FORCES

Force is a pull or push.The SI unit of force is Newtons and standard symbol for Newtons is N.
Effects of force
 Change size or shape of an object
 Change the motion an object
 Turning effect of a force (or moment of a force)
Effects of force on size or shape of an object (e.g stretching spring)
When a force is applied to a spring, the spring stretches on increases in size (i.e. it extends)
The extension is directly proportional to the applied force i.e.
When extension doubles when the applied force is douled.
Therefore Fα e
Hence F=k × e where F=applied force measured in Newtons (N)
e= extension measured inm
k= force constant of a spring measured in N/m
Note: extension is the difference between original length,l0 andthe strnew) length,l. i.e.
e=l−l 0
Force constant of a spring is the force required to cause extension of one unit in a spring i.e
F
k=
e
Hooke’s Law
The extension of an elastic material is directly proportional to the applied force provided the limit of
proportionality (elastic limit) is not exceeded i.e.
F 1 :e 1
F 2 :e 2
Examples
1. The diagram shows a spring of original length x.When a load is hung on the spring, the new
length of the spring is y.
Solution

Data: l=x ; l 0= y ; e−?

Formula: e=l−l 0

Substitution: e= y −x
What is the extension of the spring?
A x B y C y–x D y+x
2. Diagram X shows a 4 cm spring suspended from a support. Diagram Y shows the same spring
with 200 g mass hanging from one end. Solution
Data:
m1=200 g ; e 1=2 cm; m2=300 g ; e 2−?
Formula:m 1 : e1
m2 : e2
Substitution: 200 g :2 cm
300 g :e 2
e 2 × 200 g=300 g ×2 cm
Which extension will a 300 g mass produce from the same spring? e 2=3 cm
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 A 2 cm B 3 cm C 6 cm D 7 cm
Experiment to determine the relationship between extension and the applied force (load)
Apparatus:
1. Spring
2. Mass hanger
3. Mass slots
4. Retort stand
5. Metre rule
Set up: Metre rule
spring spring

l0
Retort stand Retort stand l

Metre rule

Procedure Fig.1 shows a spring with no forceapplied to it. Fig.2 shows a spring with a force, Fapplied to it.
1. Hanga spring from a retort stand in line with a vertical metre rule
2. Record the original length of the spring as l0.
3. Hang a 1N load to the spring and record the new length of the spring as l.
4. Calculate the extension of the spring using e=l-l0 and record as e.
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for 2 N, 3 N, 4 N e.t.c to get atleast five sets of readings.
6. Tabulate the results for mass, load,length and extensioni.e
load / N length/ cm extension/ cm
0 2.0 0.0
1 3.0 1.0
2 4.0 2.0
3 5.0 3.0
4 6.0 4.0
7. Plot a graph of load/ N against extension/ cm.
8. Draw the line of best fit.
9. Calculate the gradient of the graph which must be equivalent to the force constant of the
spring, k (in N/cm).

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Gradient calculation
Y 2−Y 1
Gradient=
X 2− X 1
4 N −1 N
Gradient=
4 cm−1 cm
Gradient=1 N /cm
Therefore force constant of the spring , k= 1N/cm.
Note: The load is directionally proportional to extension.
Why? Because of a straight graph of constant gradient passing through the origin [or (0,0)]
Limit of proportionality (Elastic limit)
This is the maximum point where an elastic material obeys Hooke’s law. Beyond the elastic limit the
material will be deformed or overstretched i.e can not go back to its original length (size).
Force /N

Extension / cm

Extension / cm Force / N
Point labelled with a cross(×) is the limit of proportionality(elastic limit).
Immediately after limit of proportionality the graph starts to curves smoothly .
 For force vs extension graph curves downwards
 For extension vs force graph curves upwards
Examples
1. (a) Fig. 1.1 shows a mass hanger 7 cm from the top of the tabletop attached to a spring of
length 5 cm. when a load of 10 N is put on the mass hanger the distance between the tabletop
and the mass hanger becomes 4 cm. Data:
F 1=10 N ; e1=3 cm ; F2 =20 N ; e2−?

Formula: F 1 :e 1

F 2 :e 2

Substitution: 10 N :3 cm

20 N :e 2

e 2 × 10 N =20 N ×3 cm
Calculate the length of the spring when a 20 Nload is placed on the mass hanger.
(Assune the spring is not deformed) e 2=6 cm

e 2=l 2 +l 0
3
6 cm=l2 +5 cm
 11 cm
length = …………….[2]
(b) Fig. 1.2 shows a load-extension graph foa a spring.

(i) What does point X represent?

Limit of prortionality
…………………………………………………………………………………….[1]
(ii) What would happen to the spring if the load is removed after point X has been passed?
Spring can not return to its original length
………………………………………………………………………………………….[1]
(iii) Use the graph to determine the load which causes an extension of 1cmon the spring.
load = ……1 N………..[1]
Extension of elastic materials in series and parallel
Springs in series
Metre rule
spring spring

es

F Retort stand
Retort stand

Metre rule
F

Fig.1 shows a spring with force, F applied to it. Fig.2 shows two spring in series with a force, F applied to it

If two springs are joint in series have a load added as shown in fig.2 above
 Each spring will be stretched by the load(force applied)
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  Total extension will be twice the extension of asingle spring for the same force applied i.e.
es=2e
 Therefore their force constant will be half of that of a single spring i.e.
F
k s=
es
F 1 F
k s= = ×
2e 2 e
k F
k s= where k =
2 e
Note: in general for springs in series,
k
k s= where n= number of springs
n
Springs in parallel
Metre rule
spring springs

e ep

F Retort stand
Retortstand F

Metre rule

Fig.1 shows a spring with force, F applied to it. Fig.2 shows two spring in parallel with a force, F applied to

If two springs are joint in parallel have a load added as shown in fig.2 above
 The two springs will share the load(force applied)
 Total extension will be half of the extension of a single spring i.e.
e
e p=
2
 Therefore their force constant will be twice that of a single spring i.e.
F
k p=
ep
F
k p=
e
2
5
 2F F
k p= =2×
e e
F
k p=2 k where k =
e
Note: in general for springs in parrallel,
kp=nk where n= number of springs
Examples
1. Fig. 1.1 shows few identical springs of original length 11 cm suspended differently.

Fig. 1.1 Fig. 1.2 Fig. 1.3

A 4kg mass causes an extension of 2 cm
(a) Determine the extension caused by a 6 kg mass hung on one spring?

m1 : e1 → 4 kg :2 cm

m2 : e2 →6 kg :e 2

4 kg × e2=6 kg ×2 cm

e 2=3 cm extension =…3 cm………..[2]

(b) A 6 kg mass is hung from a combination of 3 springs in parallel as in Fig. 1.2.
Determine the new lengthof each spring.
e
e p=
n

3 cm
e p= =1 cm
3

e=l−l 0 → l=1 cm+ 11cm

length =………………..[2]
12 cm
(c) A 6 kg mass is hung from two of these springs in series as in Fig.1.3.
Determine the new length of each spring
e S =n ×e

e s=2× 3 cm=6 cm

Therefore each spring extends by 3 cm

e=l−l 0 → l=3 cm+11cm

6 14 cm
 length =………………..[2]

2. A springs extends by 6.0 cm when a 15 N weight is suspended from its lower end.
Fig.2.1 shows three of these springs used to support a 90 N weight.

Fig.2.1
Determine the extension of each spring.
For single spring: F 1 :e 1 → 15 N : 6 cm

F 2 :e 2 → 90 N :e 2

15 N ×e 2=90 N ×6 cm → e2=36 cm

e extension = …………..…[2]
For parallel springs: e p=
n

36 cm
e = =12 cm12 cm
Force and motion p
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Effects of force on motion of an object
It can make an object to accelerate ie increases the speed of an object.
It can make an object to decelerate ie decreases the speed of an object.
It can cause an object to move at constant speed.
It can cause an object to stop.
Newton’s Laws of motion
First Law:
A body at rest will remains at rest until acted upon by an external force.
OR
A body in motion will continue moving in astraight line unless acted upon by an external
force.
OR
If there is no resultant force the velocity is constant e.g for a parachute air resistance is
equivalent to weight.
Second Law:
A force produces a constant acceleration when it acts on affixed mass. i.e A force applied
on fixed mass of an object will cause that object to move with a constant acceleration. i.e.
Fr=m×a whereFr= resultant force (N)
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 m = mass (kg)
a = acceleration (m/s2)
Third Law:
If a body,A exerts a force on a body B, body B exerts an equal but opposite force on body A.
e.g
F
The boy exerts aforce, F on the wall and the wall exerts an equal but opposite force, F on him.
Relationship between
boy force applied, resultant force and friction
wall
In real life situations, the force applied to an object make the object to accelerate and also overcome
the friction i.e.
F app =F R + F f
Where F app =force applied
F R =resultant force
F f =frictio n

When friction is very small i.e. neglecting friction, F f =0 N

Then
F app =F R +0 N
F app =F R=m× a
When friction is equal to the force applied and resultant force is zero, F R =0 N because of zero
acceleration due to constant speed F f =0 N
Then
F app =0 N + F f
F app =F f
Examples
1. A box of mass 50 kg is pulledby a force of 100 N along a horizontal surface.

The box moves at a constant speed of 10 m/s. what is the value of the friction force F?
A. 0 N Constant speed implies a = 0m/s2 hence FR = 0 N and
B. 50 N Fapp= 100 N
C. 100 N
D. 500 N Therefore F app =F R + F f 100 N=0 N + F f F f =100 N

2. Which diagram shows the ball with the greatest acceleration? F R =m× a

FR
a=
m

Since F R =constant

1
Therefore a ∝
m

Hence smaller mass implies

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higher acceleration
3. The digram shows a donkey pulliny a loaded sledge of mass 200 kg.
The donkey causes the sledge to accelerate at 0.5 m/s2.

What is the net pulling force provided by thedonkey? F R =m× a

A 0.0025 N 2
B 100 N F R =200 kg ×0.5 m/ s
C 200 N
D 400 N
F R =100 N
4. Fig.4.1 shows a metal ball released from the surface of oil in a tube of length 0.50 m. The ball
has a mass of 1.0 kg.

Fig.4.1
(a) For the instant when the acceleration of the ball is 5.0 m/s 2, calculate
(i) the resultant force acting on the ball
F R =m× a
2
F R =1.0 kg ×5.0 m/s

F R =5 N 5N
resultant force = …………………[2]
(ii) the frictional force acting on the ball
F app =F R + F f
2
F app =W =m× g=1.0 kg ×10 m/ s =10 N
10 N=5 N + F f 9

F f =10 N −5 N
 5N
frictional force = …………………[2]
(b) The oil is replaced with a thicker oil. What effect does this have on the acceleration of the
ball?
acceleration decreases
……………………..………………………………………………………………………
Explain your answer.
Friction due to liquid increases
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………….…. [2]
(c) In another experiment a ball falls down the tube from rest at constant acceleration of 5.0
m/s2.
Calculate the time it takes to reach the bottom ofthe tube.
Data: s=0.50 m; u = 0 m/s; a = 5.0 m/s2; t-?

1 2
Equation: s=ut+ a t
2

1 2
Substitution: 0.50=(0× t)+( × 5.0× t )
2
2 0.45 s
time = ……………..[2]
0.50=2.5 ×t
5. Fig.5.1shows a boy pushing a box.

F
Fig.5.1
The boy finds it difficult to start moving the box.
(a) What property of the box makes it difficultstart moving?
inertia
…………………………………………………….…………………………….. [1]
(b) The box has weight of 500 N.
(i) Calculate the mass of the box. Take g as 10 N/kg.
W =m× g

W 500 N
m= =
g 10 N /kg
50 kg
mass = ………………..[2]
(ii) The box accelerates at 0.1 m/s2. Calculate the resultant force on the box.
F R =m× a
2
F R =50 kg ×0.1 m/s
resultant force= …………………..[2]
5N
(iii) Calculate the total force applied to the box if the friction force is 115 N.
F app =F R + F f

F app =5 N + 115 N
120 N
10
 total force= …………………..[2]
(iv) On Fig.5.1 ,draw an arrow to show the direction offriction force. Label it F. [1]
(c) Suggest one way of reducing friction between the box and the floor.
Put rollers between box and floor OR polish floor surface
………………………………………………………………………………………..… [1]

Force and circular motion

Circular motion (curvilinear motion) refers to motion along curved path.
Examples of circular motion:
 Earth spins on its axis and orbits the sun
 Car going around a curve or circle
 Records spin on turntables
 Satellites orbit the earth
 A ball swingson end of a string in vertical or horizontal motion
Objects moving in a circular motionexperience a pull (force) towards the centre . This pull (force)
towards the centre is called the centripetal force.
This centripetal force is the resultant force,Fr which keeps the body in motion aroundthe curve with
constant velocity,v.
The velocity of the object in circular motion is tangent to the circle (or circular path).
The object is accelerating because direction of velocity is changing.
v

Fr

Fr

A breakage of the string at anytime causes a ball to get out of the path at direction tangent to the
circle (or circular path).Why?
The resultantforce(tension) on the string is zero.
Object out of path

String breaks

Note:
 For an object whirling round on astring the centripetal force is equal to thetension.
 For a car going around a curved path or circle the centripetal force is equal to friction on the
wheels.
 For a satellite going round the earth the centripetal force is equal to force of gravity.
Examples
1. The diagram shows a ball tied to one end of a string. The ball is whirled in an anticlockwise
direction. In which direction will the ball move if the move if the string breaks in the position
shown?

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Moment of a force (turning effects of a force)
When a force is applied to an object fixed(pivoted) at particular point,it causes an object to turn e.g
 Doors are pivoted at the hinges: handle on the door is at the outer edge for easier opening and
closes
 See-saws
 Using a spanners (or screwdriver) to remove the nut(or srew)
Moment measured by multiplying force by the perpendicular distance of force from the pivot (or
fulcrum). i.e.
Moment of aforce = force × perpendicular distance from the pivot
M=F×s
The SI unit for moment of a force is newton metre (Nm).
Principles of moments:
For an object to be in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moment about any point is equal to the
sum of the anticlockwise moment about same point.
i.e The net moment on an object in equilibrium is zero. E.g for the beams shown below:
(i)
s2 s1

F2 F1
pivot

clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment

F1 × s1 = F2 × s2
Note: s1 = s2 hence F1= F2 so that the beam is in equilibrium.
(ii)
s2 s1

F2 F1
pivot
clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment
F1 × s1 = F2 × s2
Note: s1 < s2 hence F1> F2 so that the beam is in equilibrium.
Examples
1. The diagram shows a uniform metre rule in equilibrium pivotedat 20 cm mark.
F 1 × s 1=F2 × s2

F × 55 cm=2 N × 15 cm

2 N ×15 cm
F=
What is the size of force F? 55 cm
12 F=0.545 N
 A. 0.40 N
B. 0.53 N
C. 0.55 N
D. 0.73 N

2. A uniform beam of weight 10 N is pivoted as shown.

F 1 × s 1=F2 × s2

20 N × s=10 N ×10 cm

10 N ×10 cm
F=
55 cm

s=5 cm
At which point should a 20 N force act to keep the beam horizontal?
3. A softball bat YZ is balanced as shown.
m1 × s 1=m2 × s 2

m ×16 cm=80 g ×20 cm

80 g ×20 cm
m=
16 cm

m=100 g
The centre of mass of the bat is 14 cm from end Y.
What is the mass of thesoftball bat?
A 53.3 g B 100.0 g C 114.3 g D 120.0 g
4. A horizontal uniform plank has a weight 30 N. the plank is balanced on a pivot by a force F.

F 1 × s 1=F2 × s2

x
F × x=30 N ×
What is the value of force F? 2
A 15 N B 30 N C 45 N D 60 N
5. The diagram shows a boy sitting on a uniform seesaw, which is pivoted at the centre. F=15 N

At which point should a girl of weight a little more than that of the boy sits to balance the
plank?
Parallel Forces
Sometimes a number of parallel forces act on a body so that it is in equilibrium.
We say: the sum of the forces in one is equal to the sum of forces on the opposite direction i.e. the law
of moments must apply.
Example
1. Fig 1 shows a uniform plank balanced by the two forces. (neglect the mass of the plank).
150N
0.5m 1.0m
13

100N 50N

Fig.1
 (a) Dertimine the force exerted by the pivot on the plank.
downward forces=upward forces
100 N +50 N=upward force
upward force=150 N
On fig.1 draw an arrow to show the direction of the force obtained in (a) above.
Couples
When two equal and opposite forces are applied to an object, these causes rotation.These forces form
a couple.e.g when riding a bicycle round a curve with two hands on the handles.

Note: F1and F2 form a couple.

Scalars and Vectors
Scalar
This is a physical quantity with magnitude( or size) only such as mass, length, time, temperature,
amount of substance,electric current,area, volume, distance, speed,energy, pressure e.t.c.
Vector
This is a physical quantity with magnitude( or size) and the direction such as velocity,
displacement,acceleration,force (e.g weight),moment of a force e.t.c.
Addition of vectors
(a) Parallel vectors in the same direction
If two forces are acting on a body as shown in Fig.(i) their resultant is found by simple addition of
the acting forces.i.e.
3N
= 4N
1N

Fig.(i)
The resultant force is 4N in the direction of the acting forces i.e 4N to the right.

(b) Parallel vectors in opposite direction

If two forces are acting on a body as shown in Fig.(ii) their resultant is found by simple addition
of the acting forces.i.e.

1N 3N = 2N

14 Fig.(ii)
 The resultant force is 2N in the direction of the greater force i.e 2N to the right.
(c) Vectors at an angle,θ to each other
The resultant of two vectors are acting at an angle , θ to each is found by using pallelogram law
(for θ ≠90⁰)or Pythagoras rule (for θ =90⁰).
Parallelogram law:
It states that if two vectors are acting at angle, θ to each other are represented in size and direction
by the sides of a parallelogram drawn from a point, their resultant is represented in size and
direction by the diagonal of a parallelogram drawn from a point.
(i) Vectors at angle θ = 90⁰ (i.e. perpendicular vectors)
If two forces are acting at right angle, θ =90⁰ to each,on a body their resultant is found by
using
a) parallelogram law

R
a
θ1
θ2
b
Note: θ = θ1 + θ2
Themagnitude of the resultant force,Rof a and b is the length of the diagonal of
the parallelogram W,X,Y,Z and its direction is either angle θ2from force b or
angle θ1from force a.
b) pythagoras theorem.

R
a

θ1
θ2
b
Note: θ = θ1 + θ2
When applying pythagoras theorem, the resultant force,R is calculated as the
squareroot of sum of a2and b2
R=√ a2 +b2
The direction of the resultant is either:
a −1 −1 b −1 a
 θ2=tan or θ2=cos or θ2=sin from force b
b R R
−1 b −1 a −1 b
 θ1=tan or θ1=cos or θ1=sin from force a
a R R

(ii) Vectors at an angle,θ ≠ 90⁰ to each other

a R

θ1
θ2
b 15
 Note: θ = θ1 + θ2
The magnitude of the resultant,R is the length of the diagonal of the parallelogram.
The direction of theresultant is in terms of the angles between the resultant and the acting
force.i.e.
Resultant,R is angle, θ1 from a or angle, θ2 from b.
Examples
A fisherman who canpaddleat 4km/h in still water, heads a canoe due north. The water is moving at a
steady speed of 2km/h due east.
Using a diagram,or otherwise, find the magnitude of the resultant velocity of canoe
method1: using diagram method 2: using Pythagoras theorem
Scale: 2cm:1km R=(42+ 22)1/2
R=201/2
R=4.472135955
R=4.47 km/h
Angle is found as follows:
Tan θ = [(2km/h)/4km/h]
4km/h R
θ = tan-1(2/4)
θ =26.56505118
θ =26.5⁰

2km/h
Measured length of diagonal=9.0cm
The resultant velocity is calculated as follows:
2 cm:1 km/h
9.0 cm : x
9.0 cm ×1 km/h
x=
2 cm
x=4.5 km/h
The direction of resultant velocity of the canoe relative to north
Is obtained by measuring the angle between the diagonal and the 4km/h side i.e. angle = 27⁰

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