❖ACKOWLEDGEMENT:-

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to our Principal, Dr. Sharmila Mitra, for providing me with the opportunity to
complete my internship.Hervisionandleadershiphave created a conducive learning environment, and I am grateful for her
support.

IwouldalsoliketothanktheHeadoftheDepartment,Dr.WalizaAnsar,forherguidanceandmentorship throughout my internship.

Iamdeeplygratefultotheteachingstaff,includingDr.AvishekBose,Dr.SucharitaGain, Sri Surajit Halder,Smt.SonaliGhatak,

Smt.SaheliBhattacharya,and Smt.OliviaDas,for their expertise, advice, and encouragement. Their contributions have been
invaluable to my growth.

I would also like to extend my gratitude to the non-teaching staff, including the laboratorytechnicians,librarystaff,andoffice
staff, for their support and assistance throughout my internship.

I would like to thank my classmates, who have been my companions throughout this journey,fortheircollaboration,
support,andfriendship.Specifically,Iwouldliketothank[listyourclassmates’names]fortheirhelpandencouragement.

Thank you all again for making this internship a success!

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 ❖ Introduction:

The internship on Wetlands Ecosystem and Diversity is a comprehensive program designed to provide hands-on
experience and in-depth knowledge about the complex relationships within wetland ecosystems. Wetlands, which include
mangroves,marshes,swamps,and ponds, are vital ecosystems that support a wide range of plant and animal species, and
provide numerous ecological services.

➢ Objective:

The objective of this internship is to gain a deeper understanding of the importance of wetland ecosystems,
their biodiversity, and the impact of human activities on these sensitive environments. Through this
internship, we aim to develop skills in field observation, data collection, and analysis, as well as gain
practical experience in conservation and management strategies for wetland ecosystems.

➢ Why we do internship:

We undertake this internship to:

• Gain practical experience in the field of wetland ecology and conservation .

• Develop skills in data collection,analysis,and interpretation.

• Understand the importance of wetland ecosystems and their role in supporting biodiversity .

•Learn about the impact of human activities on wetland ecosystems and the need for
sustainable management practices.

 Develop team work and communication skills through collaboration with peers and mentors .

➢ Benefits of the internship:

• Hands-on experience in field work and data collection.

•Opportunity to work with experienced professionals in the
•Development of skill importance

• Contribution to the conservation and management to of wetland ecosystems .

• Networking opportunities with peers and professionals in the field .

• Enhanced career prospects in the field of environmental science, ecology and conservation.

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Lesson Plan :-

Community analysis and census of a wet land ecosystem :-

SL No. DATE TIME FACULTIES TOPICS

16.05.2024 11:30-3:00 SGH+SH Species diversity and

1. it’s application through
insects
population and
avian population

2. 17.05.2024 11:30-3:00 WA+SB Probability and

Central tendency

3. 18.05.2024 11:30-3:00 AB+SG Water quality

analysis

4. 20.05.2024 11:30-3:00 SG+OD Analysis of

population density

5. 21.05.2024 11:30-3:00 WA+SB Application of

biostatistics
through insects
diversity

6. 22.05.2024 11:30-3:00 AB+OD Analysis of

biochemical
parameter of water

7. 24.05.2024 11:30-3:00 AB+SH Hypotheses testing

8. 25.05.2024 11:30-3:00 OD+SB Analysis of

biochemical
parameter of water

9. 20.06.2024 11:30-3:00 SG+SGH Quadrate Sampling

(Ecosystem1)

10. 21.06.2024 6:30-11:30 WA+SH Community analysis of

wetlands of
Rabindra Sarovar
Lake(Ecosystem3)

11. 22.06.2024 11:30-3:00 SG+SGH Quadrate sampling

(ecosystem/11)

12. 24.06.2024 6:30-11:30 SG+SGH Quadrate Sampling

(Ecosystem1)

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 13. 25.06.2024 11:30-3:00 WA+SH Community analysis of
wetlands of
Rabindra Sarovar
Lake(Ecosystem3)

14. 26.06.2024 11:30-3:00 SG+SGH Quadrate Sampling

(Ecosystem2)

15. 27.06.2024 11:30-3:00 SG+SGH Biochemical

parameters of water

16. 28.06.2024 11:30-3:00 SG+SGH Biochemical

parameters of water

Study area :-

 Behala Parnasree Lake :-

Parnasree lake, also known as Parnasree Lake or Parnasree Jheel, is a prominent landmark in Behala,
Kolkata. Here are some key details about the lake :-
1. Location :-It is situated in the Parnasree area of Behala, which is a residential neighborhood in the
southwestern part of Kolkata.
2. Features :-The lake is known for its picturesque surroundings with lush greenery and walking paths,
making it a popular spot for local residents to relax and enjoy nature.
3. Recreational Activities :-Visitors often come here for leisure activities such as walking,
jogging ,jogging, picnicking, and boating (if available).
4. Accessibility :-The lake is easily accessible by road from various parts of Kolkata, and it’s a favored
destination for families andnatureenthusiastsseekingapeaceful retreat within the city.
. 5. Local Appeal :- It serves as a gathering place for the community, especially
duringweekendsandholidays,whenpeopleRabindraSarovartounwindandspendqualitytime
outdoors.

If you plan to visit Behala Parnasree Lake, consider checking local updates or reviews
forcurrentamenitiesand activities available.

 Rabindra Sarovar Lake :-

Rabindra Sarovar Lake, also known as Rabindra Sarobar, is a popular urban lake located in Kolkata, West Bengal, India. Here are
some key features and facts about the lake :-

1.)Location :- South Kolkata, near the city’s southern edge.

2.) Size :- Approximately 75 acres (30 hectares).

3.)Shape. :- Irregular, with a meandering shoreline.

4.)Depth :- Average depth of 12 feet (3.6 meters), maximum depth of 20 feet (6 meters)

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5.)Water source :- Primarily rainwater, with some input from nearby canals.

6.)History :- Created in the 1920s as a recreational spot for the city’s residents.

7.)Amenities :- Walking trails, parks, gardens, children’s play areas, boating facilities, and fishing spots

8.)Surrounding attractions :- Rabindra Sarovar Stadium, Indian Institute of Management Calcutta, National Library of India, and
several schools and colleges.

9.)Ecological importance : - Supports a variety of aquatic life, including fish, birds, and plants.

10.)Conservation efforts :- Ongoing initiatives to maintain water quality, control pollution, and protect the lake’s ecosystem.

Rabindra Sarovar Lake is a beloved destination for recreation, relaxation, and community events, and is an integral part of Kolkata’s
cultural and environmental heritage.

Biodiversity

“Biodiversity”(often misspelledas“biodivarsity”) refers to the variety of life form son Earth, including
different species, ecosystems.

Rabindra Sarovar Lake is a beloved destination for recreation, relaxation, and community events, and is an
integral part of Kolkata's cultural and environmental heritage. and genetic diversity within species. It
encompasses the richness and variability of living organisms at all levels of organization, from genes to
ecosystems. Biodiversity is crucial for maintaining ecosystem stability, resilience, and the provision of
ecosystem services that support human well-being. It’s a fundamental aspect of our natural world that we
strive to understand, conserve, and sustain for future generations.

Biodiversityismadeupofmanyecosystems.EcosystemAsystemthatenvironmentand there organisms form

through their interaction

(Abiotic community+biotic community )

(Interaction between multiples species of biotic community)(interaction between different individual of

same species) Ecosystem are three types-
• Terrestrial ecosystem
• Aquatic ecosystem
• Wetland ecosystem

Wetland ecosystem

An wetland ecosystems an area oflengththatis covered by the water or saturated with water the water of wetland can
come from nearby river or Lake sea water can also create wetland specially in quiz tell areas that experience strong tides.
The water of wetland is obtained/1ground water shipping up from an Aqua aquatic or spring wetlands are the best
example of transitional zone.
The saturation of wetland soil determine the that's surrounds it. Plants that live in wetland are unique
adoptedtotheir watery soil And wetland plants are called hydrophyte there are three major kinds of
wetland they areswamp,marsh,bugs

1. Swamp is a wetland permanently saturated with water and dominated by thitherward two main
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 type of swamps fresh water swamps and saltwater swamp.
2. The wetland that forms are flat grassy fringe mouth all in bays marsh can be classified
afresh water Marsh and saltwater Marsh.
3. A big is a wetland of soft spongy ground consisting mainly of partially decayed plants called
peat .
• Birds in the wetland
Huge numbers of birds paint all are part of their life cycle in the wetlands with provided habitat and food
sources for them to survive the examples of wetland associated water birds of West Bengal are as follows
1. White breasted Kingfisher
2. Small blue Kingfisher
3. Lesser -pied Kingfisher
4. Stock-billed Kingfisher
5. Indian pond Heron
6. Grey Heron
7. Little cormorant
8. Great cormorant
9. Little egret
10. Cattle egret
11. Large egret
12. Asian open bill stork
• Bird watching ( Ecosystem1):-

Species Scientific Description No. Of No. Of No. Of No. Of No. Of No. Of No. of No. Of
Name individ individ individ individ individ individ individ individ
ual ( ual ual ual ual ual ual ( ual
Day 1) (Day (Day3) (Day (Day (Day Day 7) (Day
2) 4) 5) 6) 8)

1.)House Passer They are a 4 5 4 2 4 3 0 2

Sparrow domesticus plain buffy
brown
overall with
dingy grey
brown
under
parts,
their
backs are
striped with
black &
brown.

2.) Spotted Spilopelia The head is 4 3 4 2 3 2 3 4

Dove Chinensis grey, and the
neck and
underparts
are grey-
brown tinged
with pink.

3.)House Corvus Black 13 12 8 6 5 4 16 7

Crow Splendens coloured
,large
bodied
bird with
shiny black
feathers &
sharp beak.

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4.)White- Halcyon Bright blue 1 0 2 0 0 0 1 5
Throated smyrnensis back and
Kingfisher wings with
a white
throat
patch.
White belly
and
undertail
coverts ,
with a
black bill
and legs .

5.)Black Kite Milvus Medium- 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 1

migrans sized raptor
with a
forked tail
and dark
brown to
black
plumage.
Wings are
broad and
rounded,
with a
distinctive
shallow V-
shaped
carve
during
flight.

6.)Common Acridotheres Brown body, 3 6 7 5 4 6 4 5

Myna Tristis black hooded
head and the
bare yellow
patch behind
the eye. The
bill and legs
are bright
yellow.

7.) Little Microcarbo All back 4 3 4 4 4 3 0 3

Cormorant niger ducklike
waterbird
with a
distinctive
flattish head
and a bill
that is
sharply
hooked at the
tip.

8.)Rock Columbia livia It is a plump 4 2 0 2 3 0 1 0

Pigeon bird with a
rounded tail,
pointed
wings, and
small red to
pink to
grayish-black
legs and feet.

9.)Rose – Psittacula The male has 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0

rinked krameri a pink and
Parakeet black neck
ring while the
female has
pale to dark
grey neck
rings or no
rings at
all.Green
plumage with
a Red beak.

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10.)Pied Gracupica This myna 3 0 0 3 0 0 1 0
Myna Contra strikingly
marked in
black and
white and has
a yellowish
bill with a
reddish bill
base .

11.)Javan Acridotheres Dark grey 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0

Myna javanicus overall with a
spiffy erect
crest and a
bright
yellowish –
orange bill.

12.) Cattle Bubulcus Ibis Medium-sized 2 0 3 0 0 0 1 0

egret heron with a
white body,
yellow bill
and black
legs.

13.)The red- Pycnonotus Medium-sized 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0

whiskered barbatus bird with a
bulbul distinctive
red whisker-
like stripe
above it’s
eyes and a
black throat
patch.

14.) Black Dicrurus The bird is 2 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

drongo macrocerus glossy black
with a wide
fork to the
tail.

15.) Tailor- Orthotomus The tailor 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

bird sutoris bird is a small
dull green
with a
distinctive
white eye
ring, white
throat and a
long pointed
tail.

16.)Black Dinopium Typical 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 0

rumped benghalense woodpecker
flameback shape.Golden
woodpecker yellow wing
coverts black
rump .
Underparts
are white
with dark
chevron
markings
black throat
with small
white
spots.Head is

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 whitish with
a black nape.

• Bird watching (Ecosystem 2):-

Species Scientific name Description No. Of No. Of No.of No. Of No. Of No .of No. Of No . of
indivi indivi indivi indivi indivi indivi indivi indivi
dual dual dual dual dual dual dual dual
(Day (Day (Day3 (Day (Day (Day (Day (Day
1) 2) ) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)

1.)House Corvus Slender 1 2 2 3 3 4 2 4

Crow splendens blackish,
medium
bodied long
bill bird.

2.)Red Pycnonotus Medium- 1 2 0 1 0 0 2 0

whiskered barbatus sized bird
bulbul with a
distinctive
red whisker-
like stripe
above it’s
eyes and a
black throat
patch.

3.)Spotted Spilopelia Spotted 2 1 3 0 1 1 2 0

Dove Chinensis doves are
mostly highly
brown above,
with darker
centres to the
feathers of
the back and
wings.The
head is grey,
and the neck
and
underparts
are grey-
brown tinged
with pink.

4.)House Passeer Dark 2 5 3 0 1 3 2 0

Sparrow domesticus brown
with
black
bib, grey
chest, white
chicks

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 5.)Wood Picus linnacus Black & 1 1 1 2 0 2 0 1
pecker white with
patches of
red &
yellow.

6.) Alcedinidae Blue 1 0 1 0 2 0 0 1

kingfisher upperparts,
orange
underparts,
with long bill.

7.) Acridotheres A chunky 3 2 2 2 0 2 3 1

Common tristis bin sized
myna black
bird with
greyish or
sometimes
brown
coloured
feathers

& a bill
that is
sharply
hooked at
the tip

8.)Rock Columba livia Plump bird 1 3 2 2 3 2 0 1

Pigeon with small
head & a
straight
thin bill.

9.) Medium 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
Greater sized birds
coucal that
range in
size from
the little
bronze
cuckoo.

10.) Oriental 1 2 1 3 1 0 2 0
Oriental magpie
magpie Robin is a
Robin sleek and
handsome
bird with a
glossy
black body.

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 11.)White 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
browed
fantail

• Insect diversity (Ecosystem 1):-

Species Scientific Description No. Of No. Of No. Of No. Of No. Of No. Of No. Of No. Of
name individual individual individual individual individual individual individual individual
(Day 1) (Day2) (Day 3) (Day 4) Day 5) (Day 6) (Day 7) (Day 8)

1.)Monarch Pirius rapae Two pairs 2 1 5 4 4 3 2 2

butterfly of brilliant
orange
red
wings,
featuring
black
veins &
white
spots.

2.)White Pirius Six jointed 4 2 4 4 0 5 3 2

winged canidae legs a
butterfly pair of
antenna .

3.)Honeybee Apis indica Oval 3 3 3 3 3 2 0 0

shaped
creatures
with
golden
yellow
colours &
brown
bands.

4.)Housefly Musca A dull 2 4 4 6 2 3 0 6

domestica gray
fly,¼
inch
long with
four dark
stripes on
the middle
section of
its body.

5.)Moth Lepidoptera Bronze 4 2 2 2 1 4 1 5

brown
with

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 6.)Ladybug Coccinellida Possess 2 4 1 1 3 5 4 4
e two
pairs of
brilliant
orange
red
wings,
featuring
black
• veins &
white
spots
along
the
edges.

7.)Jewel Chrysocoris 2 1 0 2 0 0 1 1
bugs stollie

Insect diversity study (Ecosystem 2):-

Species Scientific Description No. Of No. Of No.of No. Of No. Of No. Of No. Of No. Of
name individ individ indivi indivi individ individ individ individ
ual ual dual dual ual ual ual ual
(Day (Day (Day (Day (Day (Ay 6) (Day (Day
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 7) 8)

1.)Lady bug Coccimellidae Possess two 3 1 1 2 1 0 5 1

pairs of
brilliant
orange red
wings,
featuring
black veins
& white
spotsalong
the edges.

2.)Housefly Musca A dull gray 2 3 0 4 3 2 4 1

domestica fly,¼ inch
long with
four dark
stripes on
the middle
section of
its body.

3.)Honeybee Apis indica Oval shaped 5 4 0 0 7 2 0 3

creatures
with
golden-
yellow
colours &
brown
bands.

4.)Green Chrysocorus Small to 1 2 0 1 0 2 5 2

jewel stollie medium
bug sized oval
shaped
bugs with a
body length
averaging
at 5 to 20
mm.

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5.)Millipede Diplopoda Cylindrica 3 0 5 2 6 3 4 2
l or
slightly
flattened
invertebrate

6.)Small red Eisenia fetida Red in 4 4 4 0 0 4 2 0

worm colours,
usually 2
to ⅔
inches
long &
are most
often found
coiled up in
tissue
capsules in
fish's body
cavity.

7.) Caelifera Medium to 1 2 5 2 2 0 3 1

Grasshoppe large sized
r insects,
chewing
mouthparts,
two pairs of
wings, long
hind legs for
jumping.

8.)Dragonfl Anisoptera Long bodies 2 3 7 3 0 6 2 2

y with 2
narrow
pair of
intricately
veined
membranous
wings that,
while
generally
transparent
,
may have
coloured
markings.

9.)Brown Epiphyasp Antenna are 4 4 6 4 1 4 4 3

moth feathery
thread like
and they
generally
have plump
furry bodies.

10.) Danaus Two pairs of 5 6 2 1 4 3 6 4

Monarch plexippus brilliant
butterfly orange red
wings,
featuring
black veins
& white
spots.

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• Quadrate Analysis :-

• Principle :-A community is a natural assemblage of species population constitutes the individuals of
a Species. The quadrate sample area of varying size marked off in the planned community for the
purpose of detailed Study .They maybe square, rectangular or circular and is a tool to record the
abundance or the density of a particular species In a study area .Generally ,a number of
quadrates are studied to acquire reasonably faithful data to realize different analytical and synthetic
character of one community. The variation in the species population can be studied by means of
certain ecological parameters such as species diversity, species abundance, species frequency,
relative density, relative abundance, and relative dominance .

• Procedure :- The present Study is based on diversity of species in the college premises.10 quadratesof
size are taken for sampling and individuals of each species in each of the
quadrate are counted . The data obtained are recorded in the Tables I,II,III respectively. The different
ecological parameters are then measured by applying the following methods –
i.) Density=Totalno.ofindividualsofeachspecies/Totalno.ofquadratestudiedii.) Abundance= Total
No.of individuals ofthespecies/Total No.of quadrates in
which the species occur

iii.) Frequency = (Total no. of quadrates in which species occur / Total no. of quadrates studied)
×100
iv.) Relative density = (Total no. of individuals of a species /Total no. of individuals of all species)×100
v.) Relative frequency = (Frequency of the species / Sum of frequency of all the species)×100 vi.)
Relative abundance=(Abundance of species/Sum of abundance value of all the species)×100 vii.)
Relative dominance=(Biomass of the species/ Sum of biomass of all the species species)×100

Table—1

Species Quadrate Quadrate Quadrate Quadrate Quadrate Total no. Total no .

Name 1 2 3 4 5 Of of
individual
in each individu
species al in
each
quadrate

Small Ant 75 95 1 6 13 190 5

Big Black 0 22 25 17 79 143 4

Ant

Centipede 0 22 6 2 12 42 4

Lady Bug 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

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 Mosquito 0 9 0 24 17 50 3

Small Red 0 35 0 4 35 70 3
Ant

Honeybee 3 1 0 0 0 4 2

Housefly 6 0 0 14 5 25 3

Spider 1 0 0 1 8 10 3

Wasp 1 0 0 0 0 1 1

Worms 5 0 27 1 12 45 4

Dragonfly 6 0 0 0 0 6 1

Small Red 320 0 0 0 0 320 1

worm

Table – 2:-

Species present Total no.. of Density Abundance Frequency

individuals
present

Small Ant 190 190/5=38 190/5=38 5/5 × 100=100

Big black ant 143 143/5=28.6 143/4=35.75 4/5 × 100=80

Centipede 42 42/5=8.4 42/4=10.5 4/5 × 100=80

Lady bug 1 1/5=0.2 1/1=1 1/5 × 100=20

Mosquito 50 50/5=10 50/3=16.67 3/5 × 100=60

Small Red 70 70/5=14 70/3=23.34 3/5 × 100=60

ant

Honeybee 4 4/5=0.8 4/2=2 2/5 × 100=40

Housefly 25 25/5=5 25/3=8.34 3/5 × 100=60

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Spider 10 10/5=2 10/3=3.34 3/5 × 100=60

Wasp 1 1/5=0.2 1/1=1 1/5 × 100=20

Worms 45 45/5=9 45/4=11.25 4/5 × 100=80

Dragonfly 6 6/5=1.2 6/1=6 1/5 × 100=20

Small Red worm 320 320/5=64 320/1=320 1/5 × 100=20

Species present Relative density Relative abundancy Relative

frequency

1 190/100= 20.94 38/477.19×100=7.96 100/740×10

0= 13.51

2 143/907×100=15.76 35.75/477.19×100=7.49 100/740×10

0= 13.51

3 42/907×100= 4.63 10.5/477.19×100= 2.20 100/740×10

0= 13.51

4 1/907×100=0.11 1/477.19×100=0.20 20/740×100=

2.70

5 50/907×100=5.51 16.67/477.19×100=3.49 60/740×100=

8.10

6 70/907×100=7.71 23.34/477.19×100=4.89 40/740×100=

5.40

7 4/907×100=0.44 2/477.19×100=0.41 60/740×100=

8.10

8 25/907×100=2.75 8.34/477.19×100=1.74 60/740×100=

8.10

9 10/907×100=1.10 3.34/477.19×100=0.69 20/740×100=

2.70

10 1/907×100=0.11 1/477.19×100=0.20 80/740×100=

10.81

11 45/907×100=4.96 11.25/477.19×100=2.35 20/740×100=

2.70

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 12 6/907×100=0.66 6/477.19×100=1.25 20/740×100=
2.70

13 320/907×100=35.28 320/477.19×100=67.05 20/740×100=

2.70

Shannon Index (H) = - ∑pilnpi

Simpson Index (D) = 1/∑pi2
The Shannon index is an information statistic index, which means it assumes all Species are represent Edina sample and
that they are randomly sampled. Can you point Out any problems in these assumptions?

In the Shannon index, p is the proportion (n/N) of individuals of one particular Species found(n)divided by the total

number of individuals found(N), lenis the natural Log, Σis the sumofthe calculations, ands is the number of species.
The Simpson index is a dominance index because it gives more weight to Common or dominant species. In this case,

a few rare specieswithonly a few Representatives will not affect the diversity. Can you point out any problems in
these Assumptions In the Simpson in dex,pis the proportion(n/N)of individuals of one particular Species
found(n)divided by the total number of individuals found(N),∑is still the sum of the calculation, ands is number of
species.

From the data we can calculate Shannon index(Index(H) =-( - 1.7708) = 1.7708

Simpson Index(D) = 1/0.203208

/1= 4.921/1

. Pitfall Analysis

Pitfall trapping Is a sampling technique thatiswidelyusedtoexaminespeciesoccurrence during surveys. It is

used to measure spatial distribution patterns of invertebrates as well as small vertebrates, compare the
relative abundanceindifferentmicro-habitatsandstudyseasonaloccurrenceoftheanimals.

What is a pitfall method?

A Pitfall trap is a trapping it for small animals such as insects, amphibiansandreptiles.This is a form of
passive collections opposed to active collection where the collector catches each animal by hand. Pitfall
traps are inexpensive, setting them requires little effort, many species can be trapped and large catches
often result. It is mainly of two types :- Dry pitfall trap ,Wet pitfall trap .

Methodology:

In our study we have used Wet pitfall trapping method. A hole in the ground is made into which a paper glass
is placed so that the mouth of the glass is in level with the soil surface. A pitfall trap containing a
detergent solution is designed to trap and kill animals. The animals are later preserved in3 %formalin.
Wet pitfall traps cannot be used for vertebrates as it is best suited for invertebrates.

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 Observations:

InsectsandspiderscollectedduringtheexcursionbyPitfallTrappingMethod
Place: college pond
Date: 20/6/2024 24/6/2024

Time: 11:30pm -3:30 pm(two day)

SI Class Order Family Name of No.of

spices individual
Collected

1 Insect Trombidiformes Tetrahychinadae Bryobia 1

praetiosa

2 Insect Hymenoptera Formicidae Wasmania 1

auropunctata

3 Insect Hymenoptera Formicidae Lasiusniger 1

4 Insect Diptera Sciaridae Sciaridae sp. 1

5 Insect Hymenoptera Miridae Labops 1

hesperius

6 Arthopoda Spirostreptidae Spirostreptidae Sechelleptus 1

• Determination Of Alkalinity:-

• Determination of Alkalinity of Water Sample:-

Alkalinity is a measure of an aggregate property of water and can be interpreted in terms of specific
substances only when the chemical composition of the sample is known. The measured value may vary
significantly with the end-point upHused.Because. Because the alkalinityofmany surface waters is primarily
a function of carbonate, bicarbonate and hydroxide content, it is taken as an indication of the concentration
of these constituents. The measured values also may include contributions from borates, phosphates,
silicates,orother bases if these are present.
• Definition:-

The acid-neutralizing capacity of water is known as its Alkalinity. It is the sum of all the titrate table
bases. +2[CO] + [OH] – [H+]Alkalinity (mole / L) can be expressed as follows = [HCO3]+2
• Principle:-

Alkalinity in water is due to the presence of hydroxide (OH), carbonate ( CO³ ) and bicarbonate ( HCO³) ions.
The various alkalinities are estimated by titrating the water sample against a standard acid using
phenolphthalein and methyl orange indicators successively.
Hydroxide ions is completelyneutralizedtowaterusingphenolphthaleinindicator (single step
neutralization). OH +H+ H2O
Carbonate ions is neutralized to bicarbonate ions using phenolphthalein indicator in the first step. In the

18 | P a g e
second step, these bicarbonate ions are completely neutralized to water and carbon dioxide using methyl
orange indicator (double step neutralization). CO 3 ^2 - / H+HCO 3 - HCO3+H→ H2O+CO2
Bicarbonate ions maybe completely neutralized to water and carbon dioxide using methyl orange
indicator (single step neutralization).HCO3 +H→ H2O+CO₂

• Apparatus required
1. Burette50ml
2. Pipette1ml.
3. Comical flask 250 ml.
4. Glazed tile

• Reagents required:-

1)0.02 N Standard Sulphuric acid H2SO4 Dilute 2.8 mL of concentrated H2SO4 to 1 liter by adding distilled
water to form approximately 0.1N Sulphuric acid H2SO4.Standardize this against 0.1N sodium carbonate. After
standardization, dilute appropriate volume of this stock solution(0.1N)to1litre adding distilled water to
prepare0.02N H2SO4
2) 1NSodiumcarbonatesolution:Weigh13.25gmsanhydrous sodium carbonate
Na2CO3 Dissolve it by adding distilled water and make up the volume to 250 mL in a volumetric
flask. 3) 0.02N Sodium hydroxide (NaOH): Dissolve 0.08 gm of sodium hydroxide in 100 mL o of
distilled water taken in a volumetric flask.

4) Phenolphthaleinindicator:Dissolve0.5gmphenolphthaleinin50mLof95%methanol.Toitadd50mLof
distilledwater.Addonedropof0.02NNaOH(sodium hydroxide)till light pink-colour Appears. 5) Methyl
orange indicator: Take 50 mL of distilled water, add to it 0.1 gm of methyl orange, dissolve and dilute it
to200mLwithdistilledwater.
83%

• Procedure:-

1. Take50mLofwatersampleina250mLconicalflask.
2. Add2-3dropsofphenolphthaleinindicator,the colour of the solution becomes pink.
3. Titrate this solution against 0.02 N H₂SO₄ taken in a burette till the colour of the solution
disappears
4. Itindicatesthatallthecarbonateshavebeenconvertedintobio-carbonates.
5. Note the titrated value of the phenolphthalein end point [P].
6. Add2-3dropsofmethylorangeindicatortothe same solution and continue the titration until the
sharp colour change fromyellowtorose red takes place.
7. Note the total titrant value from the beginning of the experiment as methyl orange

endpoint[M].

• Observation table for Ecosystem 1:-

In this titration, when phenolphthalein is used as indicator the colour changes from light pink to
colorless and when methyl orange issued as indicator the colour changes from yellow to rose red colour.

19 | P a g e
 Observati Initial Final Initial Final Volume Mean
on no. burette burette burette burette of value of
reading reading reading reading titrant titrant

1. 0 0 3.1 4.5 4.1

2. 0 0 4.5 9.5 5 4.3

3. 0 0 9.5 13.7 4.2

• Calculation:-

Phenolphthalein alkalinity (PA) = A Normality of titrant ×1000×50/ Ml of sample (mg/l)[where‘A'is

mlof H2SO4forphenolpthalein only=0]

Total alkalinity(TA)(as CaCO3) =B ×Normality of titrant ×1000×50/ 50 ml of sample (mg/l)

Total alkalinity = 430

[ where‘B’I ml ofH2SO4 for methyl orange]

Phenolpthaleinalkalinityasper1(volume at standard and used to first end point(ml) Normality ofAad-

10 volume of sample water(ml)

▪ Methylorangetotalalkalinityasper/1(totalvolumeatstandardacidused(ml)
▪ (Normality of acid 10) volume of sample water(ml)

• Observation table for Ecosystem 2:-

Observation Initial burette Final burette Initial burette Final burette Volume Mean
no. reading for reading for reading for reading for of volume
phenolphthalein phenolphthalein methyl orange methyl orange H2SO4 of
titrant

1 0 0 0 4.4 4.4

2 4.4 4.4 4.4 9.0 4.6 4.566

3 9.0 9.0 9.0 13.7 4.7

• Calculation:-

Total alkalinity = B×Normality ofH2SO4×1000×50/(Volume of Sample)

B= VolumeofH2SO4usedforbothphenolpthalein&methylorange

=4.566ml

TA (Total alkalinity) = (4.566×1000×50)/100

= 456.6 mg/l

20 | P a g e
 Observation for rabindra sarobar lake water:-

No. Of Initial reading Final reading for Initial Final Volume of Mean
observation for phenolphthalein reading reading titrant(H2SO4) volume
phenolphthalei for for of
n methyl methyl titrant
orange orange

1 0 0 0.2 3.6 3.6

2 3.6 3.8 3.8 7. 3.9 3.768

3 7.5 7.8 7.8 11.3 3.8

Calculation:-

Phenolphthalein alkalinity = A×Normality of H2SO4×1000×50/(ml of sample)

A=VolumeofH2SO4usedforphenolpthaleinonly

= (0.2+ 0.2+ 0.3)/3

=0.233ml

PA = 0.233× 0.2×1000×50/(50)

= 2330/100

= 23.3 mg/l

Precautions:-

Methyl orange usually is unsuitable for the determination of low alkalinities. The first perceptible colour
change with methyl orange occurs at a pH of 4.6. An individual with imperfect colour perception cannot
properly identify the faint orange colourcharacteristic of methyl orange at a pH of 4.6. Often the sample is
over titrated to a deeper orange or faint pink, representing a pH as low as 4.2. Methyl orange under the most
favorable circumstances is justified only for solutions of alkalinity in excessat 150ppm.Amixed indicator
prepared from bromocresol green and meth dissuadable for the high pH end points, while methyl orange
can be used for thosebelow4.0.
The mixed indicator yields the following colour responses :-

Utility of alkalinity:-

1.Alkalinityissignificantinmanyusesandtreatments of natural waters and waste

waters. . Alkalinity is significant in determining 2 the suitability of water for irrigation.
4. Alkalinitymeasurementsareusedintheinterpretationandcontrolofwaterandwastewatertreatment
processes.
5. Rawdomesticwastewaterhasanalkalinitylessthan, oronlyslightlygreaterthan,thatofthewatersuppl

21 | P a g e
  Estimation of salinity of water:-

❖ Argentometric Titration method:-

It is a method of convenience that performs chloride estimation. It assumes that the percentage
composition of chloride in water is constant in relation to all other dissolved minerals present.
▪ Principle:-
Silver nitrate reacts with chloride ion to form a white precipitate of AgCl. After the precipitation of all the
chloride ions, excess silver ions (Ag+) react with chromate to form silver chromate, which is brick. red in
colour and indicates the end of reaction.
Ag+ Cl → AgCl
2 Ag (excess) + CrO2 → Ag2CrO4↓

▪ Materials required:-
1. 100 mL measuring cylinder
2. 100 mL conical flask
3. 10 mL pipette
4. 50 mL burette
5. Burette stand

▪ Procedure:-

a. Fill the burette with 0.014 N AgNO3, solution.

b. Take 10 ml of water sample in a conical flask and add a few drops of 5%
potassium chromate solution.
c. Titrate the water samples against AgNO3 solution.
d. The end point is indicated by appearance of brick red colour.
e. Obtain three readings and record your observations.

• Observation table for (Ecosystem 1):-

Observation no.. Burette Burette Volume of titrant(AgNO3)(ml) Mean

reading reading final(ml) volume of
initial(ml) AgNO3(ml)

1. 0 3.2 3.2

2. 3.2 6.3 3.1 3.13

3. 6.3 9.4 3.1

-:Calculation:-

Chlorosity of water = volume of AgNO3 consined×Normality of AgNO3÷volume of sample Chlorinity of

water = chlorosity of water/Density of water

Salinity of water = 0.03+(1.805×chlorinity of water)

= 0.037 parts per thousand [1.805= other impurities] [0.03= other ions
22 | P a g e
• Observation table for (Ecosystem 2):-
Observation Burette Burette Volume of Mean
no. reading reading titrant(AgNO3)(ml) volume of
initial(ml) final(ml) AgNO3(ml)

1. 0 1.2 1.2

2. 1.2 2.1 0.9 1.034

3. 2.1 3.1 1.0

Calculation:-
Chlorosity = volume of AgNO3 used× normality of AgNO3÷ volume of sample

=(1.304×0.02)÷10

=0.00206

Chlorinity = chlorosity of water = 0.00206÷1= 0.00206 Density of water Salinity

= 0.03+(1.805×chlorinity)

= 0.03+(1.805×0.0026)

= 0.03+0.00373

= 0.03373
• Observation table for (Ecosystem/12):-

Observation no.. Burette Burette Volume of Mean volume of

reading reading titrant(AgNO3)(ml) AgNO3(ml)
initial(ml) final(ml)

1. 0 1.2 0.5

2. 1.2 1.8 0.6 0.6

3. 1.8 2.4 0.6

Calculation:-
Chlorosity of water = 0.6×0.014÷(10)
=0.00084
Chlorinity of water = 0.00084÷1
=0.00084
Salinity of water = 0.03+(1.805×0.00084)
= 0.0315 ppm

23 | P a g e
 ▪ Advantages:-
◆ Method of convenience.
▪ Disadvantages: -
◆ Indirect method and not very accurate.

• Significance and application: -

•The ionic composition of water affects the distribution of animals and plants in water. And depending
on whether organisms can tolerate wide fluctuations in salinity or not, they have been Classified as
euryhaline and stenohaline animals respectively.
•Generally sea water has a salinity of 30-38 ppt. Many marine organisms are intolerant to dilution of sea
water which happens due to the flow of rivers into them causing estuarine condition. These organisms
fail to survive in estuaries. However, there are also certain marine organisms which can Tolerate the
diluting effect.
•Another role played by saline water in an estuary involves flocculation of particles. Flocculation is the
process of particles aggregating into larger clumps. The particles that enteral estuary dissolved In the fresh
water of rivers collide with the salt water, and may flocculate or clump together and Increase turbidity.
• Salinity estimation is an important parameter in shrimp culture (generally 10-25 ppt).

◆ It is also important in monitoring water pollution and waste water treatment.

◆ Most dissolved oxygen meters require knowledge of the salinity content in order to calibrate the
Meter properly.

◆ If you are interested in converting the dissolved oxygen concentration (usually expressed as mg/l or
parts per million) to percent saturation (amount of oxygen in the water compared to the maximum it could
hold at that temperature), you must take salinity into account. As salinity increases, the amount of oxygen
that water can hold decreases.

◆ Environmental conditions vary with the seasons, and salinity levels can reflect those variations.
During wet weather periods and during the spring thaw in colder regions, more fresh water enters the
estuary, so salinity is lower at these times. On the other hand, dry weather periods mean less Fresh
water entering the estuary, so higher salinity levels may be found.

◆ Another way the seasons influence an estuary’s salinity involves the mixing of fresh water and salt
water. Seasonal storms help mix estuarine waters and serve to decrease the vertical salinity and
temperature gradients in the estuary.

 STUDY OF AN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM:

• Determination of Dissolved Oxygen Content :-

Wrinkle’s method for determination of dissolved oxygen. Content in water is based on oxidation
reduction. reaction. MnSO4 reacts with alkali to form white precipitation of MN(OH)2 which in the
presence of O2 gets oxidized to a brown precipitate. In the form a “MN++ is reduced by iodides Strong acid
medium ions which get converted to iodine,
24 | P a g e
equivalenttotheoriginalconcentrationofOzinthesample.Theiodine,thus formed, can be titrated against
standard thio sulphate solution by using starch as an indicator.
• Reactions:-

2KOH+MnSO4K₂SO₄+Mn(OH)2(white precipitation)! 2 Mn(OH)2+(2)+H₂O2Mn(OH)3 (brown precipitation)↓

2 Mn(OH)3+3H2SO4 M12(504)3 +6H20
Mn2 (504)3 + 3KI MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 12
2Na2S2O3 +12Na₂S4O6 + 2NaI
• Reagents:-

(1) Alkaline potassium iodide (KI)

(2) Manga nous sulphate (MnSO4)

(3) 0.025 N Sodium thio sulphate (Na, S203)

(4) ConcentratedH2504
(5) Starch Solution (1%)
❖ Procedure:-

A. Qualitative Estimation

(1) water sample is to be collected inanarrowmouthed100mlBODbottle,preferableinearlymorning (2)

Sample bottle should be closed by a stopper and brought to the laboratory immediately for analysis (3)
Remove the stopper carefullyandadd1mlofmanganous sulphate and some of alkaline potassium iodide
reagents by pipette (If the sample volume is more than250ml,add2ml of each reagents)(4) Allow one
minute time for precipitation.
(5) Place the stopper In the mouth of sampling bottle an dinvert the bottle for 2 to 3 times fora
thorough mixing of reagents.

(6) A precipitate will form which Seattle at the bottom of the bottle.
(7) A whitish Precipitation indicate a little amount of 02a light brown precipitation
indicates lower amount of dissolved on while a deeperreddishbrown.precipitationmeanamoderatetohighOf
content
B. Quantitative Estimation

(1) 1meofconcentratedH₂SO4isadded(2mlfora sample volumeover250ml)

(2) The sample bottle is shaken well to dissolved the precipitation
(3) Transfer50mlofthe sample toa conical flask and place it against a white background
(eg.A filter paper)
(1) Add2to3dropsof17.Starchsolution,abluecolour appear
(4) Titratethesolutionwith0.025N.,dropbydroptilltheblue colour disappears
(5) Repeat the process three times and note the reading in the table.
• Precautions:-

(2) Care should be taken toavoidexposureofsampletoairwhile collecting the sample

(3) The sample should not be agitated before fixation
(4) The surface of the sampleexposedtoairduringtitrationshouldbekeptassmallas as possible.
(5) The sample should not be agitated during titrated
(6) Starch solution (indicator) and N/44 Na2 S₂O₃ should be freshly prepared.

25 | P a g e
 • SIGNIFICANCE OF DISSOLVED O₂ CONCENTRATION

(1) DissolvedOfconcentrationisoneofthemostimportantparametersofwaterqualityassessment.It
reflects thephysicalandbiologicalprocesses occurring in water.
(2) Itisthemeasureoftheenvironmentalfactorsaffectingaquaticlife,andofthecapacityofwaterto
receive the organic matter without causing any hazard.
(3) LittledissolvedO2valueindicatesveryhighorganicpollutionofwater sample.
(4) Almostallplantsandanimalsuseoffor respirationSodissolvedO₂valuegivesanideaoftotalplants
presentinwater,andallowhelpinevaluationofgroes
Production of waterbody
(5) Dissolved of congenital so helps to find out the BOD(Biological Oxygen Demand)value
indicating the pollution status
(6) The concentrationofO2willalsoreflecttheprocessthatis occurring whether aerobic or
Anaerobic How As concentration are usually associated with a heavy concentration of organic
matter.
(7) LevelofO2concentrationisaofaquaticorganismsa limiting factor in distribution
(8) Usually dissolvedO, concentrationintropicalfreshwaterconditionis5-7mgs/lit

• Observation table for ( Ecosystem 1):-

Observation Initial Final Difference Mean
no. burette reading burette reading value

1. 5.7 8.4 1.1

2. 8.4 9.5 1.1 1.1

3. 9.5 10.6 1.1

• Calculation: -

DissolvedO2=V¹×N×1000×8/(V²x(V³-V²)/V²)

V¹=volume of Na2SO3 required V²=volume of total

sample solution V³=volume of alkaline iodide MnSO4

V²=volume of sample water used for titration

N= Normality of Na2SO3 8= equivalent

weight ofO2

Dissolved O2= 1.1×0.025×1000×8/(50×(500-4)/300

= 4.45 mg/l

26 | P a g e
 Observation table for (Ecosystem 2):-

Observation no.. Initial burette Final burette Difference Meanvalue

reading reading

1. 0.1 2.5 2.5

2. 2.5 4.8 2.3 1.36

3. 4.8 7.1 2.3

• Calculation:-

Dissolved O2 = V¹ ×N×1000×8/(V⁴×(V³-V²)/V²)V¹=volume of

Na2SO3 required

V²=volume of total sample solution V³=volume of alkaline

iodide MnSO4 V⁴=volume of sample water used for titration

N=Normality ofNa2SO3

Dissolved O2 = 2.366×0.025×1000×8/(100×(300-4)/300)

=2.366×0.025×1000×8/(98.667)

=473.2/98.667

=4.796 mg/l

• Observation table for (Ecosystem 3):-

Observation Initial Final Difference Mean

no. burette burette value
reading reading

1. 4.2 7.6 3.4

2. 7.6 11.4 3.8 3.35

3. 11.4 14.7 3.3

• Calculation: -

Dissolved O2 = V¹×N×1000×8/(V⁴×(V²-V³)/V²
V¹=volume of Na2SO3 required V²=volume of total
27 | P a g e
sample solution V³=volume of alkaline iodide MnSO4

V²=volume of sample water used for titration8=equivalent

weight ofO2

N= Normality of Na2SO3

Dissolved O2= 3.35×0.025×1000×8/(100×(300-4)/100

= 6.790 mg/l

• STUDY OF ANAQUATIC ECOSYSTEM :-

• Determination of free Co2:-

• PRINCIPLE:

Free Co₂ can be determined by titrating the sample using alkali (preferably strong) at pH 83. AtthispHlevel,allfree
cos is convertedintobicarbonates.
In the following way: 2NaOH +CO2 =Na2CO3 +H2O
Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 = 2NaHCO3
Phenolpthalein isusedasthe indicator thatgivesa faintpinkcolour.Amountofalkali
requiredtoproducethepinkcolour indicatesthe amountoffreeCo₂presentinthesample.

• REAGENTS REQUIRED:
(1) N/44NaOHsolution

(2) Phenolphthaleinindicator

• PROCEDURE:
(1) Thewatersampleis tobecollectedinanarrowmouthedbottlewithaminimumexposuretoair.

(2) Precaution,shouldbetakensothatthesampleisnotagitated; bubblingor shouldbeavoided.Mixing

Withothergasesshouldbeavoided.
(3) 50mlofwater sample istakeninanda fewdropsof,ina conicalflaskphenolphthaleinis
added.
(4) Theconicalflaskisplacedagainstawhitebackground(egundera filterpaper)

(5) Ifthe colour turnspink,Co2isabsent

(6) Ifthesample remainscolourless,itistitratedagainstN/44NaOHsolution; attheterminalpoint,a

faintpinkcolourwillappear,the readingisnoted.
(7) Repeattheprocess threetimes

• Precautions:-

Since theatmosphericCo2is readilysoluble inwater,the following precautionsshouldbetaken.

1) Exposuretotheair isavoidedwhile collectingthe sample.

28 | P a g e
 2) Sample should be analysed immediately after collection because Co2 escapeeasilyfromwater
sample.
3) The water should not be agitated before or during titration.
4) The surfaceofwater sampleshouldbekeptassmallaspossibleduringtitrationinorder toavoid
exposure totheair.

• Significance:-
1) DissolvedCo2isameasureofoneofthe important environmentfactorsaffecting aquaticlifehigh
concentration ofCo2have aninhibitoryeffectonplants&animals
2) Co2concentrationsignifiestherateofdecompositionoforganicmatter,&therespiratoryactivity
ofplants&animals.
3) DissolvedCo2isinverselyrelatedtothepHvalue ofwater ;thisvalueis loweredbythe carbonicacid
whichis formedbyCo2dissolvedinwater
4) Co2isessentialforphotosyntheticactivity&thusdirectly relatedtotheprimary&secondary
productivity ofthewater body
5) The pH value of blood and the O2 carriage by haemoglobin of vertebrates are affectedbyan
increaseinCo2concentrated.

6) ACo2concentrationof30mg/ltwouldturnthepHvalueofwater sampleto4.8while freeCo2isnot

presentatallabovethevalueof8.3.AtthispHlevelonly carbonateswilloccur
7) Surfacewaternormallycontainslessthan10mg freeCo2per litre,whilethesample takenfromthe
deeper region may exceed value.
8) ThelethaleffectsofCo2is correlatedtotheO2concentrationofwater.

• Observation table for (Ecosystem 1)

No.of Initial Final Difference(in Mean(in

observation burette burette ml) ml)
reading(in ml) reading(inml)

1. 33.4 33.6 0.2

2. 33.6 33.8 0.2 0.2

3. 33.8 33.9 0.1

• Calculation: -

Total free Co2(mg/lit) = ml of NaOH ×Normality ofNaOH×1000×44÷( ml of sample taken for titration)

=0.2×1/44×1000×44÷(50)

=4 mg/lit

29 | P a g e
 • Observation table for (Ecosystem 2)

Observation no.. Burette Burette reading final Difference Mean value

reading initial

2. 33 33.3 0.3 0.3

3. 33.3 33.6 0.3

1. 32.8 33 0.2

• Calculation:-

Total free Co2= ml ofNaOH ×Normality ofNaOH×1000×44÷( ml of sample taken fortitration)

= 0.3×1/44×1000×44÷(50)

=6mg/l

• Observation table for (Ecosystem 3)

Observation Burette Burette Difference Mean value
no. reading initial reading final

1. 9 9.1 0.1

2. 9.1 9.2 0.1 0.1

3. 9.2 9.3 0.1

• Calculation:-

Total free Co2= ml ofNaOH×Normality ofNaOH ×1000×44/( ml of sample water taken for titration)

= 0.1×1/44×1000×44÷(50) =2mg/lit
• Determination of pH of water:-
• Definition:-

A mathematical notation defined as the negative base 10 logarithm of thehydrogen ion

measured in mole/l of solution.

PH= -log10[H+]

• Electrometric pH meter:-
• Water sample
• Equipments required:-
• pH meter:- A ph meter is a high independence volt meter that measures the very small, direct

30 | P a g e
 current potential in minivolt(mlt). Generated between a glass pH electron. The
potentiometric measurement is displayed as pH value. It consists of the following parts
• Ph electrodes
• Glass membrane
• Reference and measurement electrodes
• Ionic ( filling solutions)
• Reference junction

A. PH buffer solution:- Buffer are ionic solution that are used to calibrate the ph. instrument system. Buffer maintain

B. constant pH value because of their ability to resist changes to the specific pH value for which they are produced.
Measurement of pH are only as accurate as the buffer used to calibrate the electrode. Before use the PH meter should
be standardized

C. With a pH 7 buffer solution and the scope of electron response should be adjusted, typically with a pH 4 buffer. The
electrode should be rinsed well before being inserted in the sample. The meter should be stabilized on the sample pH
quickly before the exchange of Co2 with the atmosphere alters the ph.

D. Wash bottle with distilled water

I)Tissue paper
II)Laboratory glass wire including volumetric flask, beaker etc.
III)A thermometer capable of reading 77± to 18F to the nearest 0.1 centigrade.
IV)Provided sample water.

o Procedure:-

Standardize the pH meter by the means of the standard solution provided, the temperature adjustment should also
be performed.
Mix the aliquots of the sample.
Put the sensors to sit in each sample for 1 min or until thepH value sterilizes within the established
criteria. Record the pH value.
Repeat the above mentioned process and two additional aliquots
Recording the pH measurement for each aliquot.
Calculate the final sample pH as the average of the value measured for the sample
Record the final pH value of the sample to the nearest 0.1unit.
Comment on the value of the sample .

Precaution:-

The glass membrane of the electrode should not be contact with the sides or the bottom of the beaker or
other measurement vessel.
Fill the measurement vessel with sufficient sample to ensure that the electron reference junction is fully stabilized, taking
care not to acetate the sample.
After Calibration rinse the electrode and thermistor 3 times with distilled water. This crucial step must always
be completed wide changing between solution.
The Ph. of buffer sample measured by the method varies with temperature and pressure .Thus measurement may
differ the laboratory must be corrected for temperature pressure.

Advantage:-
nd/1
Results are more specific and can be obtained up to 2 place after decimal.

31 | P a g e
Disadvantage:-

Difficult to operate in a field condition and subjected fluctuation & voltage.

• Observation table for (Ecosystem 1 ,2 & 3):-

Observation PH value of Ph. value of Ph. value of Average ph. Average ph. Average ph
no. college Parnasree Rabindra value of value of value for
pond lake water sarobar college Parnasree rabindra
water lake water pond lake water sarobar
water lake water

/1. 7.12 7.81 7.59

/2. 7.73 7.80 7.54 7.43 7.85 7.54

/3. 7.45 7.94 7.51

❖ BIOSTATISTICS

❖ Introduction

❖ Definition of statistics

■ Statistics is the study of methods and procedure for collection, classification, analysis, and
interpretation of data

■ ThetermhasbeenderivedfromtheLatinword“Status”the Italianword“Statistica”andtheGermanword
“statistic “these words mean political state or a Govt.
❖ Characteristics of statistics

Statistics is the aggregate of fact

• Statistics are always expressed numerically Statistics is

Influenced by causes

• Statistics data needtobe collected in a systematic manner

• Statistic data is collectedforpredeterminedpurposes

• CENTRAL TENDENCY:-

• Measures of central tendency

Central tendency:-

Central tendency of a data is defined as the tendency of a data to concentrate around somecentralvalue.
This centralvalueisalsocalledaverageandusingthis average we can easilycomparedifferent setsofdata.Need
ofcentraltendency.Weknowthatoneofthe importantfunctionofstatistics is tocomparedifferent setsofdata.
For the comparison we
32 | P a g e
want to represent the whole data set in single value, therefore we study various characteristics of
the data like centraltendency,measuresofdispersionsetc.

Different Measures Of Central Tendency:-

There are different formulas for finding the central values, which are as follow: 1.Means

a) Arithmetic mean or Average a

b) Geometric mean

c) Harmonicmean2.Median

3.Mod

❖ Mean:-
a) Arithmetic mean or average:-

It is popularly known as average.

Itisthesumoftheobservedvaluesofsetdividedbythenumberofobservationsinthesetiscalledas
mean or an average.

For ungrouped data

If X_{1} X_{2} X_{3} X_{4} given as, X_{N} are N observed values, the mean or average is ̄x = X_{1} + X_{2}
+X 3 .................................................................................X_{N}N = (ΣX)/N

Forexample:Inclass10students,theyscoredfollowingmarks inMathematicsoutof50.

X: 40,50,49,30,30,25,20,40,45,49X̄/1= (ΣX)/N

X̄/1=40+50+49+30+30+25+20+40+45+49 X̄/1= 379/10

X̄/1=37.9

Soaveragemarksoftheclassare37.9

❖ Merits:

1.Simple toUnderstandandEasy toCalculate2.Certainty

3.BasedonallItems

4.LeastaffectedbyFluctuations inSample5.Convenient

Method of Comparison

6.Algebraic Treatment

7.No Arrangement Required

33 | P a g e
 • Demerits:
1.Affected by Extreme Value
2. Assumption in the case of Open-end
Classes

3. Absurd Results

4. Not Possible in the case ofǪualitative

Characteristics

5. MoreStressonitemsofHigherValue

6. CompleteDataRequired

7. Calculation byObservationis not

Possible

8. NoGraphUse

9. Non-existentValueas Mean

❖ Median
Ithasbeenpointedoutthatmeancannotbecalculatedwheneverthereisfrequencydistributionwithopen
endintervals. Alsothe meanis toa greatextent affectedby theextreme values of the set of observations. If
eight people are getting salaries as Rs.
150,225,240,260,275,290,300 and 1500. The mean salary of these eight people is 405. This value isnot a good
measureofcentraltendencybecauseoutof8people,7getsRs.300or

less.Hencemedianispreferable.Iftheobservationsarearrangedinincreasingor
decreasingorderthe.Valueofmiddletermisknownasmedian.Iftherearetwomiddleterms,thenmedianisthe
averageofthetwocentralvalues.

• For ungrouped data:

Marks: 10, 20,30,40,50,60 Median = 30

Ifmarks: 10,20,30,40,50,60,70 Median= 30+40 235

• For frequency distribution of ungrouped data:-

Suppose In case X1, X2, X3, X4…..XN have corresponding f the median for it can be worked out as
following. Frequencies f1, f2, f3,f4……fN the median for it can be worked out as following.

Step 1: find the cumulative frequencies. {refer to the presentation #2 graphicalrepresentation

andtabulation) Step 2: findN/2.

Step3:searchforthe smallest cumulativefrequencywhichcontains thisvalueN/2.Thevariatevalue

correspondingtothiscumulativefrequencyisthemedian.
34 | P a g e
 • For grouped data:-

Ma =L+[(N/2)-C] f×h

WhereL=lower limitofthemedianclassN=Sum of
frequencies

F=Totalfrequency

C=cumulativefrequencyprevious tothemedia class.

• Merits of Median:

1. Simplemeasureofcentraltendency.

2.It is not affected by extreme observations.3.Possible

evenwhendata is incomplete.

4.Mediancanbedeterminedbygraphicpresentation ofdata.5.It has a definite

value.

6. Simple tocalculate andunderstand

7.Itisapositionalvaluenota calculatedvalue.
➢ Demerits of median:
1.Not basedonallthe items inthe series,asitindicatesthe valueofmiddle items.2.Not suitablefor
algebraictreatment.

3.Arranging the data in ascending order takes much time. 4.Affectedby

fluctuationsofitems.

5.It cannotbecomputedexactlywherethenumberofitems ina seriesiseven.

• Mode:-

Mode is defined as the score with the highest frequency. The most frequent score. It is
calledanominal statistics.Ina groupeddata itis
themidpointoftheclassintervalwiththehighestfrequency.

With categorical, ordinal, and discrete data. In fact, the mode is the only measure of
centraltendencythat youcanusewithcategoricaldata-suchasthemostpreferredflavor ofice
cream.However,withcategorical data,there isn’ta centralvaluebecauseyoucan’torder the groups.

Formula for grouped data Mode = L+{( f-f₁)

/(2f-f1-f2)}×iWhere,

L=lower limitofmodalclassf=frequency

ofmodalclass

f1=frequencyofjustprevioustomodal classf2= frequency

of just after the modal class

35 | P a g e
Modal class forwhichthe frequency ismaximum

• MERITS:-

1.It
It is comparatively easy to understand. It can be found graphically.

2.Itiseasytolocate insome casesby inspection.3.It isnot

affected by extreme values.

4.Itisthesimplestdescriptivemeasureofaverage

❖ DEMERITS:
DEMERITS:-

1.It
It is not suitable for further mathematical treatment.

2.Itisanunstablemeasureas itisaffectedmorebysampling Fluctuations.3.Mode for the

serieswithunequal class intervals cannot be Calculated.

4.Inabimodaldistribution,therearetwomodalclassesanditisdifficulttodetermine thevaluesofthemode.

Data from quadrate analysis :-

ΣΝ=918
ΣΡi2=0.000414

ΣΡilnpi=-1.8986

Graphical Representation of Data Meaning,

Principles and Methods
Meaning of Graphic Representation of Data:
Graphic representation is another way of analysing numerical data. A graph is a sort of Graph through
which statistical data are represented in the form of lines or curves drawn across the coordinated points
plotted on its surface.
Graphs enable us in studying
dying the cause and effect relationship between two variables. Graphs help to
measure the extent of change in one variable when another variable changes by a certain amount. Graphs
also enable us in studying both time series and frequency distribution as tthey
hey give clear account and precise
picture of problem. Graphs are also easy to understand and eye catching.

General Principles of Graphic Representation:

36 | P a g e
There are some algebraic principles which apply to all types of graphic representation of data. In a graph

there are two lines called coordinate axes. One is vertical known as Y axis and the other is horizontal called X
axis. These two lines are perpendicular to each other. Where these two lines intersect each other is called ‘0’
or the Origin. On the X axis the distances right to the origin have positive value (see fig. 7.1) and distances left
to the origin have negative value. On the Y axis distances above the origin have a positive value and below the
origin have a negative value.

Methods to Represent a Frequency Distribution:

Generally four methods are used to represent a frequency distribution graphically. These are Histogram,

Smoothed frequency graph and Ogive or Cumulative frequency graph and pie diagram.

Kinds Graphical Representation:-

1. Pie Graph
2. Bar graph
3. Histogram
4. Frequency Polygon
5. Cumulative Frequency Curve
6. Cumulative Percentage Curve

1. Pie Graph
A pie Graph is a type of graph that represents the data in the circular graph. A pie Graph requires a list of
categorical variables and the numerical variables. Here, the term “pie” represents the whole and the “slices”
represents the parts of the whole. In this article, we will discuss the definition of a pie Graph, its formula, an
example to create a pie Graph, uses, advantages and disadvantages in detail.

What is Pie Graph?

The “pie Graph” also is known as “circle Graph” divides the circular statistical graphic into sectors
or slices in order to illustrate the numerical problems. Each sector denotes a proportionate part of
the whole. To find out the composition of something, Pie-Graph works the best at that time. In most
of the cases, pie Graphs replace some other graphs like the bar graph, line plots, histograms etc.

Pie Graph Formula

The pie Graph is an important type of data representation. It contains different segments and
sectors in which each segment and sectors of a pie Graph forms a certain portion of the
total(percentage). The total of all the data is equal to 360°.
The total value of the pie is always 100%.

To work out with the percentage for a pie Graph, follow the steps given below:

• Categorize the data

• Calculate the total
• Divide the categories
• Convert into percentages
• Finally, calculate the degrees Therefore, the
pie Graph formula is given as

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(Given Data/Total value of Data) × 360°

Example :-
Imagine a teacher surveys her class on the basis of their Favorite Sports:

Football Hockey Cricket Basketball Badminton

10 5 5 10 10

The data above can be represented by a pie-Graph as following and by using the circle graph
formula i.e. the pie Graph formula given below. It makes the size of portion easy to understand.
Step 1: First, Enter the data into the table.

Football Hockey Cricket Basketball Badminton

10 5 5 10 10

Step 2: Add all the values in the table to get the total.Total
students are 40 in this case.
Step 3: Next, divide each value by the total and multiply by 100 to get a per cent:

Football Hockey Cricket Basketball Badminton

(10/40) × 100 (5/ 40) × 100 (5/40) ×100 (10/ 40) (10/40)×
=25% =12.5% =12.5% ×100 =25% 100
=25%

Step 4: Next to know how many degrees for each “pie sector” we need, we will take a full circleof
360° and follow the calculations below:
The central angle of each component = (Value of each component/sum of values of all the
components) ✕360°

Football Hockey Cricket Basketball Badminton

(10/ 40)× 360° (5 / 40) × 360° (5/40) × 360° (10/ 40)× 360° (10/ 40) × 360°
=90° =45° =45° =90° =90°

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Now you can draw a pie Graph.
Step 5:: Draw a circle and use the protractor to measure the degree of each sector.

Uses of Pie Graph

1. Pie diagram is useful when one wants to picture proportions of the total in a striking way.

2. When a population is stratified and each strata is to be presented as a percentage at that time pie
diagram is used.

Advantages of a Pie Graph

• The picture is simple and easy-toto-understand

• Data can be represented visually as a fractional part of a whole
• It helps in providing an effective communication tool for the even uninformed audience

• Provides a data comparison for the audience at a glance to give an immediate analysis or to
quickly understand information
• No need for readers to examine or measur
measuree underlying numbers themselves which can be
removed by using this Graph
• To emphasize a few points you want to make, you can manipulate pieces of data in the pie Graph

Disadvantages of a Pie Graph

• It becomes less effective, If there are too many pieces of data to use
• If there are too many pieces of data, and even if you add data labels and numbers may not help
here, they themselves may become crowded and hard to read
• As this Graph only represents one data set, You need a series to compare multiple sets • This may
make it more difficult for readers when it comes to analyze and assimilate

2. Bar Diagram

• Also known as a column graph, a bar graph or a bar diagram is a pictorial representation of
data.. It is shown in the form of rectangles spaced out with equal spaces between them and having
equal width.. The equal width and equal space criteria are important characteristics of a bar graph.
• Note that the height (or length) of each bar corresponds to the frequency of a particular
observation. You can draw bar graphs both, vertically or horizontally depending on whether you
take the frequency along the vertical or horizontal axes respectively. Let us take an example to
understand how a bar graph is dradrawn.
Example:-Construct
Construct a Bar Graph from following data. Students

No. of Students

Basketball 15
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Volleyball 25

Football 10

Total = 50
To above table depicts the number of students of a class engaged in any one of the three sports
given. Note that the number of students is actually the frequency. So, if we take frequency to be
represented on the y axis and the sports on the xx-axis, taking each unit on the y-axis
axis to be equal to5
students, we would get a graph that resembles the one below.
The blue rectangles here are called bars. Note that the bars have equal width and are equally
spaced,, as mentioned above. This is a simple bar diagram.

3.Histogram:

Histogram is a non-cumulative
cumulative frequency graph, it is drawn on a natural scale in which there
presentative frequencies of the different class of values are represented through vertical rectangles
drawn closed to each other. Measure of central tendency, mode can be easily determined with the
help of this graph.
How to draw a Histogram:
1. Represent the class intervals of the variables along the X axis and their frequencies along the Y-
Y
axis on natural scale.
2. Start X axis with the lower limit of the lowest class interval. When the lower limit happens to be a
distant score from the origin give a break in the X X-axis
axis n to indicate that the vertical axis has been
moved in for convenience.
3. Now draw rectangular bars in parallel to Y axis above each of the class intervals with class units
as base: The areas of rectangles must be proportiona
proportional to the frequencies of the corresponding
classes.
Example :- Construct a Histogram Graph from following data.

C.I f
20-24 2
25-29 2
30-34 5
35-39 10
40-44 6
45-49 2
50-54 3
Solution:
In this graph we shall take class intervals in the X axis and frequencies in the Y axis. Before plotting

40 | P a g e
the graph we have to convert the class into their exact limits.

Advantages of histogram:
1. It is easy to draw and simple to understand.
2. It helps us to understand the distribution easily and quickly.
3. It is more precise than the polygene.

Limitations of histogram:

1. It is not possible to plot more than one distribution on same axes as histogram. 2. Comparison of
more than one frequency distribution on the same axes is not possible.
3. It is not possible to make it smooth.

Uses of histogram:
1. Represents the data in graphic form.
2. Provides the knowledge of how the scores in the group are distributed. Whether the scores are
piled up at the lower or higher end of the distribution or are evenly and regularly distributed
throughout the scale.
3. Frequency Polygon. The frequency poly
polygon is a frequency graph which is drawn by joining the
coordinating points of the mid-values
values of the class intervals and their corresponding frequencies.

4. Frequency Polygon

1. Draw a horizontal line at the bottom of graph paper named ‘X’ axis. Mark off the exact limits
of the class intervals along this axis. It is better to start with c.i. of lowest value. When the

2. lowest score in the distribution is a large number we cannot show it graphically if we start
with the origin. Therefore put a break in the X axis () to indicate that the vertical axis has
been moved in for convenience. Two additional points may be added to the two t extreme
ends.

3. Draw a vertical line through the extreme end of the horizontal axis known as Oasis. Along
this line mark off the units to represent the frequencies of the class intervals. The scale
should be chosen in such a way that it will make the largest frequency (height) of the
polygon approximately 75 percent of the width of the figure.

41 | P a g e
 4. Plot the points at a height proportional to the frequencies directly above the point on the
horizontal axis representing the mid
mid-point of each class interval.

4. After plotting all the points on the graph join these points by a series of short straight lines
l to
form the frequency polygon. In order to complete the figure two additional intervals at the high end
and low end of the distribution should be included. The frequency of these two intervals will be
zero.
Draw a frequency polygon from the following data

Solution:

In this graph we shall take the class intervals (marks in mathematics) in X axis, and
frequencies(Number of students) in the Y axis. Before plotting the graph we have to convert the c.i.
into their exact limits and extend one c.i. in each end with a frequency of O.

Class intervals with exact limits:

Advantages of frequency polygon:

1. It is easy to draw and simple to understand.

2. It is possible to plot two distributions at a time on same axes.

3.Comparison of two distributions can be made through frequency polygon.

5. It is possible to make it smooth.

Limitations of frequency polygon:

1. It is less precise.
2. It is not accurate in terms of area the frequency upon each interval.

Uses of frequency polygon:

1. When two or more distributions are to be compared the frequency polygon is used. 2. It
represents the data in graphic form.
2.. It provides knowledge of how the scores in one or more group are distributed. Whether the
scores are piled up at the lower or higher end of the distribution or are evenly and regularly
distributed throughout the scale.

Cumulative Frequency Curve

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Meaning:-This
This is a diagram that displays cumulative frequency.

Solution:

To plot this graph first we have to convert, the class intervals into their exact limits. Then we have
to calculate the cumulative frequencies of the distribution.

Now we have to plot the cumulative frequencies in respect to their corresponding class-intervals.
class
Ogive plotted from the data given above:

Uses:

1. Ogive is useful to determine the number of students below and above a particular score. 2. When
the median as a measure of central tendency is wanted.
3. When the quartiles, deciles and percentiles are wanted.
4. By plotting the scores of two groups on a same scale we can compare both the groups.

6.Cumulative
Cumulative percentage Curve

Cumulative percentage is another

other way of expressing frequency distribution. It calculates the
percentage of the cumulative frequency within each interval, much as relative frequency
distribution calculates the percentage of frequency.

The main advantage of cumulative percentage over cumulative frequency as a measure of

frequency distribution is that it provides an easier way to compare different sets of data.

Cumulative frequency and cumulative percentage graphs are exactly the same, w with
ith the exception
of the vertical axis scale. In fact, it is possible to have the two vertical axes, (one for cumulative
frequency and another for cumulative percentage), on the same graph.

Cumulative percentage is calculated by dividing the cumulative frequency by the total number of
observations (n),
), then multiplying it by 100 (the last value will always be equal to 100%). Thus,

43 | P a g e
 cumulative percentage = (cumulative frequency ÷ n) x 100Example 1 –
Calculating cumulative percentage

Example:-

For 25 days, the snow depth at Whistler Mountain, B.C. was measured (to the nearest centimeter)
and recorded as follows:

242, 228, 217, 209, 253, 239, 266, 242, 251, 240, 223, 219, 246, 260, 258, 225, 234, 230, 249, 245,
254, 243, 235, 231, 257.

Answers:

1. The snow depth measurements range from 209 cm to 266 cm. In order to produce the table, the
data are best grouped in class intervals of 10 cm each.
In the Snow depth column, each 10-cm class interval from 200 cm to 270 cm is listed. The Frequency
column records the number of observations that fall within a particular interval. This column
represents the observations in the Tally column, only in numerical form.
Each of the numbers in the Endpoint column is the highest number in each class interval. In the
interval of 200 cm to 210 cm, the endpoint would be 210.
The Cumulative frequency column lists the total of each frequency added to its
predecessor, as seen in the exercises in the previous section.

The Cumulative percentage column divides the cumulative frequency by the total number of
observations (in this case, 25). The result is then multiplied by 100. This calculation gives the
cumulative percentage for each interval.

Snow depth (x) Frequency Endpoint Cumulative Cumulative percentage

(f) frequency

200 0 0 ÷ 25 x 100 = 0

200 to 210 1 210 1 1 ÷ 25 x 100 = 4

210 to 220 2 220 3 3 ÷ 25 x 100 = 12

220 to 230 3 230 6 6 ÷ 25 x 100 = 24

230 to 240 5 240 11 11 ÷ 25 x 100 = 44

240 to 250 7 250 18 18 ÷ 25 x 100 = 72

250 to 260 5 260 23 23 ÷ 25 x 100 = 92

260 to 270 2 270 25 25 ÷ 25 x 100 = 100

2. Apart from the extra axis representing the cumulative percentage, the graph should look exactly
the same as that drawn in Example 2 of the section on Cumulative frequency. The Cumulative
percentage axis is divided into five intervals of 20, while the Cumulative frequency axis is divided
into five intervals of 5. The Snow depth axis is divided by the endpoints of each 10-cm class interval.

Using each endpoint to plot the graph, you will discover that both the cumulative frequency and the

44 | P a g e
cumulative percentage land in the same spot. For example, using the endpoint of 260, plot your
point on the 23rd day (cumulative frequency). This poi
point
nt happens to be in the same place where the
cumulative percentage (92%) will be plotted. You have to be very careful when you are building a
graph with two y-axes. For example, if you have 47 observations, you might be tempted to use
intervals of 5 and end your y- axis at the cumulative frequency of 50. However, when you draw your
y-axis
axis for the cumulative percentage, you must put the 100% interval at the same level as the 47
mark on the other y-axis—notnot at the 50 mark. For this example, a cumulative frequency
frequ of
47 represents 100% of your data. If you put the 100% at the top of the scale where the 50 interval
is marked, your line for the cumulative frequency will not match the line for the cumulative
percentage.

The plotted points join to form an ogive, which often looks similar to a stretched S.. Ogives are used
to determine the number, or percentage, of observations that lie above or below a specified value.
For example, according to the table and the graph, 92% of the time the snow depth recorded in the
25-day
day period was below the 260 cm mark.

The following information can be gained from either the graph or table:
• during the 25-day
day period, 24% of the time the recorded snow depth was less than230 cm • on 7 of
the 25 days, snow depth was at least 250 cm
PROBABILITY

Probably is an adverb thatindicatesa high degree of likelihoodor probability. Itis usedto express
thatsomething is likely tohappenorbe true,butnot certain.
Example sentences:

Iwill probably attendtheparty tonight.(Itis likely thatIwill attend, butnot certain). She isprobably
goingtolove the gift. (Itis likely that shewill love the gift, butnot certain).Itwill probably rain
tomorrow.(Itis likely torain,butnot certain)
Probably is often used to:

1. Express uncertainty or doubt

2. Show a degree of confidence or likelihood
3. Hedge a bet or prediction
4. Soften a statement or prediction
Synonyms for probably include:

1. Likely
2. Possibly
3. Maybe
4. Chances are
5. Odds are
Note that probably is different from definitely, which indicates complete certainty.
EXAMPLE :

45 | P a g e
When we roll a fair die then the sample space is S ={ 1, 2 , 3, 4, 5, 6}.
The probability the die lands with k up is 1 to 6 ,(k = 1, 2, · · · , 6).

When we roll it 1200times we expect a 5 up about 200 times. The probability the die lands with an

even numeracies 1/6+1/6+1/6 = ½

EXAMPLE :

When we flip a coin then sample space is S ={H,T},Where denotes that the
coin lands ”Heads up” and

T denotes that the coin lands ”Tails up”. For a ”fair coin ”we expectH and T to have the same ”chance

”of Occurring, i.e.,if we flip the coin many times then about 50 %of the Outcomes will beH.

We say that the probability ofHtooccur is 0.5(or 50 %). The probability ofT tooccur is then also 0.5.
EXAMPLE :

When we toss a coin 3 times and record the results in the sequence. That they occur, then the
sample space is
S = { HHH ,HHT ,HTH , HTT , THH , THT , TTH , TTT } . Elements of S are ”vectors ”,”sequences ”, or
”ordered outcomes ”.We may expect each of the 8 outcomes to be equally likely. Thus the
probability of the sequenceHTTis1/8
The probability of a sequence to contain precisely two Heads is1/8+1/8+1/8=3/8
Merit of Probability:

1._Quantifies Uncertainty_: Probability provides a numerical measure of uncertainty, allowing us to

analyze and manage risks.
2._Predictive Power_: Probability helps predict future events and outcomes, enabling informed
decision-making.

3. _Logical Consistency_: Probability follows logical rules and axioms, ensuring consistent and

reliable calculations.

4._Applicability_: Probability is applied in various fields, including statistics, engineering, finance,

insurance, and medicine.

5. _Flexibility_: Probability can model a wide range of events and scenarios, from simple to complex.

Demerits of Probability:

1._Subjective Interpretation_: Probability can be interpreted subjectively, leading to different

conclusionsfromthe samedata.

2. _Limited Precision_: Probability calculations are only as precise as the data and assumptions

used. 3. _Model Risk_: Probability models can be oversimplified or inaccurate, leading to incorrect

predictions. 4. _Misinterpretation_: Probability results can be misinterpreted or misunderstood,

leading to incorrect decisions. 5. _Overreliance_:Overreliance on probability can lead to neglect of

46 | P a g e
other important factors in decision-making. 6. _Computational Complexity_: Complex probability

calculations can be computationally challenging.

7._Sensitivity to Assumptions_: Probability calculations are sensitive to assumptions made, which

may not alwaysbe accurate.
By understanding both the merits anddemerits of probability, we can use probability theory
effectively andavoid potential pitfalls in our analysis anddecision-making processes.

:Biotic Community of Water Study:-

Thebioticcommunityofwater,alsoknownasaquaticbiota,referstothelivingorganisms thatinhabit
aquaticecosystems suchas rivers,lakes,ponds,wetlands,andoceans.Thesecommunities include:-

1. Phytoplankton (algae, cyanobacteria)

2. Zooplankton(smallcrustaceans, rotifers,protozoa)

3. Benthos(bottom-dwellingorganisms likemussels, snails, crayfish)

4. Fish(variousspecies)

5. Otheraquaticanimals(amphibians, reptiles,birds)

6. Aquaticplants(macrophytes, seaweeds)

7. Microorganisms (bacteria, archaea, fungi)

Studying the biotic community of water involves understanding :-

1. Species interactions (predation, competition, symbiosis)

2. Foodwebsandnutrient cycling

3. Habitatpreferencesanddistribution

4. Populationdynamicsandecology
5. Impact of environmental factors (temperature, pH, pollution)

6. Humaninfluences(conservation,management, climatechange)

Understandingthebioticcommunityofwater
iscrucialformaintaininghealthyaquaticecosystemsandmanagingwater resourceseffectively.
Phytoplankton:-Euglena ,Diatomsetc.

Zooplanktons :-Cyclops Cypris ,Daphnia sp.etc.

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 Systemic position of Zooplanktons according to Rupert and Barnes 1994 :-

-: Identifying feature:-

Species 1 Species 2 Species 3 Species 4

Name of species:- Daphnia sp. Moina sp. Cypris sp. Cyclops sp.

Class:- Branchiopoda Branchiopoda Ostracoda Copepoda

Subclass:- Diplostarca Diplostarca Podocop Copepoda

Genus:- Daphnia Moina Cypris Cyclops

Phylum:- Arthopoda Arthopoda Arthopoda Arthopoda

Subphylum:- Crustacea Crustacea Crustacea Crustacea

Species name:- Daphnia sp. Moina sp. Cypris sp. Cyclops sp.

Identifying i)antenna are i)body is oval in i)body is covered i)Body is club

features:- biramous. shape. with carapace. shaped.

ii)Rostrum is ii)Antenna are ii)Head bears 4 ii)Abdomen bears

pointing downwards branched pairs of a pair of caudal
appendages. style.
iii)Body ends in a iii)Rostrum is
unjoined caudal horizontal in iii)Presence of iii)Presence of
style position three pair of median eye.
thorasic
iv)Eyes are sessile. iv)Body ends in a appendages. iv)Mature females
pair of caudal carry 2 ovisacs on
style. the lateral sides of
the abdomen.

48 | P a g e
 ❖ CONCLUSION:-

An internship during college provides a valuable opportunity for students to gain practical work experience,
apply, apply theoreticalknowledge,anddevelopessentialskillsinaprofessionalsetting.Bycompletinganinternship,
students can: - Clarify career goals and aspirations
- Build a network of professionals in their industry
- Enhance their resume and increase employability
- Develop important skills such as communication, teamwork, and problem-solving
- Gaina competitive edge in the job market
- Overall, an internship is a valuable investment in a student’s future, providing a platform for growth, learning,
and career advancement.

Based on our internshipIhavelikelygainedexperienceinwetlandecosystems.knowledgeabout:

- Three type of ecosystems :-

1.BehalaCollegePond,2.Parnasreelake,

3.Rabindra Sarobar lake.

- Diversity of birds : -

1.willland-dependent species,2.Migratory birds.

3.Residentbirds.

Diversity of insects :-

1.Aquaticinsects(e.g. Dragonflies ,damselflies, water striders)

2.Terrestrial insects (e.g.. butterflies, moths, beetles, ants)

3.Wetland-specific insects(e.g. Marsh beetles, caddisflies. Midges)

• Insects that are important pollinators or prey for birds and other.

This knowledge has likely helped you understand the complex relationships between species and their

environments,aswellastheimportanceofconservationandmanagementefforts to protect these ecosystems and the

need for species that depend on them.

In conclusion, the integration of biostatistics and conservational biology is crucial for understanding and protecting ecosystems.
Through the application of statistical analysis and data interpretation, we can gain valuable insights into the complexities of
ecosystems and inform effective conservation strategies.

In this study, we examined two ecosystems: Parnasree lake and the Rabindra sarobar lake. While both ecosystems are vastly
49 | P a g e
different in terms of their composition and structure, they share similarities in their importance as biodiversity hotspots and their

vulnerability to human impacts.

➢ Similarities between the two ecosystems include:

- High levels of endemism and species richness

- Critical roles in regulating climate and nutrient cycles
- Threats from human activities such as pollution

➢ Differences between the two ecosystems include:

- Terrestrial vs. marine environments

- Different dominant species and community compositions
- Unique conservation challenges and management strategies

By applying biostatistical techniques to the study of these ecosystems, we can better understand the complex relationships
between species and their environments, and develop targeted conservation efforts to protect these critical ecosystems.

Overall, this study highlights the importance of interdisciplinary approaches to understanding and conserving ecosystems,
and demonstrates the power of biostatistics in informing effective conservation strategies.

50 | P a g e
➢ References:-

o "Fundamentals of Biostatistics" by Farozan Midhat.

o ‘’Spatial Dynamics and Ecology of Large Ungulate Populations in Tropical Forests of India" by N. Samba Kumar, K. Ullas
Karanth, James D. Nichols, Beth Gardner .

o "Biostatistics And Cell Biology" by Veer B. Rastogi.

o https://biostathandbook.com/

o https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/131

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