Processes - Part III

Amir H. Payberah
[email protected]
Nov. 8, 2023
CPU Scheduling

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CPU Scheduling

I CPU scheduling is the basis of multiprogrammed OSs.

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CPU Scheduling

I CPU scheduling is the basis of multiprogrammed OSs.

I By switching the CPU among processes, the OS makes the computer

more productive.

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Basic Concepts

I In a single-processor system, only one process can run at a time.

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Basic Concepts

I In a single-processor system, only one process can run at a time.

I Others must wait until the CPU is free and can be rescheduled.

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Basic Concepts

I In a single-processor system, only one process can run at a time.

I Others must wait until the CPU is free and can be rescheduled.

I The objective of multiprogramming is to have some process running at

all times, to maximize CPU utilization.

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Basic Concepts

I CPU-I/O burst cycle: process execution

consists of a cycle of CPU execution
and I/O wait.

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Basic Concepts

I CPU-I/O burst cycle: process execution

consists of a cycle of CPU execution
and I/O wait.

I CPU burst followed by I/O burst.

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Basic Concepts

I CPU-I/O burst cycle: process execution

consists of a cycle of CPU execution
and I/O wait.

I CPU burst followed by I/O burst.

I CPU burst distribution is of main

concern.

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CPU Scheduler

I CPU scheduler selects from among the processes in ready queue, and
allocates the CPU to one of them.

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CPU Scheduler

I CPU scheduler selects from among the processes in ready queue, and
allocates the CPU to one of them.

I CPU scheduling decisions may take place when a process:

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CPU Scheduler

I CPU scheduler selects from among the processes in ready queue, and
allocates the CPU to one of them.

I CPU scheduling decisions may take place when a process:

1. Terminates.

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CPU Scheduler

I CPU scheduler selects from among the processes in ready queue, and
allocates the CPU to one of them.

I CPU scheduling decisions may take place when a process:

1. Terminates.
2. Switches from running to waiting (e.g., an I/O request).

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CPU Scheduler

I CPU scheduler selects from among the processes in ready queue, and
allocates the CPU to one of them.

I CPU scheduling decisions may take place when a process:

1. Terminates.
2. Switches from running to waiting (e.g., an I/O request).
3. Switches from running to ready (e.g., interrupt).

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CPU Scheduler

I CPU scheduler selects from among the processes in ready queue, and
allocates the CPU to one of them.

I CPU scheduling decisions may take place when a process:

1. Terminates.
2. Switches from running to waiting (e.g., an I/O request).
3. Switches from running to ready (e.g., interrupt).
4. Switches from waiting to ready (e.g., I/O completion).

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CPU Scheduler

I CPU scheduler selects from among the processes in ready queue, and
allocates the CPU to one of them.

I CPU scheduling decisions may take place when a process:

1. Terminates.
2. Switches from running to waiting (e.g., an I/O request).
3. Switches from running to ready (e.g., interrupt).
4. Switches from waiting to ready (e.g., I/O completion).

I For situations 1 and 2, there is no scheduling choice, as a new process

must be selected for execution (non-preemptive).

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CPU Scheduler

I CPU scheduler selects from among the processes in ready queue, and
allocates the CPU to one of them.

I CPU scheduling decisions may take place when a process:

1. Terminates.
2. Switches from running to waiting (e.g., an I/O request).
3. Switches from running to ready (e.g., interrupt).
4. Switches from waiting to ready (e.g., I/O completion).

I For situations 1 and 2, there is no scheduling choice, as a new process

must be selected for execution (non-preemptive).

I But, There is a choice, for situations 3 and 4 (preemptive).

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Scheduling Criteria

I Different CPU-scheduling algorithms have different properties.

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Scheduling Criteria

I Different CPU-scheduling algorithms have different properties.

I CPU utilization: keep the CPU as busy as possible (Max).

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Scheduling Criteria

I Different CPU-scheduling algorithms have different properties.

I CPU utilization: keep the CPU as busy as possible (Max).

I Throughput: # of completed processes per time unit (Max).

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Scheduling Criteria

I Different CPU-scheduling algorithms have different properties.

I CPU utilization: keep the CPU as busy as possible (Max).

I Throughput: # of completed processes per time unit (Max).

I Turnaround time: amount of time to execute a particular process (Min).

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Scheduling Criteria

I Different CPU-scheduling algorithms have different properties.

I CPU utilization: keep the CPU as busy as possible (Max).

I Throughput: # of completed processes per time unit (Max).

I Turnaround time: amount of time to execute a particular process (Min).

I Waiting time: amount of time a process has been waiting in the ready
queue (Min).

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Scheduling Criteria

I Different CPU-scheduling algorithms have different properties.

I CPU utilization: keep the CPU as busy as possible (Max).

I Throughput: # of completed processes per time unit (Max).

I Turnaround time: amount of time to execute a particular process (Min).

I Waiting time: amount of time a process has been waiting in the ready
queue (Min).

I Response time: amount of time it takes from when a request was sub-
mitted until the first response is produced (Min).

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Scheduling Algorithms

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Scheduling Algorithms

I First-Come, First-Served Scheduling

I Shortest-Job-First Scheduling

I Priority Scheduling

I Round-Robin Scheduling

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First-Come, First-Served (FCFS)
Scheduling

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FCFS Scheduling (1/2)

I Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P1 , P2 , P3

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FCFS Scheduling (1/2)

I Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P1 , P2 , P3

I Waiting time for P1 = 0; P2 = 24; P3 = 27

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FCFS Scheduling (1/2)

I Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P1 , P2 , P3

I Waiting time for P1 = 0; P2 = 24; P3 = 27

0+24+27
I Average waiting time: 3 = 17

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FCFS Scheduling (1/2)

I Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P1 , P2 , P3

I Waiting time for P1 = 0; P2 = 24; P3 = 27

0+24+27
I Average waiting time: 3 = 17

I FCFS scheduling is non-preemptive: process keeps the CPU until it re-

leases the CPU (either by terminating or by requesting I/O).

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FCFS Scheduling (1/2)

I Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P1 , P2 , P3

I Waiting time for P1 = 0; P2 = 24; P3 = 27

0+24+27
I Average waiting time: 3 = 17

I FCFS scheduling is non-preemptive: process keeps the CPU until it re-

leases the CPU (either by terminating or by requesting I/O).

I Convoy effect: all the other processes wait for the one big process to get
off the CPU.

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FCFS Scheduling (2/2)

I Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P2 , P3 , P1

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FCFS Scheduling (2/2)

I Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P2 , P3 , P1

I Waiting time for P1 = 6; P2 = 0; P3 = 3

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FCFS Scheduling (2/2)

I Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P2 , P3 , P1

I Waiting time for P1 = 6; P2 = 0; P3 = 3

6+0+3
I Average waiting time: 3 =3

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FCFS Scheduling (2/2)

I Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P2 , P3 , P1

I Waiting time for P1 = 6; P2 = 0; P3 = 3

6+0+3
I Average waiting time: 3 =3

I Much better than previous case.

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Shortest-Job-First (SJF)
Scheduling

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SJF Scheduling (1/2)

I Associate with each process the length of its next CPU burst.

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SJF Scheduling (1/2)

I Associate with each process the length of its next CPU burst.

I Use these lengths to schedule the process with the shortest time.

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SJF Scheduling (1/2)

I Associate with each process the length of its next CPU burst.

I Use these lengths to schedule the process with the shortest time.

I SJF is optimal: gives minimum average waiting time for a given set of
processes.

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SJF Scheduling (1/2)

I Associate with each process the length of its next CPU burst.

I Use these lengths to schedule the process with the shortest time.

I SJF is optimal: gives minimum average waiting time for a given set of
processes.

I The difficulty is knowing the length of the next CPU request.

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SJF Scheduling (2/2)

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SJF Scheduling (2/2)

I Select the processes according to their burst time (from shorter to

longer).

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SJF Scheduling (2/2)

I Select the processes according to their burst time (from shorter to

longer).

I Waiting time for P1 = 3; P2 = 16; P3 = 9, P4 = 0

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SJF Scheduling (2/2)

I Select the processes according to their burst time (from shorter to

longer).

I Waiting time for P1 = 3; P2 = 16; P3 = 9, P4 = 0

3+16+9+0
I Average waiting time: 4 =7

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Determining Length of Next CPU Burst

I Estimate the length, and pick process with shortest predicted next CPU
burst.

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Determining Length of Next CPU Burst

I Estimate the length, and pick process with shortest predicted next CPU
burst.
I The next CPU burst

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Determining Length of Next CPU Burst

I Estimate the length, and pick process with shortest predicted next CPU
burst.
I The next CPU burst
1. tn = actual length of nth CPU burst

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Determining Length of Next CPU Burst

I Estimate the length, and pick process with shortest predicted next CPU
burst.
I The next CPU burst
1. tn = actual length of nth CPU burst
2. τn+1 = predeicted value for the next CPU burst

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Determining Length of Next CPU Burst

I Estimate the length, and pick process with shortest predicted next CPU
burst.
I The next CPU burst
1. tn = actual length of nth CPU burst
2. τn+1 = predeicted value for the next CPU burst
3. τn+1 = αtn + (1 − α)τn , where 0 ≤ α ≤ 1

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Determining Length of Next CPU Burst

I Estimate the length, and pick process with shortest predicted next CPU
burst.
I The next CPU burst
1. tn = actual length of nth CPU burst
2. τn+1 = predeicted value for the next CPU burst
3. τn+1 = αtn + (1 − α)τn , where 0 ≤ α ≤ 1

I α = 0 then τn+1 = τ

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Determining Length of Next CPU Burst

I Estimate the length, and pick process with shortest predicted next CPU
burst.
I The next CPU burst
1. tn = actual length of nth CPU burst
2. τn+1 = predeicted value for the next CPU burst
3. τn+1 = αtn + (1 − α)τn , where 0 ≤ α ≤ 1

I α = 0 then τn+1 = τ

I α = 1 then τn+1 = tn

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Determining Length of Next CPU Burst

I Estimate the length, and pick process with shortest predicted next CPU
burst.
I The next CPU burst
1. tn = actual length of nth CPU burst
2. τn+1 = predeicted value for the next CPU burst
3. τn+1 = αtn + (1 − α)τn , where 0 ≤ α ≤ 1

I α = 0 then τn+1 = τ

I α = 1 then τn+1 = tn
1
I Commonly, α set to 2

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Preemptive SJF

I The SJF algorithm can be either preemptive or non-preemptive.

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Preemptive SJF

I The SJF algorithm can be either preemptive or non-preemptive.

I Preemptive version called shortest-remaining-time-first

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Example of Shortest-Remaining-Time-First

I Now we add the concepts of varying arrival times and preemption to the
analysis.

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Example of Shortest-Remaining-Time-First

I Now we add the concepts of varying arrival times and preemption to the
analysis.

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Example of Shortest-Remaining-Time-First

I Now we add the concepts of varying arrival times and preemption to the
analysis.

(10−1)+(1−1)+(17−2)+(5−3) 26
I Average waiting time: 4 = 4 = 6.5

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Priority Scheduling

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Priority Scheduling (1/2)

I A priority number (integer) is associated with each process.

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Priority Scheduling (1/2)

I A priority number (integer) is associated with each process.

I The CPU is allocated to the process with the highest priority.
• Smallest integer = Highest priority
• Preemptive and non-preemptive

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Priority Scheduling (1/2)

I A priority number (integer) is associated with each process.

I The CPU is allocated to the process with the highest priority.
• Smallest integer = Highest priority
• Preemptive and non-preemptive

I SJF is priority scheduling where priority is the inverse of predicted next

CPU burst time.

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Priority Scheduling (1/2)

I A priority number (integer) is associated with each process.

I The CPU is allocated to the process with the highest priority.
• Smallest integer = Highest priority
• Preemptive and non-preemptive

I SJF is priority scheduling where priority is the inverse of predicted next

CPU burst time.

I Problem: starvation - low priority processes may never execute

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Priority Scheduling (1/2)

I A priority number (integer) is associated with each process.

I The CPU is allocated to the process with the highest priority.
• Smallest integer = Highest priority
• Preemptive and non-preemptive

I SJF is priority scheduling where priority is the inverse of predicted next

CPU burst time.

I Problem: starvation - low priority processes may never execute

I Solution: aging - as time progresses increase the priority of the process

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Priority Scheduling (2/2)

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Priority Scheduling (2/2)

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Priority Scheduling (2/2)

0+1+6+16+18
I Average waiting time: 5 = 8.2

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Round-Robin (RR)
Scheduling

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RR Scheduling (1/2)

I Each process gets a small unit of CPU time (time quantum q), usually
10-100 milliseconds.

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RR Scheduling (1/2)

I Each process gets a small unit of CPU time (time quantum q), usually
10-100 milliseconds.

I After this time has elapsed, the process is preempted and added to the
end of the ready queue.

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RR Scheduling (1/2)

I Each process gets a small unit of CPU time (time quantum q), usually
10-100 milliseconds.

I After this time has elapsed, the process is preempted and added to the
end of the ready queue.

I If there are n processes in the ready queue and the time quantum is q,
then each process gets 1/n of the CPU time in chunks of at most q time
units at once.

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RR Scheduling (1/2)

I Each process gets a small unit of CPU time (time quantum q), usually
10-100 milliseconds.

I After this time has elapsed, the process is preempted and added to the
end of the ready queue.

I If there are n processes in the ready queue and the time quantum is q,
then each process gets 1/n of the CPU time in chunks of at most q time
units at once.

I No process waits more than (n − 1)q time units.

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RR Scheduling (2/2)

I Time quantum q = 4

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RR Scheduling (2/2)

I Time quantum q = 4

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RR Scheduling (2/2)

I Time quantum q = 4

(10−4)+4+7
I Average waiting time: 3 = 5.66

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Time Quantum and Context Switch Time (1/2)

I Timer interrupts every quantum to schedule next process.

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Time Quantum and Context Switch Time (1/2)

I Timer interrupts every quantum to schedule next process.

I Performance
• q large ⇒ FIFO
• q small ⇒ q must be large with respect to context switch, otherwise
overhead is too high.

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Time Quantum and Context Switch Time (2/2)

I q should be large compared to context switch time.

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26 / 45
Linux Scheduling (1/2)
I Completely Fair Scheduler (CFS)
CPU
I n users want to share a resource, e.g., CPU.
1
• Solution: allocate each n of the shared resource.

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Linux Scheduling (1/2)
I Completely Fair Scheduler (CFS)
CPU
I n users want to share a resource, e.g., CPU.
1
• Solution: allocate each n of the shared resource.

I Generalized by max-min fairness.

• Handles if a user wants less than its fair share.
• E.g., user 1 wants no more than 20%.

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Linux Scheduling (1/2)
I Completely Fair Scheduler (CFS)
CPU
I n users want to share a resource, e.g., CPU.
1
• Solution: allocate each n of the shared resource.

I Generalized by max-min fairness.

• Handles if a user wants less than its fair share.
• E.g., user 1 wants no more than 20%.

I Generalized by weighted max-min fairness.

• Give weights to users according to importance.
• E.g., user 1 gets weight 1, user 2 weight 2.

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Linux Scheduling (2/2)

I Quantum calculated based on nice value from -20 to +19.

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Modifying the Nice Value

I nice() increments a process’s nice value by inc and returns the newly
updated value.
I Only processes owned by root may provide a negative value for inc.

#include <unistd.h>

int nice(int inc);

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Retrieving and Modifying Priorities

I The getpriority() and setpriority() system calls allow a process

to retrieve and change its own nice value or that of another process.

#include <sys/resource.h>

int getpriority(int which, id_t who);

int setpriority(int which, id_t who, int prio);

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Thread Scheduling

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Thread Scheduling (1/2)

I Distinction between user-level and kernel-level threads.

I Process-Contention Scope (PCS)

• In many-to-one and many-to-many models.
• Scheduling competition is within the process.

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Thread Scheduling (1/2)

I Distinction between user-level and kernel-level threads.

I Process-Contention Scope (PCS)

• In many-to-one and many-to-many models.
• Scheduling competition is within the process.

I System-Contention Scope (SCS)

• In one-to-one model.
• Scheduling competition among all threads in system.

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33 / 45
Pthread Scheduling

I API allows specifying either PCS or SCS during thread creation.

• PTHREAD SCOPE PROCESS schedules threads using PCS scheduling.
• PTHREAD SCOPE SYSTEM schedules threads using SCS scheduling.

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Pthread Scheduling

I API allows specifying either PCS or SCS during thread creation.

• PTHREAD SCOPE PROCESS schedules threads using PCS scheduling.
• PTHREAD SCOPE SYSTEM schedules threads using SCS scheduling.

I pthread attr setscope and pthread attr getscope set/get con-

tention scope attribute in thread attributes object.

#include <pthread.h>

int pthread_attr_setscope(pthread_attr_t *attr, int scope);

int pthread_attr_getscope(const pthread_attr_t *attr, int *scope);

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Pthread Scheduling API

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {

pthread_t t1, t2;
pthread_attr_t attr;

pthread_attr_init(&attr);
pthread_attr_setscope(&attr, PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM);

pthread_create(&t1, &attr, thread_func, NULL);

pthread_create(&t2, &attr, thread_func, NULL);

pthread_join(t1, NULL);
pthread_join(t2, NULL);
}

void *thread_func(void *param) {

/* do some work ... */
pthread_exit(0);
}

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Multi-Processor Scheduling

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Multiple-Processor Scheduling

I Asymmetric multiprocessing

I Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP)

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Multiple-Processor Scheduling

I Asymmetric multiprocessing
• Only one processor does all scheduling decisions, I/O processing, and
other system activities.
• The other processors execute only user code.

I Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP)

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Multiple-Processor Scheduling

I Asymmetric multiprocessing
• Only one processor does all scheduling decisions, I/O processing, and
other system activities.
• The other processors execute only user code.

I Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP)

• Each processor is self-scheduling
• All processes in common ready queue, or each has its own private queue
of ready processes.

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Processor Affinity

I Processor affinity: keep a process running on the same processor.

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Processor Affinity

I Processor affinity: keep a process running on the same processor.

I Soft affinity: the OS attempts to keep a process on a single processor,

but it is possible for a process to migrate between processors.

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Processor Affinity

I Processor affinity: keep a process running on the same processor.

I Soft affinity: the OS attempts to keep a process on a single processor,

but it is possible for a process to migrate between processors.

I Hard affinity: allowing a process to specify a subset of processors on

which it may run.

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39 / 45
CPU Affinity

I sched setaffinity() and sched getaffinity() sets/gets the CPU

affinity of the process specified by pid.

#define _GNU_SOURCE
#include <sched.h>

int sched_setaffinity(pid_t pid, size_t len, cpu_set_t *set);

int sched_getaffinity(pid_t pid, size_t len, cpu_set_t *set);

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CPU Affinity Macros

I CPU ZERO() initializes set to be empty.

I CPU SET() adds the CPU cpu to set.
I CPU CLR() removes the CPU cpu from set.
I CPU ISSET() returns true if the CPU cpu is a member of set.

#define _GNU_SOURCE
#include <sched.h>

void CPU_ZERO(cpu_set_t *set);

void CPU_SET(int cpu, cpu_set_t *set);
void CPU_CLR(int cpu, cpu_set_t *set);
int CPU_ISSET(int cpu, cpu_set_t *set);

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CPU Affinity Macros

I The process identified by pid runs on any CPU other than the first
CPU of a four-processor system.

cpu_set_t set;

CPU_ZERO(&set);
CPU_SET(1, &set);
CPU_SET(2, &set);
CPU_SET(3, &set);

sched_setaffinity(pid, sizeof(set), &set);

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Summary

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Summary

I CPU scheduling

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Summary

I CPU scheduling

I Scheduling criteria: cpu utilization, throughput, turnaround time,

waiting time, response time

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Summary

I CPU scheduling

I Scheduling criteria: cpu utilization, throughput, turnaround time,

waiting time, response time

I Scheduling algorithms: FCFS, SJF, Priority, RR

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Summary

I CPU scheduling

I Scheduling criteria: cpu utilization, throughput, turnaround time,

waiting time, response time

I Scheduling algorithms: FCFS, SJF, Priority, RR

I Thread scheduling: PCS and SCS

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Summary

I CPU scheduling

I Scheduling criteria: cpu utilization, throughput, turnaround time,

waiting time, response time

I Scheduling algorithms: FCFS, SJF, Priority, RR

I Thread scheduling: PCS and SCS

I Multi-processor scheduling: SMP, processor affinity

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 Questions?
Acknowledgements
Some slides were derived from Avi Silberschatz slides.

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