Horizontal Alignment
Design based on appropriate relationship between design
speed and curvature and their relationship with side
friction and superelevation
Along circular path, vehicle undergoes centripetal
acceleration toward center of curvature (lateral
acceleration)
Balanced by superelevation and weight of vehicle (friction
between tire and roadway)
Plan View and Profile
24
+0
23+00
0
22+00
21+00
20+00
19+00
18+00
17+0
16
0
plan
+0
0
15
+0
0
700
700
600
500
profile 400
300
200
15+00 16+00 17+00 18+00 19+00 20+00 21+00 22+00 23+00 24+00
Type of Curves
(1) Simple horizontal curve R1
R2
R1
(3) Compound curve
R2
(2) Broken back curve
Type of Curves
R2
R2
R1
R1
(a) With tangent (b) Without tangent
(4) Reverse Curve
Angle Measurement
90
60
30
180 0
(a) Degree (b) Radian
1 0.0174532 Radians
180
180
1 Radian 57.2957
Angle Measurement
Horizontal Curve Definitions
Radius, usually measured to the centerline of the road, in
ft
= Central angle of the curve in degrees
PC = point of curve (the beginning point of the horizontal
curve)
PI = point of tangent intersection
PT = Point of tangent (the ending point of the horizontal
curve)
Horizontal Curve Definitions
T = tangent length in ft.
M = middle ordinate from middle point of cord to middle
point of curve in ft.
E = External distance in ft.
L = length of curve
D = Degree of curvature (the angle subtended by a 100-ft
arc along the horizontal curve)
C = chord length from PC to PT
PI
T
E
L
M
PC 2 C 2 PT
90 90
2 2
R R
2 2
Key measures of the curve
M R[1 cos( / 2)] 1
E R[( ) 1]
cos( / 2)
100(180 / ) 18000 5729.57
D
R R R
or,
100
L R
D 57.2957 180
R
T R tan C 2 R sin
2 2
Note 180 / converts from radians to degrees
Concepts
Alignment is a 3D problem broken
down into two 2D problems
Horizontal Alignment (plan view)
Vertical Alignment (profile view)
Stationing
Along horizontal alignment
12+00 = 1,200 ft.
Piilani Highway on Maui
Stationing Horizontal Alignment
Vertical Alignment
Horizontal Curve Example
Deflection angle of a 4º curve is 55º25’, PI at station
245+97.04. Find length of curve,T, and station of PT.
D = 4º
= 55º25’ = 55.417º
5729.58
D
R
5729.58
R 1432.3 ft
4
Horizontal Curve Example
D = 4º
= 55.417º
R = 1,432.4 ft
L = 2R = 2(1,432.4 ft)(55.417º) = 1385.42ft
360 360
Horizontal Curve Example
D = 4º
= 55.417º
R = 1,432.4 ft
L = 1385.42 ft
T = R tan = 1,432.4 ft tan (55.417) = 752.29 ft
2 2
Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve
Location of object along chord length that blocks line
of sight around the curve
Highway Centerline
sight Distan
ping ce
stop
PC M
Line of sight
PT
Sight Obstruction
Centerline of inside lane
R R
Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve
To provide minimum sight distance:
28.65d s
M R[1 cos( )]
R
Or, by the degree of curvature, D
5729.57 ds D
M [1 cos( )]
D 200
v2
Where, ds = safe stopping distance, ft. d s 1.47v * t
a
30( 0.01G )
32.2
and, v = design speed, mi/h
t = reaction time, secs
G = grade, %
ds = stopping distance, in ft.
a =deceleration rate, 11.2 ft/s2, recommended by Green Book
Sight Distance Example
A horizontal curve with R = 800 ft is part of a 2-lane highway
with a posted speed limit of 35 mph. What is the minimum
distance that a large billboard can be placed from the
centerline of the inside lane of the curve without reducing
required SSD? Assume p/r =2.5 and a = 11.2 ft/sec2
SSD = 1.47vt + _________v2____
30(__a___ 0.01G)
32.2
Sight Distance Example
SSD = 1.47(35 mph)(2.5 sec) +
_____(35 mph)2____ = 246 feet
30(__11.2___ 0)
32.2
Sight Distance Example
M= R(1 – cos [28.65 S])
R
M = 800 (1 – cos [28.65 {246}]) = 9.43 feet
800
Horizontal Alignment
Design Factors for Horizontal Alignment :-
Design speed
Cross Slope or Camber
Horizontal curves
Super elevation
Radius of circular curves
Widening of pavement on curves
Transition curves
Cross slope or Camber
1. Cross slope or camber is the slope provided to the road
surface in the transverse direction to drain off the rain
water from the road surface.
2. Usually the camber is provided on the straight roads by
raising the centre of the carriage way with respect to the
edges forming a crown or highest point up the centre
line.
3. The rate of camber depends upon:-
a. The type of pavement surface
b. The amount of rain fall
Camber values for different roads
S.No Type of road surface Heavy rain Light rain
1 Cement concrete and 1 in 50 1 in 60
high type bituminous 2.0 % 1.7 %
surface
2 Thin bituminous 1 in 40 1 in 50
surface 2.5 % 2.0 %
3 Water bound 1 in 33 1 in 40
macadam gravel 3.0 % 2. %
4 Earth 1 in 25 1 in 33
4.0 % 3.0 %
Types of cambers
Straight line camber
Parabolic shape camber
Combination of both
Superelevation
Superelevation is the banking of the roadway along a
horizontal curve
Basic Purpose
Drivers can negotiate the curve at safe and comfortable
speed
Superelevation
Normal crown
Center line Elevated
Elevated
Normal Crown Level ground
Superelevation Concept
2
mv
Fcentripetal v2
R is the centripetal acceleration
R
v
Fcentripetal
R
Superelevation
R
≈
v
Fc
e
W 1 ft
α
Superelevation
From basic physics law:
Wv 2 Wv 2
W sin f (W cos sin ) cos
gR gR
Dividing both sides by W cos yields:
v2
tan f (1 f tan )
gR
Where,
W: weight of the vehicle;
: angle of incline in degrees
f : coefficient of side friction
v : vehicle speed
g : gravitational constant 32.2 ft/s2
Superelevation
tan Indicates the superelevation (banking) of the curve,
represented by percent, it can be defined as below:
tan e / 100
Where, e is the number of vertical feet of rise per 100 feet of horizontal
distance, The equation changes to:
0.01e f v 2
1 0.01ef gR
Superelevation
In practice: 1 0.01ef 1 and g is calculated:
0.067v 2 v2
0.01e f
R 15R
2
v
v : vehicle speed, ft/s 0.01e f
R: radius of curve, ft
15 R
e: rate of superelevation, percent
f: side friction factor (lateral ratio)
Radius Calculation
Rmin = ___V2______
15(e + f)
Where:
V = velocity (mph)
e = superelevation
f = friction (15 = gravity and unit conversion)
Radius Calculation
Rmin related to
Max. f
Max. e allowed
Rmin use max e and max f (defined by AASHTO, DOT, and
graphed in Green Book) and design speed
Max f
f is a function of:
speed, roadway surface, weather condition, tire condition,
and based on comfort – drivers brake, make sudden lane
changes and changes within a lane when acceleration
around a curve becomes “uncomfortable”
AASHTO: 0.5 @ 20 mph with new tires and wet pavement
to 0.35 @ 60 mph
f decreases as speed increases (less tire/pavement contact)
Side Friction Factors for High-speed Highways
Side Friction Factors for Low-speed Highways
Max e
Controlled by 4 factors:
Climate conditions (amount of ice and snow)
Terrain (flat, rolling, mountainous)
Type of area (rural or urban)
Frequency of slow moving vehicles who might be
influenced by high superelevation rates
Max e
Highest in common use = 10%, 12% with no ice and
snow on low volume gravel-surfaced roads
8% is logical maximum to minimize slipping by stopped
vehicles
For consistency use a single rate within a project or on a
highway
Radius Calculation (Example)
Design radius example: assume a maximum e of 8%
and design speed of 60 mph, what is the
minimum radius?
fmax = 0.12 (from Green Book)
Rmin = _____602________________
15(0.08 + 0.12)
Rmin = 1200 feet
Radius Calculation (Example)
For emax = 4%? (urban situation)
Rmin = _____602________________
15(0.04 + 0.12)
Rmin = 1,500 feet
Radius Calculation (Example)
For emax = 2%?
Rmin = _____602________________
15(0.02 + 0.12)
Rmin = 1,714 feet
