the principles of equality, justice, and emancipation.

EDUCATION AND SOCIAL JUSTICE

“ … Efficient education is always in jeopardy either in the culture at large or with constituencies more dedicated
to maintaining a status quo to fostering flexibility.”

-Jerome Burner (The Culture of Education, 1996)

The notion of social justice has multiple interpretations. An oversimplification of the term is the
execution of justice at societal level. Another interpretation could be a just society where people have equal
opportunities to exercise their freedoms and where there is no discrimination in the provision of justice on account
of social class, gender, disability, ethnicity, colour and religion. The role of education in realizing the objective of
social justice is vital. It is education that empowers human beings to achieve the goals of socioeconomic
development, emancipation, and social justice. Unfortunately, rather than minimizing the socioeconomic
disparities, education is further widening them.

Objectives of Education
One of the important objectives of education is to reduce the economic disparities in a society. This can
be realized through appropriate provision of resources to different strata of society. The social justice approach
recommends that disadvantaged groups should be provided with more resources to compensate for their past
deprivations. If we look at the situation in South Asia we see a staggering number of stratifications in the domain
of education and prospects in life, the dominant groups in the society have always tried to deprive marginalized
groups of education. Historically, education as a right has been denied to such groups on the pretexts of race,
gender, class and religion. For a very long time, for instance, African Americans in the United States were not
entitled to education. This deprivation from education led to their economic poverty and impacted negatively their
image in society. It is important to note that impact of education is not just confined to the individual’s job, but it
leads to one’s recognition, respect, and ultimately influence in a certain society. Thus less economic resources
may lead to educational marginalization which leads to reduced prospects in life.

Ivory Towers of Quality

The notion of social justice is ironically synchronized with the terms efficiency, productivity,
globalization, monitoring, and accountability. Some these terms come from powerful organizations, they are
perceived as gospel truth and the education system, in order to achieve the corporate version of social justice, is
producing monoculture minds through offering courses only in the preferred disciplines, mechanical pedagogy,
incentive assessment practices and highly quantitative evaluation system.

Efficiency and Productivity

Such education produce efficient and productive workers but not thinking human beings. Consequently,
our schools, instead of reducing the gaps of economic disparity and social injustice aare further widening them.
Education, which should be a precursor to emancipation, freedom, and social justice is engaged in further
stratification of society. The rich-poor divide is becoming sharper and more obvious in terms of access. ‘Quality
education’ seems to be out of the reach of the poor. The state has given up and has passed the buck to the private
sector. The contemporary education imparted in mainstream schools is perpetuating the existing power structures
and the dream of social justice is becoming more distant. This dream, however could be realized through an
educational system which is live, vibrant, and relevant, prepares its students, not merely as efficient and productive
technicians, but as thinking and responsible citizens of the society. Such educational system is based on equal
opportunities, mutual respect, and recognition of each individual.

The Issue of Equality

In the current educational scenario where the rich are getting richer and the poor are becoming poorer it
is important to focus on the question of equality. There is a need to work for reducing the physical and academic
differences between the elite schools and mainstream public schools. Enhanced funding, more physical facilities,
better management, and effective accountability are some areas in public schools that need attention. This also
means giving extra help, facilities, and encouragement to the downtrodden to enhance their prospects in life. It is
only through quality education that the have-nots can get recognition, respect, and power to influence decision-
making.

EDUCATION AND SOCIAL AWARENESS

One of the goals of education is social awareness: a better understanding of society and the knowledge
of the available alternatives. The notion of development that is usually linked with education should, according to
Sen (1999), promise different kinds freedom is awareness of the alternatives and a skeptic attitude towards the
taken-for granted knowledge. I shall focus here on the inability of educational institutions in Pakistan to create
social awareness about the sprawling culture of fast food which faces tough resistance in various countries in the
region, including India.

The fast food culture is not very old. But in the last decade some multinational food chains opened up
their outlets in all big cities of Pakistan. These chains sell a variety of burgers, fries, and desserts. A number of
research studies suggest that fast food has hazardous effects on human body. The most common complaint is
obesity that could lead to serious diseases. Similarly, there are some soft drinks that are detrimental to health.
Vanada Shia, a famous environmentalist is on the opinion that societies that have shifted to a fast food culture
have developed health problems. Singapore is having to set up new obesity clinics, Japan has had a 70% increase
in food related illness.

Addiction to Fast Food

Apart from the other harmful components of fast food, another consequences is its addiction. The fast
food users do not find any taste in the pure food items. The majority of the people who fall prey to fast food culture
are youngsters. Even young children are addicted to popular soft drinks and processed milk available in packs.
They find pure milk smelly and tasteless. This impression is further substantiated by the onslaught of print and
electronic media where pure milk is linked with bad smell, dirt and disease.

Spontaneous Consent
This state of mind can be explained through the Gramscian notion of ‘cultural hegemony’ through
“spontaneous consent.” Food is an important item of culture. Thus fast food items are not only impacting the
health and local economy in a negative manner but are disassociating people from their own soil and society and
ultimately from their own identity. The fast food culture in third represent the so called elite culture. An interesting
term that has
been coined in Pakistan for the elite families is “burger families”. Such terms and attitudes are a direct outcome
of the fast food culture.

Schools and Social Awareness

The role of educational institutions in creating awareness about fast food, or junk food, is not satisfactory.
Some leading educational institutions are in fact advocating and promoting fast food by housing outlets of fast
food chains on campuses. In return, they get monitory benefits in the shape of a building facility or provision of
furniture. In this way these fast food items and beverages get the validation of another social institution: the school,
college, and university. This validation is important as it further legitimizes the social reality already constructed
by the media.

The role of schools in creating awareness about fast food eating habits is very important. If the schools
are convinced that junk food is not good for the health of students, they should not house such outlets on campus.
The school need to organize seminars to about awareness against junk food and importance about pure food. These
seminars could be conducted by doctors, nutritionists, or environmentalists. Such awareness should be part of the
school curriculum.

EDUCATION AND EXTREMISM

The 9/11 Commission report (2005) recommended that Pakistan should be given more financial support
in order to improve its education. Concern was shown that madrassahs were generating potential extremists
through indoctrination and promoting tunnel vision. It is important to understand the term terrorism before we
explore the proclaimed causal relationship between education and terrorism. According to Longman Dictionary,
‘extremism’ refers to “opinions, ideas, and actions, especially political and religious ones that most people think
are unreasonable and unacceptable.”

Knowledge/Power
Words have literal and connotative meaning. This connotation, as suggested by Faucault (1980), is
provided by those in power. According to him, powers, constructs, popularizes, and legitimizes certain discourse
that in turn justifies the actions of the power. So while we know the literal meaning of extremism it is important
to understand what meaning is given to this expression by the ruling power. It is interesting to note that the same
set of people is considered terrorists by one group and freedom fighters by the other group. In the end, the meaning
of that group prevails who is in possession of the source of production of knowledge. Interestingly, the definitions
of extremism and extremists keep on changing as and when interest and needs of the powerful groups change.

Types of Extremism

Extremism has various faces, i.e., religious extremism, political extremism, and ethnic extremism. It has
multiple manifestations:

a. Extremism could be at an intellectual level when a person has extreme views about a certain issue.

b. Extremism may entail action when extreme views are put into practice.

c. Extremism, at times, can use violent means.

Having looked at the types and manifestations of extremism it is important to explore the potential causes
that lead people to become extremists. The most important factor seems to be the denial of rights. This means the
refusal of opportunities in the existing political, economic, educational and legal systems of the country. This
amounts to the closure of all doors to access to social justice and economic partly.

Education and Emancipation

According to the Education Emergency Pakistan (2011:10), seven million children in Pakistan cannot
make it to school. Twenty eight percent of these students drop out by the time they reach class five. This is the
second highest dropout rate in the world. According to this report, it is impossible for Pakistan to achieve the
Millennium Development Goal of education for all by 2015 deadline. At the current pace, this goal may be
achieved by Punjab in 2041, Sindh in 2049, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in 2064 and Baluchistan in 2100. This scenario
is due to low priority given to education by state. This is evident from the fact that despite acknowledging
education as a fundamental right in the constitution the financial allocation for education has been curtailed for
three consecutive years. What happens to those who make it to schools? In most of the mainstream schools they
are exposed to obsolete curricula, uninspiring textbooks, transmission based pedagogy, and memory-based
assessment system. Thus the narrowness of thought cannot be just associated with madrassahs but another kind
of narrow mentality is being developed in the mainstream schools as well.

Education for Transformation

If we really want to use education as tool for development and achieve the dreams of emancipation, we
need to bring revolutionary changes in it which require an educational system built on transformation-based
pedagogy aiming at developing peace loving, cognitive, and tolerant human beings. Now, the central question is
“Can our schools confront the challenge of eradicating social justice and economic disparity, which are major
causes of turning people to extremism?” The answer to this question is not promising. The reasons are multiple.
First, the school has lost its traditional strength as two strong social institution, i.e., religion and family, which
traditionally used to be its partners, are no more there.

Second, the media has emerged as potent social institution that is capable of influencing minds in a
shorter span of time and on a larger scale. This has further dwarfed the role of school. Then there is a role of
external social, economic, and political forces that impact the school. Thus if we want to combat extremism,
formal education alone is not going to be sufficient to ensure that. It is important to explore the non-formal and
informal means of education and link school pedagogy with other social institutions including the media. The
most important initiative to ensure eradication of extremism, however, is provision of equal opportunities to all
through political, economic, educational, and legal system to access social justice.

EDUCATION, DEVELOPMENT, AND INDIVIDUAL FREEDOM

The 1998-99 World Bank report, Knowledge and Development, stated that the gaps between developed and
developing countries were in fact the gaps of knowledge. In other words, knowledge is directly equated with
development. In the wake of assumption, “Knowledge Economy” has emerged as a popular expression. The term
‘education’ has receded to the background and a ‘new brand of knowledge’ has emerged as its most compelling
alternative. What is the difference between education and ‘new brand of knowledge’ which makes the basis of
knowledge economy? Education, in its essence, promises development, broadening of mental horizons and
individual freedom. Education is also supposed to inculcate critical faculty among learners who should be able to
think independently and challenge some of the negative stereotypes.

Reediting Development
Now let us unpack the contemporary brand of knowledge which makes the basis of knowledge economy.
This brand of knowledge has one specific goal that is development. This notion of development which is promised
by brand of knowledge is narrow and incomplete. It is confined the economic manifests, e.g., technological
gadgets, skyscrapers and dams. Can we really call it development? Can we see the aspect of individual freedom
in the so called development promised by the new brand of knowledge?

Contemporary Brand of Knowledge

The contemporary brand of knowledge aims at modern technology which in turn helps products and
propagate this knowledge. This brand of knowledge that becomes the basis of knowledge economy has a very
clear target which is profit maximization. So the knowledge that leads to a good job or generation of money is
considered “good and relevant”, otherwise it does not come up to the definition of “true knowledge” which is
required for development.

The contemporary brand of knowledge which is interdependent on technology is repressive in nature as

it has reduced individual freedom. The apparent claim is “individual choice” but in reality the individual has lost
the freedom of choice in the wake of emergence of technological social structure.
Modern Rationality
Modern technology has its own rationality that overpowers individuals. Marcuse, quoted by Applrouth &
Edles suggests:

Unquestioned conformity to the dictates efficiency, convenience and profit now governs performance not
only in the realm of offices, schools, assemblies, and finally in the realm of relaxation and entertainment.

The irony of matter, however, is that individuals think that following the technological rationality is a result
of their “free will”. The brand of knowledge which is being propagated in the name of development thrives on
controls. Foucault believes that power appears in its most potent form when successfully translated into systems
of knowledge. To understand this we need to refer to Foucault’s Discipline and Punish, where he describes vividly
how growing knowledge led to invent more sophisticated and improved techniques of punishment. He analysis
different historical phases of punishment and concludes that in the past the focus was on physical harm but with
growing technological knowledge the focus is not on the body but on the mind of the people. These modern penal
practices are based on surveillance and discipline. The surveillance techniques are being used now in offices,
schools and courts.

Corporatization and Dehumanization

In corporate capitalism where money is the primary concern and where the evidence of development are
grand corporations and where domination, exploitation, and dehumanization are some defining attributes, space
for individual freedom is non-existent. The impact of this technological structure can be seen in our educational
system. In Pakistan during the last decade education has emerged as an industry that is busy in mass production
of graduates who are being prepared to fit into the slots of society. The notions of student, teacher, school
knowledge are redefined in line with ‘technological efficiency’. In this modernized system a teacher is no more
than salesperson who works in a superstore and caters to the needs of customers.

Development of Holistic Personality

In the name of efficiency, which is the name of the game these days, the space of pleasure and
contemplation from individuals’ life have been taken away. This is so obvious when we look at the heavy school
bags of children and thriving culture of tuition academies. To demonstrate efficiency a cut throat competition is
going on and a large number of students attend their regular colleges in the morning and are enrolled in tuition
academies in the evening. Not that they are dumb students. Most of them are very good students but it is the
technological rationality, a blessing of corporate culture, that has taken over individual choice. Now students,
even at primary level, do not find time to play and enjoy as they are either busy doing their homework or attending
private tuition academies. Where have gone those debates, speech contests, sports fixtures, mushairas, which used
to be the hall mark of educational institutions? Education in those days, was geared towards the development of
a holistic personality giving equal opportunities to academic, intellectual, physical, spiritual, and moral aspects of
one’s personality.

Technological Brand of Knowledge

Now let us look at the technological brand of knowledge that focuses only on skills and strategies and
shape the students into groomed screws to fit into the technological machine of society. Being very efficient
screws the individuals can play their part to move the machine but they do not know, and most of the cases do not
want to know, in which direction this machine is moving. The individual voice disappears in the dominating noise
of the social structure. This is the picture of development that contemporary knowledge paradigm presents to us.

Perpetuation of Beliefs
Marx considers the class-based system responsible for exploitation and dehumanization in society. But
a number of theorists suggest that it is ideology that is the most important force. Appelrouth and Edles in
Sociological Theory in the contemporary era suggest:

… It is this pervasive ideology and not the class based exploitation that is primarily responsible for
sustaining oppression. That’s why social theorists turned to ideology for social change.
It is important to note that how concepts, beliefs and notions are constructed and perpetuated. The technological
structure is very efficient in producing a certain kind of knowledge through technological means, i.e., radio, T.V,
film, music, advertisements, magazines and books. This media onslaught is so powerful and persuasive that
people’s consent is manufactured easily. The hammering of advertisements, which is one manifestation of
contemporary knowledge brand, completely overpowers people and leaves little spaces for individual reflection.

Need To Revisit Educational Goal

If we are interested in social change, we need to revisit the objectives, dynamics, and teaching practices
of education. The role of critical pedagogy needs to be realized especially in our teacher education programmes.
There is a need to bring back social science to the educational scene. It is important that education should be
cognizant of the needs of society but education should not be made hostage to industry.

REVISTING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Human development is a significant component of the development notion. A development that does not
enhance the quality of individual’s lives is incomplete in its essence. Sen (1999) links the idea of development
with freedoms. It is this human and social development that prepares the human capital which is vital for any
society. The concept of human development underlines the areas of education and health. The most developed
countries have effective systems of education and health as they realize their significance. In Pakistan, however,
we observe a narrow view of development as every government has made claims about economic development
and completely ignored the idea of education and health.

Since its birth Pakistan has been facing the challenges in education and health, badly affecting the quality
of life of people residing here. All government level, there is mere lip service and complete absence of any serious
effort to bring a positive change in people’s lives. Education, which is considered to have a close linkage and
positive correlation with development, is dealt with in a casual manner. A number of policies have been supported
by the political will of the state. There were no effective inbuilt monitoring systems and accountability
mechanisms. The result was that some heavily funded educational projects could not achieve the desired results.

Lowest Allocation in Region

The seriousness of the state can be imagined by the fact that allocation for education is lowest in the
region. The allocation for education in Pakistan is 2.1% of the GDP which is less than Bangladesh (2.6%), India
(3.3%), Iran (4.4%), Nepal (3.2%), Thailand (4.5%), Malaysia (4.7%), and Indonesia (3.3%). The low allocation
for education resulted in the lowest literacy percentage of Pakistan in the region. Pakistan’s current literacy rate
is 57% which is less than of Sri Lanka 90%, Malaysia 92.1%, China 93.7%, Vietnam 92.5%, and Nepal 57.9%.
This low literacy rate has further dimensions of rural-urban and male-female discrimination. In Pakistan the male
literacy rate is 69% and female literacy is only 45%. The Gender Parity Index (GPI) is 0.64 that shows a sizeable
gender gap. Similarly there is a wide difference in the urban and rural areas of the country.

Miserable Condition of Schools

A number of schools are in a miserable condition. According to the Economic Survey of Pakistan 2009-
10, 37.7% schools up to elementary level are without boundary wall, 33.9% without water facility, 37% without
latrines and around 60% are without electricity. This pathetic situation of schools reflects the low priority our
government assigns to social development in Pakistan.

It is shocking to note that while other countries have been increasing the financial allocation for
education, in Pakistan we see a decline in trend. In 2006-7, the allocation for education in GDP was 2.50%. It
dropped in 2007-8 to 2.47%, and in 2008-9, it further declined to 2.10%. This is a disturbing trend. Even this low
allocation of money is seldom utilized fully, mostly because of bureaucratic procedures and lack of organizational
capacity. Similarly, there is always skepticism about the appropriate use of the utilized money.

Low Allocation for Health

Health is an important aspect of human development. Like education, health is also an ignored area in
Pakistan. Instead of witnessing an increase in the allocation for health we have seen a decline in the past three
years. According to Economic Survey of Pakistan 2009-10, in 2007-8 the health expenditure in GDP was 0.57%.
In 2008-9, it dropped to 0.56%, and in 2009-10, it is further declined to 0.54%. Such meager amount is woefully
inadequate for an area as important as health. This low allocation has resulted in a depressing condition of the
population in terms of availability of health facilities. Some of the health indicators speak for themselves. In
Pakistan life expectancy rate is 66.5%, infant mortality rate per 1000 is 65.1% and morality under the age of five
years per 1000 is 95.2%. These problems are likely to aggravate further due to the rapid population growth in the
country. In 2009, annual population growth in Pakistan was 2.1% which was higher than any other country in the
region, such as India 1.55%, Sri Lanka 0.94%, Bangladesh 1.29%, Nepal 1.28%, China 0.66%, Thailand 0.62%,
and Indonesia 1.14%. The rising population and low allocation are perpetuating the miseries of common people.
According to the figures quoted in Economic Survey of Pakistan, in 2009-10, there was one doctor for 1183
individuals, one dentist for 16914 individuals and one bed for 11592 individuals. Such paucity of healthcare
facilities in this day and age is embarrassing.

Need For Urgent Action

The brief review of two important components of human development suggests that the situation is far
from satisfactory. There is a need to work on these fronts on emergency basis. We have seen a number of policies,
plans, and projects that fall prey to political interest and bureaucratic formalities in Pakistan. Basic education and
health are the fundamental facilities a state is under an obligation to provide to its citizens. The claims of
development realm incomplete and deceptive if there is no improvement in the lives of people. Such qualitative
improvement is closely linked with the quality of education and health indicators.

EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Education is considered to have a close relationship with development. Usually the notion of
development is confined to economic development, i.e., education for better jobs or educated citizens for national
economic development. This relationship does not fully describes the potential of education as well as
development. A more holistic view of development would include the social development aspect as well .This
suggests that large dams, long railway tracks, metallic roads, sky scrapers, and shopping plazas denote just one
aspect of development. A more holistic notion of development, however, would include some other important
aspects of human development, like education, environment, health, standards of living, food, water etc. This view
of development is highlighted by some economists including Amartya Sen of India, and Mehboob ul Haq of
Pakistan.

Holistic View of Development: A comprehensive view of development which is sustainable in nature does
not confine itself to the study of only sciences but encompasses a much broader range of subjects including natural
sciences, social sciences and humanities. It is broad spectrum of knowledge construction that helps us understand
the notion of development and sustain it. When we talk about development we usually refer the development that
is sustainable. We have seen development in Pakistan during Musharraf’s Regime (1999-2002) which was
artificial in nature as money was flowing in as a result of the post-9/11 situation. Pakistan’s foreign exchange
reserves were inflated and the economic statistics looked impressive. After a few years, this situation changed
drastically following a sudden reduced inflow of money. The definition given by World Commission on
Environment and Development suggests that sustainable development seeks “to meet the needs of the present
without compromising those of future generations.” The concept of sustainable development, thus, is incomplete
without education and a literate society.

Revisiting Education: It is through education that one learns useful skills, ideas, values, and thoughts to
become thinking citizen of a society. It is an education that turns an ordinary society into a learning society that
can explore innovative solutions to contemporary challenges. A pertinent question, however, is whether it is the
higher literacy rate that enhances the chances of development. The answer to this question is in the negative as it
is not just the literacy rate but the quality of education which plays a vital part in sustainable socioeconomic
development. If we examine the quality of education, in most mainstream schools in Pakistan, we notice that the
process of education resembles closely what Freire (1972) calls the ‘banking concepts of knowledge’ where
students sit back, teachers transmit information, and students reproduce this information in the examination paper
and secure good grades. This process of teaching and learning is defective in essence and produces robots who
cannot think on their own.
Knowledge, Skills, and Attitude: A holistic concept of education should tap learner’s knowledge, skills
and attitude. One of the major goals of education that paves the way for sustainable development, but which is
missing in most of the mainstream schools in Pakistan, is enabling students to think independently and creatively.
Education should empower students to apply knowledge in new situations, remaining sensitive to the requirements
of the context. Education should also develop critical thinking skills among learners so that they should not just
fit into the slots of society but should also have the courage to challenge the taboos of society.

How can such qualitative change in education be made possible? There could be number of factors that
come together to improve the quality of education that in turn enhances the chances of sustainable development.
Some of these factors include funds, infrastructure, physical facilities, curriculum, textbooks, and assessment
system. All of these factors are important and do contribute to the qualitative improvement of education.

Empowering Teachers: There is, however, one factor, i.e., the teacher, who occupies a central position in
terms of interaction with the other factors. In order to make teachers more effective as a community, there is an
urgent need to empower them in terms of financial benefits, social recognition and professional development. One
of the major sources of professional development of teachers is teacher education. Unfortunately, most of the
institutions for teachers’ training in Pakistan offer a stereotyped version of teacher’s education, which is devoid
of critical thinking and reflective practices. There is an obvious disconnect between theory and practice, and the
whole emphasis is placed on the method of teaching.

Need to Revamp Education System: There is an urgent need to revamp teacher education in Pakistan,
making it relevant and effective, by incorporating the components of reflection and critical thinking and by
establishing a vibrant linkage between theory and practice. There is also a need to benefit from insights from other
disciplines of learning by employing an interdisciplinary approach. The teachers should be made to realize that
there is a need to extend pedagogy by using ways and means of non-formal and informal education as well. It is
only through effective teacher education that we can empower teachers professionally and it is through this
empowerment that such education can be imparted that ensures holistic and sustainable development.