Werner Hermeling

Compendium
for the LNG
and CNG
Practitioner
Liquefied Natural Gas in Application
Compendium for the LNG and CNG Practitioner
Werner Hermeling

Compendium for the LNG

and CNG Practitioner
Liquefied Natural Gas in Application
Werner Hermeling
Neusiedl am See, Austria

ISBN 978-3-658-38257-5    ISBN 978-3-658-38258-2 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38258-2

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden
GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2024
This book is a translation of the original German edition “Handbuch für den LNG- und CNG-­Praktiker” by
Hermeling, published by Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH in 2020. The translation was done with the
help of artificial intelligence (machine translation by the service DeepL.com). A subsequent human revision was
done primarily in terms of content, so that the book will read stylistically differently from a conventional
translation. Springer Nature works continuously to further the development of tools for the production of books
and on the related technologies to support the authors.
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the
whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does
not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective
laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are
believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give
a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that
may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of
Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: Abraham-Lincoln-Str. 46, 65189 Wiesbaden, Germany
Preface

This book is intended to provide the practitioner, the plant engineer, the investment
decision-­maker and the plant fitter with technical and economic findings and consider-
ations on LNG and CNG, as well as bio-LNG and bio-CNG, which I was able to gather in
general for cryogenic liquefied and compressed gases during my work at Messer Griesheim,
now the Messer Group and its subsidiaries. In addition to LNG, many statements also
apply to air gases and ultra-pure gases, regardless of whether they are liquid or gaseous.
The energy carrier LNG is a new product in the German market, among others.
Therefore, special care in the processing of projects and the construction of plants is one
of the most important requirements. Together with my teams, I have been considering
occupational safety issues that I consider necessary. In part, they have not yet been reflected
in the regulations. We have developed devices that have been tested with the best results
and must be introduced to the market, because they make processes safer and also more
economical. The reader learns about my personal experiences, some of which are described
in a number of my patents.
Unfortunately, I had to hear about terrible accidents, all of which could have been
avoided if cryogenic liquefied gases had been handled correctly. Preventing similar acci-
dents is another important concern of the book. That is why I have devoted a separate
section to training recommendations. I am aware that much has not been mentioned or
described, but at one point I had to make a point. The practitioner who is new to the subject
of LNG and CNG will now and in the future acquire more in-depth knowledge in the rel-
evant specialist literature and the specialist working groups.
As far as I know, the potential of LNG is only being exploited to a limited extent in the
Central European region and almost certainly beyond. Therefore, it should inspire to face
the challenges of LNG and not to put the critical thought aside with the reasoning –
“because it has always been done that way”.
I would now like to take the liberty of thanking my direct and indirect helpers in par-
ticular. My special thanks go to Mr. Peter Suchy, who bore multiple findings as an
extremely innovative investor with unique generosity, to Mr. Thorsten Hoppestock, a
gifted technician, who contributed significantly to the success of the introduction of a new
system with his knowledge and to Dr.-Ing.

v
vi Preface

I was particularly lucky with my editor at the publishing house Springer Vieweg,
Dr. Fröhlich, who taught me, as a novice writer, in a very motivating way how to design a book.
My wife Katharina always stood by me and helped over many passages to make my
technical German understandable for everyone. It is a joint work of many other unnamed
people, many thanks to all of them. Writing it has been a pleasure for me.
The statements I made must not necessarily be confirmed by the reader, but I have
always supported my considerations with theoretical knowledge. I would be grateful if,
despite all this, I should have assessed certain things differently, to inform me of this.

Neusiedl am See, Austria Werner Hermeling

August 2019
Contents

1 LNG and Its Thermodynamics   1

1.1 LNG ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   1
1.1.1 What Is LNG? ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   1
1.1.2 Biogas: Bio-LNG����������������������������������������������������������������������������   3
1.1.3 Origin of Natural Gas����������������������������������������������������������������������   5
1.2 Importance of LNG��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   5
1.3 Pipeline Gas and Its Significance����������������������������������������������������������������   9
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 11
2 
The Most Important Thermodynamic Processes in the Production,
Transport and Storage of LNG  13
2.1 Adiabatic Cooling���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 13
2.2 Mixed Condensation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 17
2.3 Relaxation Energy, The Joule-Thomson Effect ������������������������������������������ 19
2.4 Compression Energy������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 21
2.5 The Critical Point���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 22
2.6 Thermodynamic Equilibrium���������������������������������������������������������������������� 23
2.7 The Isobar Below the Critical Point������������������������������������������������������������ 25
2.8 Liquefaction of LNG������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 26
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 28
3 
LNG: From the Source to the End Customer  31
3.1 Liquefaction at Source and Transport to Hub���������������������������������������������� 31
3.2 LNG Transport to the End Customer ���������������������������������������������������������� 36
3.2.1 The LNG Road Tanker�������������������������������������������������������������������� 37
3.3 LNG Fuelling at the End Customer’s Premises ������������������������������������������ 40
3.4 Closed and Open Hose System�������������������������������������������������������������������� 41
3.4.1 The Open Hose System������������������������������������������������������������������ 42
3.4.2 The Closed Hose System���������������������������������������������������������������� 43
3.5 Refuelling from Above�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 45
3.6 Refuelling from Below�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 47

vii
viii Contents

3.7 Refuelling While Maintaining Process Pressure������������������������������������������ 48

References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 49
4 Operational Management  51
4.1 Continuous Management ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 51
4.2 Discontinuous Operation Management�������������������������������������������������������� 52
5 LNG Applications  55
5.1 LNG Supply Facilities �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 58
5.1.1 Operating Principle Module 1��������������������������������������������������������   59
5.1.2 Operating Principle Module 2��������������������������������������������������������   60
5.1.3 Operating Principle Module 3��������������������������������������������������������   62
5.1.4 Functional Principle of Grid Feed-In/Grid Stabilisation���������������� 64
5.1.5 Mobile Emergency Care������������������������������������������������������������������ 66
5.2 Possibilities of Gas Compression���������������������������������������������������������������� 66
5.2.1 Gas Compression with Compressor, Cryo-Pump
and Liqui-Flow Process������������������������������������������������������������������ 67
5.2.2 Gas Compression with Cryogenic High-Pressure Piston Pump��������� 73
5.2.3 Gas Compression with the Liqui-Flow Process������������������������������ 81
5.3 CNG Filling Stations����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 85
5.3.1 Natural Gas Filling Stations with Compressor������������������������������� 85
5.3.2 Natural Gas Filling Station with Cryogenic Pump ������������������������ 86
5.3.3 Natural Gas Filling Stations with Liqui-Flow Process������������������� 87
5.4 Satellite Natural Gas Filling Station������������������������������������������������������������ 90
5.4.1 Filling of Natural Gas Cylinders, Natural Gas Bundles
and Natural Gas Trailers����������������������������������������������������������������� 93
5.4.2 Energy Requirements of the Satellite Natural Gas
Fuelling Station ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 94
5.5 Significance of the Holding Pressure Head in the Liqui-Flow
Process and for High-Pressure Piston Pumps���������������������������������������������� 95
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 96
6 
The Thermodynamic Consideration of the Vacuum Insulated
Cryogenic Tank  97
6.1 General Information on the Thermodynamic Function of a Tank �������������� 97
6.1.1 The Thermodynamic Function of the Pump Tank�������������������������� 102
6.1.2 The Thermodynamic Function of the Refrigeration Tank�������������� 105
6.1.3 The Thermodynamic Function of the Cold Gasifier ���������������������� 106
6.2 The Design Description of the Vacuum Insulated Tank������������������������������ 107
6.2.1 General�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 107
6.2.2 Tank Designs ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 110
6.2.3 Significance of the Tank Pressure �������������������������������������������������� 113
Reference �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 115
Contents ix

7 
Sensor Technology in an LNG Plant 117
7.1 Level Measuring Instruments�������������������������������������������������������������������� 119
7.1.1 Differential Pressure Level Gauge �������������������������������������������� 120
7.1.2 Gravimetric Level Measurement������������������������������������������������ 123
7.2 Temperature Measurement������������������������������������������������������������������������ 124
7.3 Mass Flow Meters ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 125
7.3.1 Coriolis Measuring Device�������������������������������������������������������� 125
7.3.2 Mass Flow by Means of Pressure Loss Measurement �������������� 126
8 
Equipment of an LNG Plant 129
8.1 Valves in the Cryogenic Liquid Range and in the Gas Phase�������������������� 129
8.2 Check Valve ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 131
8.3 Gas Pressure Regulator������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 132
8.3.1 Gas Pressure Regulator, Simple ������������������������������������������������ 136
8.3.2 Dual Function Gas Pressure Regulator�������������������������������������� 137
8.4 Air Evaporator ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 138
8.5 Gas Preheaters in Cogeneration Installations or in Installations
with Gas Burners �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 140
8.6 Odorization Systems and Odorization������������������������������������������������������ 141
9 Safety Devices 145
9.1 Safety Valves��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 145
9.1.1 Safety Valves (SV) in the System���������������������������������������������� 145
9.1.2 Safety Shuttle Valve of the Tank������������������������������������������������ 150
9.1.3 Integrated Safety Shut-Off Valve in Gas Pressure Regulators������� 152
9.2 Process Relief Valve on the Tank�������������������������������������������������������������� 153
9.3 Safety Shut-Off Valve of the Tank������������������������������������������������������������ 154
9.4 Setting the Opening Pressures of the Safety Devices on the Tank����������������� 157
9.5 Overfill Protection ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 157
9.6 Overfill Protection ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 158
9.6.1 Overfill Protection by Gas Pressure Build-Up �������������������������� 158
9.6.2 Overfill Protection by Gas Pressure Build-Up as Retrofitting ����������� 160
9.7 Exhaust Gas Routing �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 162
9.8 Gas Warning Systems�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 163
9.9 Sounding Pipes on the LNG Tank ������������������������������������������������������������ 163
10 
Constructive Description of the Hose Couplings for Tank Filling 165
10.1 Coupling of Open Systems������������������������������������������������������������������������ 166
10.2 Coupling of Closed Systems �������������������������������������������������������������������� 166
10.2.1 Couplings with Dead Space ������������������������������������������������������ 167
10.2.2 Couplings Without Dead Space�������������������������������������������������� 168
x Contents

11 Insulations 175
11.1 Solid Insulation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 176
11.1.1 Vacuum Panels �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 176
11.1.2 Mats with Fibrous Structure ������������������������������������������������������ 179
11.1.3 Mats of Rubber Compounds������������������������������������������������������ 180
11.1.4 Foamglas® Insulation���������������������������������������������������������������� 181
11.1.5 Insulations of Polyisocyanurate (PIR)���������������������������������������� 182
11.2 Vacuum Insulations ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 183
11.2.1 Vacuum Insulation for Containers and Pipes ���������������������������� 183
11.2.2 Vacuum Insulation for Fittings �������������������������������������������������� 185
11.2.3 Vacuum Insulated Hoses������������������������������������������������������������ 185
11.2.4 Maintenance and Inspection������������������������������������������������������ 186
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 186
12 Electrical Grounding 187
12.1 Protective Earthing of the Installation ������������������������������������������������������ 188
12.2 Grounding for Filling�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 188
12.3 Functional Earthing During Operation������������������������������������������������������ 189
13 Marked Process Disturbances 191
13.1 Air in the Hose������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 191
13.2 Gas Bubbles in the Liquid Line���������������������������������������������������������������� 192
13.3 Icing���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 193
13.4 Product Does Not Flow into the Pump or into the Pressure Lock
of a Liqui-Flow System ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 193
13.5 Cryogenic Pump Does Not Deliver ���������������������������������������������������������� 194
14 System Planning 195
14.1 Natural Gas Supply System���������������������������������������������������������������������� 195
14.2 Natural Gas Filling Stations���������������������������������������������������������������������� 196
14.2.1 Assembly, Erection and Maintenance���������������������������������������� 198
14.3 Execution of Pipe Connections and Valve Connections���������������������������� 199
14.4 Decision Support for the Selection of the Plant Size of
a Liqui-Flow Filling Station���������������������������������������������������������������������� 200
14.5 Cost of an Installation�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 201
14.5.1 General Information ������������������������������������������������������������������ 201
14.5.2 Investment or Fixed Costs���������������������������������������������������������� 202
14.5.3 Variable Costs���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 203
14.5.4 Operating Costs�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 203
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205
Contents xi

15 
Commissioning and Decommissioning of an LNG Plant 207
15.1 Preparatory Measures for Commissioning������������������������������������������������ 207
15.2 Filling and Starting Up the System ���������������������������������������������������������� 208
15.3 Decommissioning of an LNG Facility������������������������������������������������������ 210
16 Training Recommendation 213
16.1 Recommendation for Training Topics for the Plant Operator ������������������ 214
16.2 Topic Recommendation for Personal Protection of the
Customer at the Petrol Station������������������������������������������������������������������ 215
16.3 Recommendation of Topics for Training of On-Site
Operational Staff���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 215
16.4 Recommendation for Training Topics for Service and
Repair Personnel���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 216
16.5 One-Man Workstation ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 217
References ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 218
17 
Special Instructions and Precautions 219
17.1 Protective Clothing������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 219
17.2 Contact and Skin Contact with Liquid-Carrying Lines ���������������������������� 220
17.3 Extinguishing a Natural Gas Flame ���������������������������������������������������������� 220
17.4 Damage Scenarios�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 221
17.5 Leaking LNG or Gas���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 222
17.6 Influencing the Environment���������������������������������������������������������������������� 222
17.7 Included LNG�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 223
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 223
LNG and Its Thermodynamics
1

Abstract

LNG is the abbreviation for liquefied natural gas, which in this form belongs to the
cryogenic liquefied gases. At the source, i.e. in the gas or oil field, liquefaction from the
gas phase takes place with a great deal of energy. From there, it is transported by ship
at approx. −161 °C (boiling temperature at atmospheric pressure) to customers in
Europe, Japan, China, etc. There, the LNG is temporarily stored in large tank facilities
at atmospheric pressure or directly regasified for transport in the gas pipelines. (See [1].)

1.1 LNG

1.1.1 What Is LNG?

LNG is the abbreviation for liquefied natural gas, which in this form belongs to the cryo-
genic liquefied gases. At the source, i.e. in the gas or oil field, liquefaction from the gas
phase takes place with a great deal of energy. From there, it is transported by ship at
approx. −161 °C (boiling temperature at atmospheric pressure) to customers in Europe,
Japan, China, etc. There, the LNG is temporarily stored in large tank facilities at atmo-
spheric pressure or directly regasified for transport in the gas pipelines (see [2]).

Danger Note LNG is cryogenic and evaporates immediately in the environment to a suf-
focating, but non-toxic, odourless gas. This is lighter than air, rises and dilutes to an ignit-
able, explosive gas-air mixture!

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 1

GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2024
W. Hermeling, Compendium for the LNG and CNG Practitioner,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38258-2_1
2 1 LNG and Its Thermodynamics

Biogas also belongs to the group of cryogenic liquefied gases, because its liquefaction
also takes place exclusively through cold. Biogas is a gas mixture with an initially low
methane content, which increases to up to 99% through purification. This makes biogas
chemically and physically very similar to the gas that comes naturally from the ground.
They differ in the formation and composition of the calorically effective components.
Cryogenic liquefied gases evaporate extremely quickly when energy is supplied.
Therefore, the storage tanks must be very well insulated. If the liquid gas escapes uncon-
trolled from the tank, e.g. during the refuelling process at the coupling or via a leaky valve,
it vaporises abruptly. The heat of vaporization required for this purpose is extracted from
the environment. This is indicated by the formation of ice at the outlet points.
LNG and, like bio-LNG (liquefied biogas), is a mixture of different hydrocarbons
whose main component is methane (CH4) and which differs in its percentage composition
depending on the source (see [3]). The molar weight of methane is around 16 g/mol, which
makes it lighter than air (molar weight around 28.8 g/mol) (see [4]). This mixture is lique-
fied by cold.
The boiling temperature of approx. −161 °C is reached at ambient pressure, whereby
the gas only occupies approx. 1/600 of the gaseous volume under atmospheric pressure
(standard density of gas 0.671 kg/m3, standard density of liquid 422.6 kg/m3). The shrink-
ing volume under atmospheric pressure is one of the main advantages of liquefaction. It
allows large quantities to be stored and transported in a small space at low pressure (atmo-
spheric pressure). The gas only changes to the liquid state through cold, not through
pressure.
Methane forms an explosive mixture with air in a mixing ratio of between 4.4% vol.
and 16.5% vol. Plants in which methane is used must be absolutely technically gas-tight
and must be monitored accordingly. Otherwise, as the past has shown, extremely serious
gas explosions are possible, because small traces (4.4%) lead to explosions when ignited.
The cryogenic liquefied gas has a temperature of −161 °C. This cold leads to the
embrittlement of normal black steels. Therefore, austenitic steels or copper and its alloys
should generally be selected for the construction of the plants for such applications. The
exact alloy is determined by the subsequent load and use. Copper and its alloys are used
especially in fittings, less as piping material.

Summary
LNG is a cryogenic liquefied gas and takes up about 1/600 of its gas volume in the liquid
state. The gas is lighter than air. The ignition capability is between 4.4% vol. and 16.5%
vol. Generally, austenitic steel or copper and its alloys are to be used for the construction
of LNG plants. Compliance with occupational health and safety guidelines is a prerequi-
site for safe handling. Bio-LNG is liquefied biogas, which is very similar or equivalent to
LNG in all physical parameters. The slightest traces of natural gas in the air can cause a
gas explosion.
1.1 LNG 3

1.1.2 Biogas: Bio-LNG

Bio-LNG is liquefied using various processes, small quantities (over 1000 Nm3/h) mainly
with liquid nitrogen, larger ones with gas liquefaction plants. The gas is produced by
anaerobic fermentation of organic substances, so-called biomass. This biomass includes
residues from agricultural processes (manure, slurry, plant residues, food leftovers, meat
and slaughterhouse waste, etc.). However, plants are also grown directly for fermentation
and subsequently processed into corn, grass, beet pulp silage, etc., which is then fer-
mented. During the fermentation process, 50–75% of the gas can be used for calorific
purposes. The remaining part are calorically unusable accompanying gases, which are
separated. By separating these non-combustible (so-called dead) associated gases, the gas
is concentrated to over 99% vol. calorically effective fraction and is prepared for feeding
into the grid (see [5]).
The DVGW rules and regulations deal with the issue of biogas in great detail. The feed-
­in conditions are described in [6], the entire complex is regulated in the following
worksheets.
The economic viability of production depends very much on the world market price of
internationally traded natural gas and the subsequent use of the biogas. The prices of the
biogas derived from the production costs must be able to compete with the world market
price for natural gas. This requires a favourable combination of different factors to make
the process economically viable. This requires a mixed calculation. If, for example, the
service of disposing of green cuttings and other waste is remunerated to the biogas plants,
the processing of the fermentation residues into fertiliser is taken into account financially
and the gas is sold as fuel, the overall process can be made more economical.

Note Biogas from animal fats, i.e. meat and slaughterhouse waste, may not be traded as
fuel [1].

Converting biogas to electricity on site becomes economically interesting if the heat

generated (approx. 2/3) can be put to good use. In contrast, discharging the upgraded gas
into gas pipelines is rarely economically feasible due to the relatively small quantities in
relation to the total cost of the discharge (Fig. 1.1).
The liquefaction of biogas into bio-LNG is technically feasible today without further
ado. The advantage of liquefaction is that the gas can be transported to where the price can
compete with that of natural gas from the pipeline. At present, this is only achievable when
used as a fuel, provided that liquefaction has been carried out cost-effectively and the price
of gas at filling stations is correspondingly high.
For biogas, it can be assumed that cryogenic liquefaction is currently economically
feasible under the aforementioned sales conditions. Cryogenic liquefaction is generally
done with liquid nitrogen. It takes about two to three parts by mass of liquid nitrogen to
get one part by mass of bio-LNG. Due to the boiling points of the individual fractions, a
purity of over 99% can be achieved (see [7]).
4 1 LNG and Its Thermodynamics

FUEL NATURAL GAS NETWORK HEAT + POWER

With BIO-NATURAL GAS, Problem-free feeding Regenerative
the clean fuel of the future, of BIO-NATURAL GAS BIO-NATURAL GAS
it is possible to pass gas in an into the existing approx. 450,000 km can be used directly for
almost CO2-neutral way. long natural gas network. heating or in CHP plants for
heat and power generation.

PREPARATION
Biogas is turned into
BIO-NATURAL GAS by desulphurisation.
Drying and increasing the methane content
BIO-NATURAL GAS (methane content
approx. 96%). This corresponds to fossil
natural gas in terms of quality and energy
content.

GÄRRESTLAGER FERMENTER
The recycled biomass Biogas (methane content approx. 60%)
is collected here and returned is produced from the biomass by
to the fields as high-quality decomposition with the aid of
fertiliser. anaerobic bacteria. This collects
under the digester hood.

ENERGY CROPS VIEHOLD BIOMÜLL

Specially cultivated Manure, dung, Kitchen and garden
renewable raw materials bedding waste
such as corn and green waste

Fig. 1.1 Formation and use of biogas. (Source: Future natural gas)
1.2 Importance of LNG 5

Summary
Methane and other hydrocarbon components of biogas are produced by an anaerobic reac-
tion. By separating dead accompanying gas, a high-quality biogas is obtained. It differs
only in the formation of the calorically usable fraction, especially methane. The complex
economic consideration of the whole process can make the biogas production competitive
by liquefaction with nitrogen.

1.1.3 Origin of Natural Gas

Natural gas, like crude oil, is produced from the remains of animals, plants and microor-
ganisms (organic matter), which are converted into a mixture of gases containing hydro-
carbons in an anaerobic process under high pressure. Such gases are also referred to as
organic gases. The predominant component of the caloric gas mixture is methane. This gas
is mixed with caloric dead associated gas and water. The high pressure during the forma-
tion of the gas came from thick layers of earth and rock as well as heat. Over the course of
15–600 million years, the transformation took place and continues to this day. Current
natural gas reserves exceed those of oil, so it is estimated that they will be available for
200 years [7]. The main natural gas deposits (see [8]) are located in:

• Europe 5.0 trillion m3.

• CIS countries 57.3 trillion m3.
• Middle East 72.7 trillion m3.
• Africa 3.7 trillion m3.
• Pacific region 11.9 trillion m3.
• South America 6.8 trillion m3.
• North America 6.8 trillion m3.

Summary
Natural gas is created under extremely high pressure and heat over millions of years from
organic source material. Crude oil is always accompanied by natural gas. The world’s gas
reserves are larger than its oil reserves.

1.2 Importance of LNG

In the past, natural gas escaping from oil production was considered a waste product and
flared directly at the oil well.
Today, natural gas is an important and, above all, environmentally friendly energy
source. Natural gas is a mainstay of the global energy industry. Figure 1.2 shows the geo-
logical structure of typical natural gas deposits. However, it is also extracted from its own
natural gas sources in the course of oil production. It is a valuable by-product of oil
production.
6 1 LNG and Its Thermodynamics

Conventional Unconventional
deposits deposits

Coal
Conventional
structural traps Coal seam gas

Tight gas
Clay rock Denser
Sandstone

Natural gas
Petroleum
Deposit water Shale gas

Fig. 1.2 Conventional and unconventional oil/natural gas deposits. (Source: National Cooperative
for the Storage of Radioactive Waste)

From the continental fields of Russia, Azerbaijan and other countries, the gas is brought
to Europe by pipeline.
As a result of the energy turnaround proclaimed in Germany, natural gas is gaining
particular relevance, because energetically high-quality gas can be converted into electric-
ity very advantageously and in an environmentally friendly manner in gas-fired power
plants. Due to their process characteristics, gas-fired power plants are particularly suitable
for supplementing alternative and, above all, volatile energy sources such as wind turbines
and solar parks. These will gain in importance.

Wind power  hydroelectric power  solar power  natural gas  secure electricity

In order to avoid blackouts on the way to the green, renewables need a supplement that bal-
ances out these fluctuations flexibly and decentrally. This partner can and should be natural
gas. Because of all the fossil fuels, natural gas has the best climate balance. When burned, it
releases 25% less CO2 than oil, 30% less than hard coal and 35% less than lignite. Modern
gas-fired power plants have the highest energy efficiency values, especially in combined heat
and power generation.

In addition, gas-fired power plants are decentralised and can be flexibly controlled. This
means that energy from gas-fired power plants can be made available precisely when it is
needed, and can be turned back as soon as enough electricity is available from the sun and
1.2 Importance of LNG 7

wind. This is what makes even the most modern small-scale gas-fired power plants so
attractive for municipalities and private households. In short, gas is the ideal backup sys-
tem “on the way to green.” [9].
Figure 1.3 clearly shows the importance and the share of natural gas in the energy sup-
ply. This share will continue to increase, because nuclear power and coal must be substi-
tuted. The gas can reach the power plants and the municipal grids quickly via
high-performance pipeline systems. The only problem is that these pipeline capacities are
not available in unlimited quantities, so pipeline-free transport will gain in importance.
For this purpose, the natural gas must be liquefied into LNG.
The question arises why oil can not perform the function of the gas. The answer is rela-
tively simple. According to current forecasts, global reserves of oil are lower than those of
gas (see [10]).
Consequently, the statistical range of:

• Coal worldwide at 112 years.

• Crude oil worldwide at 54.
• Natural gas worldwide at 64.

Source: Southern Upper Rhine Regional Association [11].

Structure of primary energy consumption in Germany 2018

total 12,963 PJ or 442.3 million tce
Shares in percent (previous year’s period in brackets)

Other including
Electricity exchange balance 0,4 (0,3) %

Mineral oil 34,3 (34,8) %

Renewable 14,0 (13,3) %

Nuclear energy 6,4 (6,2)%

Lignite 11,3 (11,2) %

Hard coal 10,0 (10,9)%

Natural gas 23,7 (23,2) %

Fig. 1.3 Distribution of energy sources in Germany 2018. (Source: AG Energy balances e.V)
8 1 LNG and Its Thermodynamics

Every oil field has a not insignificant amount of natural gas. Natural gas fields do not
necessarily have oil. Furthermore, the CO2 emissions from the combustion of oil are
greater than those of natural gas.

The positive consumption forecasts for natural gas are also closely related to the natural gas
reserve situation and the accessibility of deposits. Europe is strategically located among the
world’s largest natural gas reserves. It is technically and economically possible to make natu-
ral gas fields 6000 to 7000 kilometres away available to Western Europe. The technologies for
transporting gas over these great distances are available. Thus, in the future, a pipeline (diam-
eter 1,600 mm, pressure 120 bar) could transport about 50 billion m3 of natural gas per year.
(Source: [12])

The positive environmental balance, in particular the CO2 emission during combustion, is
another argument for the use of natural gas. During combustion, natural gas releases less
CO2 than crude oil and the environmentally harmful admixtures are lower.
At present, Germany has the primary energy mix graphically described in Fig. 1.3. The
share of nuclear energy must be compensated for 100%, that of coal partially, because
nuclear power plants are gradually being taken off the grid (see [13]).
Generation capacities must be compensated for elsewhere in order to maintain a reli-
able energy supply. Relying solely on renewable energies is not technically possible in an
industrialized country like Germany. More details are given in Chap. 5, LNG applications.
Coal-fired power plants are ecologically more questionable, their operation is not very
flexible and they require very costly flue gas cleaning systems. The flue gas residues have
to be disposed of at high cost. The situation is similar with crude oil, which is contami-
nated with more or less sulphur or other pollutants depending on the production area.
Natural gas is known to be the most environmentally friendly fossil fuel. Its composi-
tion depends on the respective deposit, although the main component is always methane.
In addition to other hydrocarbon compounds that can be used for calorific purposes
(including ethane, propane and butane), it also contains calorific dead gases such as air,
nitrogen, carbon dioxide and, in some cases, hydrogen sulphide and water. All compo-
nents vary in concentration and characterize the respective reservoir. When the gas is liq-
uefied, the dead associated gases and impurities are completely separated, partly by
thermodynamic processes and partly by other purification processes. The high purity is
one of the main advantages of LNG.
Pipeline gas or pipeline gas has to be treated with complicated purification processes
before it is injected into the pipeline (see [14]). Despite this purification process, pipeline-­
based gas transport is a very advantageous variant, as far as topographical, geographic and
geological conditions allow. The economic viability is limited solely by the distance to the
consumer.
1.3 Pipeline Gas and Its Significance 9

1.3 Pipeline Gas and Its Significance

Pipeline gas is offered regionally in the qualities L-gas and H-gas (see [15]). L-gas is the
low calorific gas which in Germany reaches the customer via the gas pipelines mainly in
Lower Saxony, parts of Saxony-Anhalt and North Rhine-Westphalia. It has a methane
content between 79% and 87%. The remaining quantity is dead associated gas. This gas
quality is gradually being displaced by the higher-quality H-gas, which places technical
demands on gas appliances and gas systems.
The higher calorific H-gas contains 87–97% methane. It does not reach the energy
content of LNG. Therefore, vehicles fueled with LCNG (CNG regasified from LNG) have
a longer range than those fueled with H-gas or L-gas.
The liquefaction energy is initially saved in pipeline transport, but in part energy is also
required in pipeline transport for compression for transport. Due to pipe friction and flow
losses, the pressure in the pipeline decreases. It has to be replaced repeatedly. A long-­
distance gas pipeline has a station for pressure boosting every 100–200 km (see Fig. 1.4).
During the repeated pressure increase, the gas is treated. During this process, impurities
such as moisture and oily contaminants are separated.
The pressure increase takes place via large compressors. To supply the customer with
the same energy equivalent, more gas has to be transported in the case of pipeline gas than
with LCNG or LNG. This is due to the dead associated gas. This expense is not

Fig. 1.4 ONTRAS compressor station Bobbau (Saxony-Anhalt). (Source: Ontrans – Photo: Peter
Eichler)
10 1 LNG and Its Thermodynamics

insignificant, because the gas, including the dead associated gas, must be compressed to a
pressure of up to 200 bar for transport in the long-distance pipelines. Up to 13% of the
work performed cannot be used energetically and is lost in the energy balance of the gas.
Analogous to the electricity network, a distinction is also made in gas networks between
high-pressure, medium-pressure and low-pressure lines. However, there are generally no
standardised designations for the pressure levels of gas pipelines. There is also no stan-
dardised pressure-dependent classification. The pressure level is defined from the point of
view of the available network. For example, if the gas pipeline is located in an urban area,
the high-pressure pipeline is defined as 1–16 bar. The medium pressure line is then less
than 800 mbar, the low pressure line up to 25 mbar.
If the consideration is made from the point of view of the long-distance gas pipeline
network, the pressures are considerably higher. Long-distance pipelines are operated as
high-pressure pipelines, which generally transport the gas at between 60 and 200 bar. This
is also referred to as the high-pressure network.
Such high-pressure networks can supply large areas with natural gas and deliver gas via
conversion stations to the medium-pressure network. This in turn covers a consumption
area, e.g. a city, which is supplied via a few medium-pressure lines. Large consumers (e.g.
heating plants, CHP plants, natural gas filling stations with high tapping capacity) must at
least be connected to the medium-pressure network. If, for technical or economic reasons,
the gas pressure available in the high-pressure lines or the medium-pressure lines were to
be used in a CNG filling station, either long supply lines would be required or the consum-
ers would have to be installed close to the lines. Both have to be weighed up
economically.
Depending on the consumption characteristics in the local medium pressure networks,
the pressure is reduced to a few bar and in the low pressure networks to a few mbar. The
originally applied delivery pressure is lost. To reduce this obvious disadvantage, at some
stations the gas is expanded via expansion turbines to generate electricity, which allows a
small part of the compression work performed to be recovered.
Pipeline transport naturally also has many advantages, the continuity of supply and the
low susceptibility to faults being one of the most significant. This high security of supply
cannot be surpassed by any other system. The customer perceives it as very pleasant.
The “luxury” of a continuous supply is included in the gas prices. In addition to basic
costs such as grid usage fee, connection fee, etc., gas is charged according to quantity
(quantity price) and capacity (capacity price) (see example Tigas [16]). This means that
fluctuations in demand are charged at the capacity price. Large fluctuations make the gas
more expensive, while balanced offtake reduces the costs. This price structure is intended
to encourage consumers to consume as constantly as possible. This is not possible in most
cases. To avoid the fluctuations in offtake, the consumer would need to have large storage
facilities to store gas at times of low demand and release it when demand increases. This
sounds simple, but requires considerable technical effort. In the past, the municipal utili-
ties operated retort or chamber furnaces and gasometers that could compensate for these
fluctuations in demand.
References 11

LNG could be a welcome addition to pipeline supply for commercial customers.

Instead of taking peak power from the grid, the customer could use gas from an LNG tank
during peak periods to avoid expensive power peaks in the consumption curve (see Sect.
5.1.4). This injection must be made after the gas supplier has been connected, otherwise
the consumer would be interfering with its system. This is not permitted. In this case, the
responsibility for the feed-in would lie entirely with the customer. This option has rarely
been used to date, as LNG is relatively unknown on the German market. The more expen-
sive the power price of the supplier and the more extreme the power peaks of the con-
sumer, the more likely an accompanying LNG supply can be economically viable. It
should be noted that this supply also requires a processed gas. For example, the gas sup-
plier’s Wobbe number must be met to ensure that the burners, gas turbines/gas engines
operate within the correct power and temperature range. The correct value is set by admix-
ing nitrogen or caloric gases. It is a good idea to install a nitrogen tank next to the LNG
tank, which forces nitrogen into the natural gas via an air vaporizer. The air vaporizer is
adjusted to the feed pressure with the pressure booster vaporizer. A mass flow meter con-
trols the mass flow to be added (see Sect. 5.1.4).

Summary
Pipeline gas offers the highest security of supply. Pressure losses in the pipeline during
transport must be compensated for by increasing the pressure using compressors. The gas
is treated before it is compressed again. Generally, one speaks of high-pressure, medium-­
pressure or low-pressure pipelines. There are no generally standardised ranges for the
pressure stages.
Power peaks of the gas offtake are to be avoided. The costs of the power peaks could be
avoided on the part of certain consumers by injections of LCNG. The Wobbe number of
the injected gas should be adjusted to that of the gas supplier by adding nitrogen. The costs
and benefits of own storage and injection must be weighed up.

References

1. https://www.gesetze-­im-­internet.de/bimschg/BimSchG.pdf, BImSchG, §37 b, Ziffer 8.

2. www.tugraz.at/fileadmin/user_upload/Events/Eninnov2014/files/lf/LF_Simmer.pdf
3. www.enercity-­n etz.de/pool/downloads/netze/kennwerte-­e rdgas-­o rientierungswerte%
2D%2D2016.pdf
4. www.peacesoftware.de/einigewerte/methan.html
5. http://www.biogas-­netzeinspeisung.at/anlagenbeispiele/pliening.html
6. DVGW – Arbeitsblatt G 262.
7. www.weltderphysik.de/gebiet/technik/energie/fossile-­quellen/erdgas/
8. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erdgas/Tabellen_und_Grafiken#Nach_L%C3%A4ndern
9. www.wingas.com/rohstoff-­erdgas/erdgas-­im-­energiemix.html/
10. www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/DE/Artikel/Energie/gas-­erdgasversorgung-­in-­deutschland.html
11. http://www.bund-­rvso.de/energievorraete-­energiereserven.html
12. www.gwerbegas-­online.de
12 1 LNG and Its Thermodynamics

13. https://www.bundesnetzagentur.de/DE/Sachgebiete/ElektrizitaetundGas/Unternehmen_
Institutionen/Versorgungssicherheit/Erzeugungskapazitaeten/KWSAL/KWSAL_node.html
14. www.linde-­engineering.com/de/process_plants/lng-­and-­natural-­gas-­processing-­plants/lng_and_
natural_gas_processing_plants.html
15. www.gibgas.de/Fakten/Mobilität/H und L-­Gas
16. www.tigas.at/produkte/erdgas/preise
The Most Important Thermodynamic
Processes in the Production, Transport 2
and Storage of LNG

Abstract

The distinctive thermodynamic processes of the are described and explained on the
basis of generally known examples.

2.1 Adiabatic Cooling

As a result of adiabatic cooling (see [1]), the aggregate state of a medium can change.
Evaporation occurs due to the onset of a pressure reduction. The temperature of the
medium (vapour and liquid) falls. If one were to make the theoretical assumption of forc-
ing gas into the vessel, the pressure of the gas and the boiling pressure of the liquid would
rise. In that case, a supercooled gas would be present.

Note If this process is considered within wider limits, mass is very well discharged with
the pressure relief, which carries out a corresponding energy. From this it can be con-
cluded that the adiabatic process always applies to a narrowly defined space. In the com-
plex described, this space is the tank.

Furthermore, in an adiabatic process, heat is neither added nor removed. Strictly speak-
ing, this is only theoretically possible in comparatively small and closed technical systems,
because despite the best insulation there is a temperature difference between the container
and the medium, which results in an energy exchange. Nevertheless, in the technical field
and with appropriate insulation (e.g. vacuum insulation), one may assume that no energy is
exchanged within a limited time window. When a liquid evaporates, heat, the heat of evapo-
ration, is extracted from it. The liquid cools down and affects the surrounding material.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 13

GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2024
W. Hermeling, Compendium for the LNG and CNG Practitioner,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38258-2_2
14 2 The Most Important Thermodynamic Processes in the Production, Transport…

400
p = 200 bar p = 50 bar p = 5 bar
p = 300 bar p = 100 bar p = 10 bar

Supercritical state h = 750 kJ/kg Superheated steam

300 p = 1 bar
h = 700 kJ/kg
Temperature [K]

h = 650 kJ/kg
h = 600 kJ/kg
h = 550 kJ/kg

Critical point
200

Liquid+steam Condition 1, before relaxation

Liquid
Isobaric subcritical point Condition 2, after relaxation

100
0,000 2,00 4,00 6,00
Entropy [kJ/kg K]

Fig. 2.1 Course of adiabatic cooling

Example In southern countries, to this day, a wine jug made of ceramics is given a glaze
that is only missing from the lower part of the jug. This is not a manufacturing defect, but
intentional. Wine diffuses through the pores of unglazed ceramics. The wine evaporates,
or rather it evaporates on the surface of the ceramic. The wine penetrates through the
porous ceramic with an enlarged surface. The wine seeping into the pores and evaporating
removes the heat of evaporation (also called heat of evaporation) from the remaining wine
and the ceramic. The temperature of the wine and the porous ceramic will drop. The wine
in the wine jug is cooled or remains cool.

When cooling gas in a vacuum-insulated tank, the effect of adiabatic cooling is used.
Liquefied gas in the tank is allowed to evaporate by means of gas extraction and the
remaining liquid is cooled with the extraction of the heat of evaporation – the gas is fed to
consumption. Compared to the extraction from the liquid phase, this variant has the advan-
tage that the penetrating heat is insignificant for the otherwise increasing tank pressure.
The tank pressure will decrease. Depending on the gas withdrawal, the state of equilibrium
is reached sooner or later. This is reached when the gas pressure drops more slowly com-
pared to the beginning of the withdrawal. The process takes place on the steam line (see
Fig. 2.1). The isobar below the critical point moves downwards, the pressure decreases
with the boiling temperature. The boiling temperature corresponds to the boiling pressure.

Note Gas withdrawal extends the storage time of the gas, the permissible tank pressure is
not reached.
2.1 Adiabatic Cooling 15

During the filling of a vacuum insulated tank the reverse process takes place. Each
liquid temperature on the boiling line is associated with a corresponding, defined gas pres-
sure (see Sect. 3.5). The liquid supplied is colder than the residual liquid and the residual
gas in the tank. The cold liquid is filled into the tank from above. The liquid is sprayed to
form fine droplets, which cool the gas as it sinks. This condenses. This is called mixed
condensation. The gas and the liquid take on boiling pressure and boiling temperature, the
pressure drops. The liquid in the tank is in thermodynamic equilibrium with the gas pres-
sure above the liquid after refuelling or after a correspondingly long time. It should be
noted that the tank itself must also be cooled. This has warmed up with increasing equilib-
rium pressure, because with increasing pressure this is accompanied by an increasing
temperature.
The system is on the isobars below the critical point. If the pressure in the tank increases
due to very slow external heat supply, the liquid heats up. It evaporates and the gas pressure
increases. Liquid and gas have reached boiling temperature. The energy level in the tank
has increased by the amount of energy that has entered. If gas is removed from the gaseous
phase of the tank, the equilibrium is disturbed. The gas pressure no longer corresponds to
the temperature of the liquid, but is lower. The liquid begins to boil and evaporates at the
surface. Part of the liquid passes into the gas phase. If gas is drawn off very intensively,
evaporation also occurs below the surface. Vapour rises with the formation of bubbles,
which increases with falling pressure. This can often even be heard from the outside.
The evaporation heat or evaporation energy required for evaporation cannot be supplied
from the outside, as the existing insulation of the tank does not allow the necessary heat to
penetrate quickly enough. The energy for evaporation can only be extracted from the liquid.
As a result, the temperature of the liquid drops. The evaporation produces gas that is colder
than the existing gas. The existing gas is cooled by the mixing. The gas pressure adjusts to
the new, lower temperature of the liquid, and the system is again in equilibrium. The pro-
cess proceeds at constant energy (enthalpy). The gas withdrawal changes the energy poten-
tial in the tank. This has nothing to do with the adiabatic process, it only enables it.
If liquid is removed from the tank, the gas space increases and the gas pressure above
the liquid decreases. To establish equilibrium, liquid inevitably evaporates. The heat of
evaporation is also extracted from the liquid in this case. It cools down. In both cases, this
is referred to as adiabatic cooling.
The mentioned variants are a very often practiced possibility to cool liquid in the range
of below −80 °C. In this low temperature range, it is no longer possible to work with the
cooling brine or refrigerant of the refrigeration circuit. This cooling is only possible with the

• adiabatic coolingor.
• a liquefaction plant (see Sect. 2.8) or.
• a conventional cooling process by cooling with colder gas (liquid or gaseous) (e.g.
small gas quantities up to 1000 Nm3/h, as produced by the biogas plant, can be eco-
nomically liquefied with liquid nitrogen. Large quantities (over 1000 Nm3/h) are lique-
fied more economically with a gas liquefaction plant that cools adiabatically).
16 2 The Most Important Thermodynamic Processes in the Production, Transport…

The effect of adiabatic cooling is also used on a large scale during ship transport to cool
LNG. If the LNG vaporizes in the ship’s tank, boil-off gas (vaporized natural gas) is pro-
duced. It is drawn off and used as fuel for the ship’s engine. The liquid releases the heat of
vaporization and is cooled so that the gas pressure is kept constant. The resulting gas is fed
to the ship’s engine as fuel according to the process and demand. Work is done and heat is
generated, which in total corresponds to the energy content of the gas. Nevertheless, most
LNG transport ships today run on diesel engines and instead have small reliquefaction
plants on board that constantly reliquefy the boil-off gas. In the case of gas tankers with
gas engines, these reliquefiers are either not required or are much smaller.
In gas supply systems, the product in the LNG tank is lowered in pressure by adiabatic
cooling in order to avoid an unacceptable operating pressure. This is particularly true if the
tank is only refuelled at long intervals and the pressure approaches an impermissible value.
If the pressure in the tank rises correspondingly high, the gas is discharged via a gas pres-
sure relief valve or a pressure regulating valve. When the preset pressure, e.g. 12 bar, is
reached, the gas pressure relief valve opens. The pressure regulator for liquid withdrawal
closes. Now gas flows from the gas space directly into the air vaporizer, where it is heated
to ambient temperature. The ambient temperature is the maximum achievable gas tempera-
ture, the real temperature will always be slightly lower. The pressure in the tank remains at
12 bar, a further pressure increase is not to be expected. When the gas pressure has reached
or fallen below the specified value, the liquid withdrawal line opens again at the tank.
It is often mistakenly assumed that the tank pressure drops linearly due to blow-off.
This is supposed to mean that for each cubic metre of gas withdrawn, the pressure falls
linearly according to the volume withdrawn. This is only true for the supercooled state, i.e.
the gas pressure is higher than the boiling pressure. Once the boiling pressure has been
reached, the internal pressure cannot be reduced linearly. Much more gas must always be
discharged than corresponds to the geometric volume. The reason for this is that liquid is
constantly evaporating during the draining process. As the tank pressure decreases due to
gas venting, liquid evaporates and the liquid temperature in the tank decreases. The tank
contents are cooled adiabatically. The gas and liquid phases have boiling temperature,
thermodynamic equilibrium prevails. The condition can be recognized by the fact that the
gas pressure falls more slowly with further withdrawal. Looked at another way, gas and
liquid are on the isobaric below the critical point. A saturated product is present, as is fre-
quently required today for LNG refuelling.

Summary
In an adiabatic process, energy is neither added nor removed. In the course of adiabatic
cooling, which is only possible below the critical point, the heat of vaporization is removed
from the liquid. The liquid temperature and the pressure of the gas drop to the parameters
of the isobars below the critical point. If the process takes place at atmospheric pressure,
the pressure remains constant, it already corresponds to the boiling temperature. Cooling
at atmospheric pressure below the boiling temperature of the liquefied gas is not possible.
Adiabatic cooling extends the storage time in the tank.
2.2 Mixed Condensation 17

In the vacuum-insulated tank, the liquid and gas phases are in thermodynamic equilib-
rium if no gas is withdrawn. The equilibrium is disturbed by a gas withdrawal and liquid
evaporates.
Pressure relief from the gas phase does not result in a linear pressure drop, as thermo-
dynamic equilibrium is always sought. Instead, with pressure drop due to pressure relief to
maintain thermodynamic equilibrium, evaporation of the liquid begins. The evaporation
energy is extracted from the liquid. The boiling pressure decreases with temperature.
Pressure and temperature are below the critical point on the isobar.

2.2 Mixed Condensation

Heat penetrates through the outer wall of the tank despite the best insulation. With the
addition of heat, the pressure of the gas and the boiling temperature of the liquid increase,
possibly until the permissible operating pressure of the tank is reached. At the same time,
the density of the liquid decreases and that of the gas increases. With the renewed filling,
the tank pressure must be lowered in order to be able to absorb the penetrating heat men-
tioned at the beginning in the future. Otherwise, the storage of cryogenic boiling liquid
would not be possible. Pressure and temperature change as a result of mixed condensation.
This is an important effect that is used for refueling. This is illustrated by the following
figures for methane:

Pressure after refueling Boiling temperature 132 K = −141 °C

4 bar
Pressure almost empty tank boiling temperature, the remaining is used 164 K = −109 °C
18 bar for cooling the inner tank

Pressure and temperature are in thermodynamic equilibrium in the tank during this
process. Other cryogenic liquefied gases behave similarly.

Note Mixed condensation is only possible below the critical point, specifically between
the boiling point and the vapour point. As mixed condensation begins, the temperature and
pressure in the tank fall. Both move on the isobar below the critical point (14).

The tank pressure is lowered when refueling takes place. The tanker comes with a liq-
uid, in our case LNG, which is at a very low level in thermodynamic equilibrium. The
boiling temperature at the prevailing vehicle tank pressure of 1.5 bar is 116.5 K and thus
has a much lower level than the temperature of the tank contents, which could be at a boil-
ing pressure of 15 bar.
We assume that the tank is almost empty before refuelling: The set pressure at the pres-
sure regulator of the pressure booster evaporator has been exceeded. The pressure regula-
tor has closed. It will not open again until the pressure has dropped below the set value.
Therefore, no additional pressure build-up is to be expected from it in this setting. It does
18 2 The Most Important Thermodynamic Processes in the Production, Transport…

not open again until the pressure has fallen below the set value. This value is undershot
during refuelling, so theoretically the pressure booster evaporator would have to be closed
before refuelling.

Note In practice, the pressure booster evaporator is not closed, since the inflowing mass
flow (liquid) compensates for the slight pressure increase (gas phase) due to the additional
evaporation in the pressure booster evaporator, i.e. it does not hinder the refuelling process.

Refuelling begins. Liquid is now pressed into the tank from above and thereby atom-
ized into fine drops (see Fig. 2.2).

Tank is filled from above

(upper filling)

LNG is sprayed into

very fine
droplets, the gas
condenses on the
surface of the droplets.

Gas phase

Condensed product
(LNG)

Lower filling
Filling pipe

Fig. 2.2 Schematic representation of mixed condensation

2.3 Relaxation Energy, The Joule-Thomson Effect 19

Example A similar process takes place in a steam boiler whose pressure must be lowered
to feed water again. There too, cold water is sprayed into the steam. The water condenses
the steam, the pressure drops and water can be filled into the boiler at a lower pressure.
Another application is the mixed condenser. In this apparatus stages are installed, over
which the condensing liquid falls from one to the other. Gas flows from the bottom to the
top in countercurrent. As it flows through the liquid curtain, the gas is cooled and condenses.

These fine but cold drops cool the warm gas or absorb the heat of the gas. Condensation
occurs due to the intensive mixing of the gas phase with cold liquid. A small droplet area
comes into contact with a large volume of gas. In total, the many finely atomized droplets
form a very large surface area. This is contrasted by a relatively small vapour volume. The
gas is cooled at the droplets, a much smaller part of the droplets evaporates. The other part
of these drops falls into the liquid and cools it. This process of mixing vapor with liquid,
which leads to condensation of the vapor, is called mixed condensation (see [2]). The tank
now contains a liquid whose temperature is lower than the vapour temperature. At its sur-
face, the vapor cools down and condenses. This process of heat exchange continues after
refueling, only not as intensively. As the refueling process progresses, the vapor gets
colder and colder. The vapor pressure decreases and the temperature of the vapor and liq-
uid will approach, but never reach, the temperature of the liquid being fed. The liquid and
vapor are in thermodynamic equilibrium not with, but after the end of the refueling pro-
cess. The process of “refuelling from above” is described in more detail in Sect. 3.4.
If the proportion of non-condensing components, such as air, is too high, mixed con-
densation is hindered by the decreasing partial pressure of the methane or, in extreme
cases, is not possible at all. The air has a boiling point far below that of the LNG. The
pressure does not drop because condensation of the methane/air is not possible.

Note Air gets into the tank due to unclean refuelling. This must be avoided. Air represents
an enormous potential hazard (see Sects. 10.2 and 13.1) and is counterproductive for
mixed condensation.

Summary
Mixed condensation makes it possible to reduce the pressure in a room, i.e. the vacu-
umised tank, by spraying cryogenic liquefied gas in an adiabatic process. The effect of
mixed condensation decreases with increasing filling level. Thermodynamic equilibrium
is reached at the end of refuelling.

2.3 Relaxation Energy, The Joule-Thomson Effect

The thermodynamic findings of gas expansion are described by the Joule-Thomson effect.
During expansion, i.e. pressure reduction, gas is reduced from a high to a low pressure by
throttling. No work is done in the process. It is an irreversible process (see [3]).
20 2 The Most Important Thermodynamic Processes in the Production, Transport…

Example The process of expansion is basically known, but is often not consciously per-
ceived. If a filled high-pressure gas cylinder is emptied by abruptly opening the cylinder
valve, gas flows into the atmosphere at high velocity. After a short time, the gas cylinder
valve fogs up and sets frost. This can be observed even in midsummer, so that the
­temperature obviously falls below 0 °C.

With the onset of expansion, the expanded product absorbs energy from the environ-
ment, which is expressed in the drop in temperature in the immediate vicinity. The better
a process runs in isolation, i.e. the more the conditions of the adiabatic process are ful-
filled, the more clearly the cooling is noticeable. In the case described, the energy must be
extracted from the medium, the gas, and cools the valve and the gas cylinder in the pro-
cess. If the cooling is intense enough, first the humidity falls below the dew point, it pre-
cipitates out of the air and settles as water in the cooled area. Further cooling causes the
water to freeze into frost, which then appears very obviously.

Note The application and control of the Joule-Thomson effect is one of the most impor-
tant processes for the liquefaction of gases. The liquefaction of all cryogenic liquefied
gases is based on this effect. The process was invented by Carl von Linde.

What happens? When the gas cylinder valve is opened, the gas pressure is relaxed, the
escaping gas molecules move at high speed and occupy a larger volume. The increase in
volume results from the drop in pressure, because the previously compressed molecules
lose their constriction and can now move freely. This requires kinetic energy, which the
gas draws from its surroundings. The gas and the environment cool down. If the process
lasts long enough and the pressure difference is high enough, the described frost formation
occurs at the valve of the gas cylinder. In this case, the gas flow also extracts energy from
the cylinder valve and the gas, which can be seen in the drop in temperature. In the Ts
diagram, the process of throttling and the associated cooling, the flash cooling, can be seen
on the line h = const. (enthalpy = const.). The parameters of pressure and temperature are
used to describe the enthalpy at the corresponding point. The line of constant enthalpy
describes the process, intersecting the lines of constant pressure. If one follows the line up
to the point of the reached pressure, one finds the temperature to be expected on the hori-
zontal line.
The technical liquefaction of air makes use of this effect. This also applies to the com-
ponents helium and other noble gases, which are not called air gases, but are contained in
it. In this process, the gas is expanded at high pressure into a very well insulated space at
low pressure. The gas tends to absorb the energy required to move, just as it does when the
gas leaves the gas cylinder. This energy can only be extracted from the gas, as it cannot be
absorbed from the outside due to the insulation provided. In an adiabatic process, the
energy balance is constant, so the gas temperature must decrease. A very cold gas is pro-
duced, which cools the gas flowing in countercurrent. Then the incoming and already
2.4 Compression Energy 21

colder gas is compressed and expanded. After expansion, the gas temperature must be
lower than that of the compressed incoming gas. This process is repeated until the boiling
point of the gas is reached. Liquid, liquefied gas, precipitates.
Since the aim is to achieve the greatest possible pressure difference, the pressure is
reduced to atmospheric pressure. Therefore, the liquid obtained is usually at atmospheric
pressure. When heat is applied again, the liquid evaporates and the gas rises to boiling
temperature. This process of gas liquefaction is explained in more detail in Sect. 2.8.

Summary
The irreversible Joule-Thomson effect describes the throttle effect. It runs on the line of
constant enthalpy. This process takes place in a closed and thermally isolated room. No
work is done during the expansion, the gas and the surroundings cool down. The cold gas
is used to cool the pressurized gas. The progressive cooling of the entering gas allows the
boiling point to be reached, maximum atmospheric pressure.

2.4 Compression Energy

The compression energy occurs during the compression of the gas, as is the case with
every compressor, among others. Kaltschmitt et al. (see [4]) explain this very clearly using
the example of the heat pump. On a small scale, everyone has already felt this type of heat
generation.

Example If you want to inflate the bicycle tube with the air pump, the air pump becomes
warmer at the lower end than our hand. The cause is not the physical effort, but the result-
ing compression energy. The air molecules are compressed. This is expressed in the
increase in temperature, which is actually the measure of the movement of the molecules.

For gas liquefaction, this heat of compression plays an essential role in addition to
expansion. Initially, the gas is compressed. The compression heat is initially dissipated by
conventional cooling with refrigeration machines. As the cooling process progresses, the
heat is dissipated with cold gas in counterflow.
Another example is the filling of compressed gas cylinders. This compression energy
acts when filling the gas cylinders or the CNG vehicle storage tank. The heat of compres-
sion cannot be dissipated quickly enough into the environment or distributed in the mate-
rial by heat conduction, the gas and the compressed gas container become warm due to the
excessively rapid increase in pressure. The pressure may rise to the permissible pressure
even though the desired mass of gas has not yet been reached in the container.

Note This is counteracted by slow filling. With this procedure, the same energy is intro-
duced, but part of the heat is already dissipated during compression.
22 2 The Most Important Thermodynamic Processes in the Production, Transport…

The temperature in the bottle itself is distributed more evenly, it does not rise as much.
The cylinder or accumulator can be filled continuously in this way up to the permissible
limit. Attempts to fill with a particularly cold gas only led to very limited success (own test
series).

Summary
The compression energy leads to a temperature increase of the gas. The temperature
increase can be minimized by a slow increase in pressure. However, the energy is the same
supplied.

2.5 The Critical Point

The critical point of a gas is located in the Ts diagram at the upper end of the vapour pres-
sure line (cf. Fig. 2.3) and is described with the pressure and the temperature (other dia-
grams such as Pt, hp. etc. are also possible and show the same). At the critical point, the
state of the substance cannot be defined, because the phases liquid, vapor, gaseous super-
heated (gas), supercritical meet. (see [5]). At this point, under energy input, the medium
immediately passes into the superheated gas phase or into the supercritical phase. The
state to be expected is pressure-dependent.

Note The density is the same for the gas and liquid phases at the critical point. Natural gas
is a mixture of different gases. Therefore, the critical point for natural gas only approxi-
mates that of methane.

When the medium cools, the process on the isobar below the critical point runs in oppo-
site directions. To the left of the critical point, liquid precipitates immediately, to the right
of the critical point, vapour forms (x = 1). If cooling continues at decreasing pressure,
vapour develops, which then decreases below the critical point on the horizontal isobar
until all the vapour has condensed to liquid (x = 0, process proceeds at constant tempera-
ture). With further cooling on the isobar, supercooled liquid forms with decreasing
temperature.

Note It is assumed that the pressure does not fall below the critical point. The medium is
in the supercritical range to the left of the critical point. At constant entropy (s), condensa-
tion starts abruptly when the temperature is reduced to a value below the critical point.

The heat to be dissipated from the supercritical gas, expressed as entropy, up to conden-
sation is very low. Consequently, the area of the heat transfer and thus the condensation
area can be chosen to be correspondingly small. This is a cost factor that should not be
underestimated, but is rarely taken into account.
2.6 Thermodynamic Equilibrium 23

400
p = 200 bar p = 50 bar p = 5 bar
p = 300 bar p = 100 bar p = 10 bar

Supercritical state h = 750 kJ/kg Superheated steam

300 h = 700 kJ/kg
p = 1 bar
Temperature [K]

h = 650 kJ/kg
h = 600 kJ/kg
h = 550 kJ/kg

Critical point
200

Liquid+steam
Liquid
Isobaric subcritical point

100
0,000 2,00 4,00 6,00
Entropy [kJ/kg K]

Fig. 2.3 Ts diagram for methane with ranges liquid, vapour, OC, etc.

To the right of the critical point, the steam line is reached with superheated steam,
whose entropy is less than 4.8 KJ/kgK for methane. The formation of steam begins when
the boiling temperature is reached. Despite further cooling, under constant pressure the
temperature remains constant until complete condensation. Only then is further cooling of
the medium, which is now liquid, possible on the line p = const. to supercooled liquid.

Summary
At the critical point, the density of gas and liquid are equal. The critical point for natural
gas is not defined, as it depends on the composition. Methane is assumed to be compara-
ble. For methane, the critical point is at a density of the gas and liquid phases of 162.66 kg/
m3, there is a pressure of 45.9 bar and a temperature of −82.6 °C or 190.6 K. Above the
critical pressure there is no liquid, below the critical point the liquid, vapour or gas phase
are possible.

2.6 Thermodynamic Equilibrium

Thermodynamic equilibrium, also called phase equilibrium (see [6]), prevails when the
gas phase and the liquid have assumed the pressure and temperature parameters of the
isobars below the critical point.
Thermodynamic equilibrium is also called saturated state or saturated gas.
24 2 The Most Important Thermodynamic Processes in the Production, Transport…

The pressure at the bottom of the tank is higher than at the surface of the liquid.
Therefore, at the bottom of the tank, even at the same temperature, there is no thermody-
namic equilibrium, there is supercooled liquid. Strictly speaking, thermodynamic equilib-
rium can only occur at the surface of the liquid. Note that the liquid temperature in the tank
is never uniformly distributed, but fluctuates due to convective currents. (Some also speak
of stratification.) The exact conditions in the tank are not clearly understood.

Example Boiling water in a pot has +100 °C under normal pressure, the rising water
vapour directly above the water has the same temperature. Water vapour is invisible.
However, this is cooled by the surrounding air, the so-called steam is formed. This is actu-
ally wrong, because the steam is invisible. The visible part of the vapor is condensed water.
The boiling liquid and the rising vapor are in thermodynamic equilibrium only immedi-
ately above the water. The vapor state is only maintained by appropriate insulation.

The situation is similar in the vacuum-insulated tank. The LNG is in thermodynamic

equilibrium for some time after refuelling, provided no product (gas or liquid) is removed.
The inevitable addition of heat through the outer tank wall causes the liquid to evaporate,
even though the tank is insulated. Gas evolves as the pressure increases. Since the space is
enclosed, the pressure increases only to the extent that heat is added. When either compo-
nent (gas or liquid) is removed, the pressure changes. This change in pressure is balanced
by the onset of evaporation. Thermodynamic equilibrium is established at a low tempera-
ture and pressure level.

Note When gas is withdrawn from the gas space of the tank, the pressure does not
decrease linearly with the volume withdrawn, since thermodynamic equilibrium is estab-
lished by immediately evaporating liquid. Gas is released as a vapour phase. In case of an
extensive withdrawal, not enough heat can be provided, supercooled liquid is formed. At
the end of the extraction, heat continues to flow in, this liquid becomes a boiling liquid
again and the thermodynamic equilibrium is re-established.

The heat supply through the vessel wall disturbs the existing thermodynamic equilib-
rium, a new equilibrium is established which is adapted to the heat supply, but at a higher
temperature and pressure level.

Summary
Thermodynamic equilibrium is established between a boiling liquid, e.g. LNG, and the
gas phase above it. Here, temperature and gas pressure correspond to the parameters of the
isobars below the critical point.
When gas is withdrawn, the gas pressure drops. The volume of gas withdrawn is bal-
anced by the formation of new gas. The reason for this is that thermodynamic equilibrium
is always sought. Liquid evaporates and the isobaric below the critical point drops to a
lower level, temperature and pressure in the tank drop. Adiabatic cooling is carried out by
removing gas to maintain the thermodynamic equilibrium.
2.7 The Isobar Below the Critical Point 25

When heat is added, the thermodynamic equilibrium increases and the temperature and
pressure in the tank rise.

2.7 The Isobar Below the Critical Point

The isobar (line with values of equal pressure) below the critical point is characterized by
a constant temperature. In the Ts diagram (Fig. 2.3), it lies horizontally below the critical
point and above the atmospheric pressure. It describes the processes during boiling of the
liquid (see [7]).
A prerequisite for boiling is the supply of energy. The enthalpy of the substance
increases. The addition of energy produces steam at boiling temperature. Since the process
takes place under constant temperature, it is finished when the pressure and temperature
rise again. The steam fraction is denoted by x and denotes the mass of the steam fraction
that has been brought to boiling. At x = 0 (no gas component) the boiling process begins,
and at x = 1 (no liquid component) the process is complete. This means that all the liquid
has passed into the vapour phase at boiling temperature. Normally, the energy input is
expressed in the increase of the temperature. On the isobar below the critical point this is
not the case, it is called latent heat or transformation energy. Liquid changes into vapour,
more precisely into saturated vapour, and the density changes. It decreases with the energy
input, because the molecules of the liquid increase their movement, they take up more
space and thus the density decreases.

Example If you want to heat something to a maximum of 100 °C, you use a water bath.
You can add as much heat as you want, but as long as there is water in the water bath, the
temperature will not exceed 100 °C. On the isobar the proportion of water and steam
changes. The steam increases, the water decreases, the temperature remains constant.

The same happens on every isobar below the critical point. If the process takes place in
a closed room, i.e. the tank, the pressure of gas and liquid increases, the isobar moves
towards the critical point. The volume increases. This is expressed in the decrease of the
liquid density or increase of the specific volume.
In a closed space, the entropy (s) changes. It increases, the increase is followed on the
boiling line. The isobar with heat supply increases with the increase of heat on the boiling
line up to the critical point. There, depending on the pressure, the liquid changes into
superheated steam or the supercritical state.
It can be observed in the Ts diagram that with increasing vapour pressure less and less
heat has to be supplied to increase the pressure. This means in the evaporation process
(e.g. in the air evaporator), the higher the pressure in the evaporator, the smaller the evapo-
rator surface can be designed. If below the critical point x = 1 is reached, the entire mass
is evaporated. At constant pressure, the temperature increases according to the specific
heat of the substance. Now it becomes superheated steam, which is colloquially also
called gas.
26 2 The Most Important Thermodynamic Processes in the Production, Transport…

Summary
On the isobar below the critical point, temperature and pressure remain constant despite
the supply of conversion energy. The prerequisite is that the vapour can spread out unhin-
dered. If the volume is limited, the gas pressure and the boiling pressure of the liquid
increase. Gas and liquid take on the boiling temperature. After x = 1, if further energy is
added, steam becomes superheated steam, called gas. If the pressure is lowered (gas with-
drawal), the boiling temperature of the liquid drops to the gas pressure that is established.

2.8 Liquefaction of LNG

The natural gas emerging from the earth is a mixture of various calorically usable gases,
energetically dead gases, water, sulphurous compounds and dirt. Methane is the most
important component and is therefore mechanically separated from the calorically dead
associated gases, water and other impurities before liquefaction. After this pre-cleaning,
the remaining fractions are separated by absorption and thermal processes.
Subsequently, the remaining natural gas is converted to the liquid state using only refrig-
eration (see [8]). The temperatures required for liquefaction cannot be achieved with con-
ventional refrigeration processes (cooling brines, refrigerants). The required temperatures
can only be achieved in combination with the Joule-Thomson effect and its modifications.
This was recognised by Carl von Linde (see [9]), who had previously invented the
refrigerating machine and now knew how to cool the gas initially. Based on this knowl-
edge, Linde developed the liquefaction process shown in Fig. 2.4. It became a global suc-
cess and formed the basis of the LINDE Group, which today operates worldwide. Later,
other modified processes were developed. However, to this day all large-scale liquefaction
processes make use of flash. Newer, modified processes use expansion machines

Fig. 2.4 Simplified representation of the Linde liquefaction process

2.8 Liquefaction of LNG 27

(turbines) for expansion, whereby part of the compression energy is recovered to generate
electricity. This process goes back to Claude (1902). In the Claude-Heylandt process, liq-
uefaction is achieved by a combination of both expansion processes, as in the Linde pro-
cess. Expansion is to atmospheric pressure, so that storage at ambient pressure is possible
and large quantities can be stored in the atmospheric tanks (several 1000 m3). The cold gas
leaving the turbine is used to cool the gas flowing in the counterflow cooler. The compres-
sion energy is extracted under constant pressure. A partial flow of the cold gas is expanded
again, the other part is used for cooling.

Note All liquefaction processes have one thing in common, they use the expansion refrig-
eration for liquefaction. Depending on the process, about 10–20% of the total energy con-
tent of the gas is consumed for the required compression. This energy is required to
compress the gas.

With the flash cooling, energy is extracted from the gas. Very low temperatures are
reached in the process. The cooling restricts the free path length of the molecules until the
liquid state is reached. This is why we speak of cryogenic liquefied gases. All air gases
such as oxygen, nitrogen, argon, other noble gases and hydrogen are also offered as cryo-
genic liquefied gases. Depending on the process, up to approx. 200–210 K could be cooled
with traditional refrigeration processes, lower temperatures are achieved exclusively by
compression and subsequent expansion. The compression heat that is generated and has to
be removed cannot be recovered in a process-relevant way. In this respect, the liquefaction
process is irreversible. Attempts to retain this heat in thermal storage do not serve the pur-
pose of the overall process. It can no longer be used for the liquefaction process. This
energy component is therefore considered lost.
Above the critical point, gas liquefaction is basically not possible. The first prerequisite
for gas liquefaction by cold is therefore that the gas has assumed a temperature that is
below the critical point of the gas.
In the meantime, there are various processes that are all based on this thermodynamic
process. They differ only in modifications to further improve the thermodynamic effi-
ciency and thus save electrical energy. The price of a liquefied gas depends essentially on
the price of electricity because of the importance of energy.
The liquefaction of very small quantities of natural gas is achieved economically with
liquid nitrogen. This method is relatively simple in terms of plant engineering. In detail,
however, it must be noted that no CO2 must be deposited and aggressive chemical com-
pounds can cause corrosion damage. In the individual process stages, the gas to be lique-
fied is initially cooled with gaseous nitrogen and finally with liquid nitrogen. The individual
fractions such as water, CO2, sulphur compounds etc. precipitate by condensation to the
corresponding partial pressure of the respective phase. At the end of the process, a meth-
ane condensate is produced, mixed with other calorific substances (butane, propane, etc.),
28 2 The Most Important Thermodynamic Processes in the Production, Transport…

and drips into the sump/collection tank. According to the partial pressure of the fouling
accompanying gases, a concentrated vapour of calorically useful and calorically dead
gases is formed above the sump. This gas mixture, which is loaded with contaminants,
must be extracted regularly and burned in a gas engine or burner. In the sump, a high-­
quality liquefied natural gas with over 99% calorically usable gas is collected. This is
supplied to the consumer by tanker.
Considering the nitrogen consumption for cooling, the process is very cost-intensive,
but has the advantage that the mechanical engineering effort is relatively low. No moving
parts are required, as in the case of the liquefier, so that this process is particularly suitable
for biogas plants with low output. For one mass unit of LNG, about 2–3 mass units of
liquid nitrogen are required. These nitrogen costs significantly determine the total cost of
the LNG produced.
As with the Linde process, there are also various modifications here. For example,
Nachtmann (see [10]) separates the CO2 at atmospheric pressure in the heat exchanger,
Hermeling (see [11]) in the cyclone.
In contrast, as the name implies, pressure liquefied gases are liquefied by pressure.
Pressure-liquefied gases include liquefied gases such as CO2, propane, butane, etc. Cooling
is not absolutely necessary, but it promotes the process of liquefaction. Liquefaction is also
possible without cooling, at ambient temperature.

Summary
The liquefaction process is a typically irreversible process. Liquefaction is only possible
adiabatically below the critical point. In the liquefaction according to LINDE, a partial
flow of the gas phase precipitating in the expansion is used to cool the gas flowing in
behind, the other part is further expanded and takes on a lower temperature. It is expanded
to atmospheric pressure so that the liquefied gas can be stored at ambient pressure in the
atmospheric tanks. Small amounts of natural gas or biogas are liquefied with nitrogen via
various processes. The price of the LNG is then largely determined by the nitrogen costs.
Such processes are only economically viable for limited applications.

References

1. Bosnjakovic, technische Thermodynamik, Teil 1, 4. Auflage, S. 46 und folgende.

2. Bosnjakovic, technische Thermodynamik, Teil 1, 4. Auflage, S. 279, Abs. 3 und folgende.
3. Jungnickel, Agsten, Kraus, Grundlagen der Kältetechnik, VEB Verlag Technik Berlin, 2. Auflage,
1984, S. 231 u. folgende, S. 248 und folgende.
4. Kaltschmidt, Streicher, Wiese, Erneuerbare Energien, Springer Verlag, 1993, S. 397.
5. Dubbels Taschenbuch für den Maschinenbau, Springer-Verlag, 12. Auflage, 1966, Teil 1, S. 431.
6. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dampf-­Fl%C3%BCssigkeit-­Gleichgewicht
7. Bosnjakovic, technische Thermodynamik, Teil 1, 4. Auflage, S. 124, Abs. 1–4.
References 29

8. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fl%C3%BCssigerdgas
9. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linde-­Verfahren
10. Nachtmann, Mechanistische Untersuchung des Kristallbildungsprozesses von resublimieren-
dem Kohlendioxid aus variablen Gasgemischen unter Atmosphärendruck an festen Oberflächen,
Technische Universität München, Lehrstuhl für Agrarsystemtechnik, Am Staudengarten 2,
85354 Freising, 2017.
11. Österreichisches Pat.: A 8006/2010.
LNG: From the Source to the End Customer
3

Abstract

Natural gas is liquefied into LNG at the source using gas liquefaction plants and trans-
ported to the hub using LNG tankers. There it is transported to the end customer by
road tankers or tank wagons. The process of refuelling the local tank is described in
detail, including details of the individual assemblies. The differences between the open
and closed hose systems are explained and hazards are pointed out. The method of tank
filling is explained and the purpose is explained.

3.1 Liquefaction at Source and Transport to Hub

LNG is liquefied at source and stored in large atmospheric tanks (see Fig. 3.1). During
storage in the tank, the liquefied natural gas has a pressure close to atmospheric pressure
(almost pressureless at approx. 100–300 mbar). Therefore, these tanks are called atmo-
spheric storage tanks. From there, the LNG is loaded onto ships, a pumping process that
takes several days, and transported by sea to the hub in the countries of Europe and Asia.
LNG ships (Figs. 3.2 and 3.3) are clearly identifiable by their large insulated spherical
tanks (minimum surface area to volume). The voyage can take weeks, because not every
ship heads for a known destination immediately after refuelling. They head for Europe, for
example, and during this time they explore which port offers the best price. This port is
then called at to discharge the cargo.
During the voyage, the product must be cooled despite the optimally insulated ships.
Adiabatic cooling is used for this purpose. The resulting gas phase, the boil-off gas, is reli-
quefied with reliquefaction plants and fed into the tank. Ships with LNG engines, on the
other hand, consume the boil-off gas produced as fuel, so that only the portion not required

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 31

GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2024
W. Hermeling, Compendium for the LNG and CNG Practitioner,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38258-2_3
32 3 LNG: From the Source to the End Customer

Fig. 3.1 LNG terminal in Brunsbüttel. (Source: Brunsbüttel Ports GmbH/Future Natural Gas)

Exhaust
Tanks

Bridge

Muffler

Insulation

Liquefied
Natural Gas
(–160 °C)

Compressor
Engine
Gearbox

Fig. 3.2 Technical structure of an LNG carrier. (Source: P. Wellemann, a cartoon of the insides of
an LNG carrier 2004)
3.1 Liquefaction at Source and Transport to Hub 33

Fig. 3.3 LNG tankers, recognisable by the typical spherical tanks. (Source: Future Natural Gas)

as fuel is liquefied with small reliquefaction plants and returned to the tank. LNG tankers
with diesel engines have more powerful reliquefaction plants on board.
When the ship reaches a destination, it docks at large refuelling terminals in the road-
stead or in port. Flexible piping systems connect the ship’s tank to the terminal’s system.
From there, further pipeline systems lead to the port’s tanks. The LNG is stored in large
atmospheric tanks (about 100,000 m3 and more). The tanks in the hub are storage and
serve as reserve for pipeline supply. These long-distance pipelines connect to local gas
storage facilities and other gas distribution networks to supply energy company customers.
The road tankers, transport containers or tank wagons of the gas distribution companies
are also refuelled from the tanks.
Some of the LNG is regasified directly and forced into the gas transport pipelines with
large compressors. In some cases, seawater heat is used for regasification in roads.
Otherwise, this process takes place in large vaporization plants. These are oversized heat
transfer systems. These are heated with natural gas, obviously with boil-off gas from the
storage tanks, i.e. already regasified product.
A further proportion of the regasified LNG is pushed into the long-distance pipelines
unodorised at 100–200 bar.
Each hub includes a gas-fired power plant, which receives the gas by the shortest route
and delivers the generated electricity to the grids.
The atmospheric tanks in the hub are protected against heat input by solid insulation.
For cooling, which is nevertheless necessary, the gas phase is drawn off so that adiabatic
cooling becomes effective.
Only a few gas pipelines lead from the Middle East through the Mediterranean to
Europe, apart from which the political conditions in this region are complicated. Natural
34 3 LNG: From the Source to the End Customer

gas is therefore delivered by LNG tankers. The ships land the gas on the European coasts
of the Atlantic, which should also reduce dependence on pipeline gas. A corresponding
infrastructure for the distribution of the gas must be created – as of 2019. This concerns on
the one hand the terminals, which have been planned for Germany for years (Bremerhaven),
and on the other hand the pipelines. Generally unknown is that the existing terminals, very
close to Germany, in Belgium and Holland are far from being used to capacity. For
Germany and Europe, the decision depends on economic and geopolitical considerations.
LNG is traded via the hubs. Access to the hub is strictly regulated and only listed com-
panies are allowed. They purchase LNG at the daily price and sell it to the end customers
with surcharges that depend on the volume and supplier. In order to be listed, extensive
requirements must be met.
In future, LNG will be increasingly transported from the hub to the interior of the coun-
try by rail in special tank cars. VTG built the first wagon for LNG transport with the well-­
known plant manufacturer Chart Ferox in Decin (Fig. 3.4).
Road transport is carried out with road tankers as shown (Fig. 3.5) or with tank trucks
and tanker trailers. The tanks are generally vacuum insulated. The insulation is preferably
MLI insulation (multilayer insulation; see: [2]), as this has the smallest gap between the
outer and inner tank and thus allows the largest transport volume with the same external
dimensions. This type of insulation is described in more detail in Sect. 11.2.1 and
following.

Dimensioning of the LNG tank wagon

KESSELWAGEN
TYP
111 m3 - compressed gas tank car
(Preparatory stage for traffic with and in Spain)
7899.ah

22586
22368
∅ 2870

∅ 2570

1050

1800
18566
20366
620 23246
24486

Fig. 3.4 LNG wagon by Chart Ferox in cooperation with VTG. (Source: see [1])
3.1 Liquefaction at Source and Transport to Hub 35

Fig. 3.5 Gofa LNG tanker truck. (Source: Gofa, Gocher Fahrzeugbau GmbH, Goch)

At the rear end of the vehicle or on the side, depending on the customer’s requirements,
is the fittings box, in which the pump, the flow meter and the fittings for process control
are housed. On the side of all vehicles is the hose box, in which the hoses are safely stowed
during the journey.
Advantages like:

• Relieving the pressure on gas pipelines for the benefit of large consumers.
• High logistical variability.
• Independence from the source.

underline the importance of LNG. In addition, an expected increase in demand for natural
gas due to the energy turnaround can be met with LNG, both technically and logistically.
Even without the terminals being planned in Germany, supply would already be possible.
The transport effort from the coasts of neighbouring countries to Germany may be some-
what greater, depending on the location of the customer, but this is not an obstacle within
the framework of the EU internal market.
Despite a good gas infrastructure, there are still white spots on the map of the gas net-
work in Germany. These underserved areas are mainly found in areas that are difficult to
36 3 LNG: From the Source to the End Customer

develop with pipelines (mountainous areas, subsidence areas), the demand does not eco-
nomically justify a pipeline (small settlement areas, remote villages) or existing industrial
facilities that preclude the laying of gas pipelines (chemical plants, mining facilities). Such
areas could be supplied with LNG.

Summary
Before the source, the LNG arrives at the hub by ship. There, it is partly pushed immedi-
ately into the long-distance pipelines or stored in atmospheric tanks, which serve as a
reserve for pipeline supply. They also supply the delivery points for land transport.
Natural gas is a mainstay of the energy industry, both in gaseous and liquid form. High-­
capacity transport pipelines bring the gas and, with ships, the LNG to Europe. LNG is
transported from the hub to the centres with transport pipelines, to smaller customers with
tankers and, in future, to large customers with tank wagons. It is particularly suitable for
developing off-grid areas.

3.2 LNG Transport to the End Customer

This and the following considerations focus exclusively on technology and logistics.
Safety regulations, operating instructions and further information on the safe handling of
LNG are reserved for subsequent chapters.
Natural gas is transported from the hub to the customer in two ways: firstly, in gaseous
form via the gas transport pipelines to conurbations, power stations and other large cus-
tomers. Secondly, it is transported as LNG by road and, in the future, also by rail or inland
waterway.
The local operator has no influence on transport by pipeline. The situation is different
with LNG. Smaller customers or off-grid areas will also be supplied with LNG in Germany
in the future. In contrast to gas transport pipelines or long-distance gas pipelines, the cus-
tomer can influence the LNG deliveries with his specifications and possibilities. Therefore,
these will be considered in the following.
Transport to large customers will be by tank wagon if a rail siding is available. Chart
developed a prototype with VTG (see Fig. 3.4), which will have to prove itself over the
next few years.
A possible ship transport on the rivers has not yet been discussed, but should not be
taken out of focus. For LPG or other chemicals, this transport route is a very economical
option and should also be a successful alternative for LNG.
The standard means of transport in Central Europe will be road transport. Special atten-
tion will be paid to this. In Central Europe, trucks have a payload of approx. 20 t = 40 t
total mass, whereas in Scandinavia they drive with 60 t total mass, so that considerably
more can be transported. The payload of the truck is determined by the design of the tank.
The space-saving MLI insulation can hold more volume with the same payload than the
traditional perlite insulation. In road transport, tank trailers, tank trucks, containers and
3.2 LNG Transport to the End Customer 37

Fig. 3.6 Gofa LNG tanker trailer. (Source: Gofa, Gocher Fahrzeugbau GmbH, Goch)

container swap bodies are used. Work is constantly being done to improve vehicle tanks,
regardless of whether they are tank trucks or tank trailers. Newer truck tank trailers for
LNG can be recognised by their larger tanks (see Figs. 3.5 and 3.6). The larger volume
results from the lower density of LNG, which is about half that of air gases. This allows
the tanks to be larger. They are limited only by the maximum possible dimensions permit-
ted by road transport.

3.2.1 The LNG Road Tanker

The road tanker can store the product for several days until the tank is blown off. As a rule,
the tank truck has a permissible pressure of 1.5–3 bar. Depending on customer require-
ments, the tank can be designed for any higher pressure, but this is at the expense of the
transport volume. This is because a higher pressure requires a stronger wall thickness and
thus a higher weight of the tanker trailer.
Kinetic energy is transferred to the liquid through rolling and rocking of the tank, which
is unavoidable during a voyage. It is bound in the LNG as heat. The pressure rises. For this
reason, the tank should be filled to 100% if possible, so that these movements are minimal.
38 3 LNG: From the Source to the End Customer

Fig. 3.7 Hydraulically

operated truck pump for LNG
from Sefco AG. (Source: Sefco
AG, Switzerland)

The built-in baffles are designed to prevent sloshing in the tank. If the tank is only half full,
the LNG sloshes according to the acceleration, e.g. in curves or during heavy braking. The
vehicle becomes unstable and could tip over. This is prevented by baffles.
A centrifugal pump (see Fig. 3.7) is used to force the LNG into the local tank. In addi-
tion to the existing delivery head, the existing tank pressure must be overcome, which can
be up to 18 bar. The pumps build up a pressure of up to 38 bar for this purpose and can thus
spray the LNG into the tank from above in a finely atomised form. This serves the purpose
of mixed condensation (see Fig. 2.2).
The product is discharged by the road tanker into the local tank via an uninsulated pres-
sure hose. The product only passes through this for a very short time, so that the heat
absorption that occurs is insignificant.

Note In general, a closed hose system must be used, as described in Sect. 3.4.

Gas displacement lines, which are found with LPG and other pressure-liquefied gases,
are unusual for LNG and pose significant risks to the vehicle tank. A gas displacement line
does have the great advantage that the pump requires much less electrical conduction for
transfer, as it does not have to push against the tank pressure. With the gas pendulum line,
there is pressure equalization between the vehicle’s tank and the local tank. It is precisely
this principle that poses a great danger for LNG refuelling and all other cryogenic lique-
fied gases:
The safety valves provided on the local tank are not intended for the load of a pressure
equalization. These valves are designed only for the pressure rise due to heat input, not to
control a regular process. The tank could burst.

Reason If, for example, the tank to be refuelled has a prevailing operating pressure of 15
bar and a larger volume than the tanker vehicle (this is the rule), the latter would be over-
loaded if the pressure were equalised. The vehicle tank would have to withstand at least
the pressure of the local tank. This assumes a tank with a higher approved pressure. The
reduced transport mass is disproportionate to the pump power saved.
3.2 LNG Transport to the End Customer 39

Fig. 3.8 Mass flow meter on

the tank truck. (Source: Flow
Instruments, Monheim)

During the delivery of the product, the quantity is measured on site. For this purpose, a
measuring point for the delivery is installed on the vehicle. In almost all cases, the delivery
is a commercial transaction. The supplier sells the LNG to the customer. Therefore, the
measuring device must be calibratable.
Flow Instruments, for example, offers such calibratable modules (see Fig. 3.8). These
are fully electronic devices that determine other data in addition to the quantity and print
them out on a billing strip. The measurement result is thus traceable and documented for
all parties involved. “FLOW flowmeters operate on the principle of differential pressure
measurement, i.e. the pressure drop of a flowing medium at a cross-sectional constriction
is used as the measured value” (FLOW Instruments).
The temperature of the LNG hardly changes between 1 and 2 bar and is therefore of
secondary importance, but it is nevertheless recorded with a temperature sensor and the
measurement result is corrected accordingly. This means that the mass measurement is
temperature corrected in this system. For internal deliveries, i.e. when there is no trade, a
calibrated measurement is not necessary. There, the temperature could be derived from the
tank pressure.

Summary
For transport, the permissible pressure of the vehicle tank should be as low as possible, so
that the permissible wall thickness can be minimized. This reduces the mass of the tank
and the transport volume can be increased. Pressure increase cannot be avoided. A tank
that is 100% full reduces the pressure rise that occurs due to the input of kinetic energy.
The delivery to the end customer is done via a hose. The quantity is determined via a
flow meter.
40 3 LNG: From the Source to the End Customer

3.3 LNG Fuelling at the End Customer’s Premises

The supplier must check the end customer’s system before refuelling. The system must be
inspected for this purpose. Among other things, the following tests must be carried out:

• The customer is entitled to operate the system;

• the test documents are available in full;
• the trade licence is available;
• the refuelling point can be reached with the planned vehicle (turning circle);
• the protective distances can be observed;
• the refuelling area is clear (no rubbish or objects not belonging to the refuelling
installation);
• the area can be closed off without obstructing public or internal traffic;
• the tank can be refuelled with the available coupling;
• the hose of the tanker has the required length;
• the filling station is monitored during the filling process;
• a one-man workstation also allows refuelling during idle periods.

The transport tank is emptied into the stationary, vacuum-insulated tank at the customer’s
site using a centrifugal pump. The question arises as to whether the transport tank (vehicle
tank) or the local tank should be equipped with a pump and flow meter. As a rule, a tanker
truck calls at several tanks every day, so that each tanker truck or tank container with pump
and the appropriate quantity measuring system can perform the complex task of LNG
delivery. If, on the other hand, the tank is constantly served by several tankers that supply
this tank alone, it is appropriate to install the pump with measuring system on the station-
ary tank. However, this case is the exception.

The Refueling
It is carried out with a closed hose system. The hose, an uninsulated high-pressure hose, is
carried on the vehicle and is safely stowed in the hose box during the journey.

Before the start of refuelling, the danger zone must be marked at the customer’s prem-
ises and access by unauthorised persons must be excluded.
The refuelling technology is described in detail in Sects. 3.5, 3.6 and 3.7.

Practical Advice
Before refuelling, the system must be checked at the customer’s premises. The transport
tank on the vehicle is usually equipped with a filling pump and the associated quantity
measuring device. For LNG, only a closed hose system is permissible. Before refuelling
the customer’s tank, the danger zone must be marked and access by unauthorised persons
must be excluded.
3.4 Closed and Open Hose System 41

3.4 Closed and Open Hose System

The connection from the road tanker to the local tank is made with a pressure hose. For
refuelling, a distinction is made between the closed and the open hose system.
The ‘open hose system’, in which air inevitably penetrates the hose, requires intensive
purging with gas. Gas displaces the air from the hose. Nevertheless, the desired effect is
not achieved. During the purging process, the cold gas of the tank is used for purging. The
air in the hose is suddenly cooled to well below 0 °C. The humidity in the air drops to some
extent. The humidity partially precipitates and condenses on the hose wall. The purge gas
escapes at the end of the purge line (Fig. 3.9). A fluidic dead space inevitably forms there
and some of the contamination settles there due to the inertia of the mass. If the purge
valve is now closed and the tank valve opened, the accumulated dirt particles, which
include the water crystals, are flushed into the tank (see Fig. 3.9). This effect cannot be
avoided even with the greatest care.

Note In the case of LNG refuelling, it is not permissible to discharge natural gas freely
into the atmosphere for purging (however, this is common practice for inert gases, such as
nitrogen or argon, which are part of the atmosphere).

This deficiency can only be compensated by a closed hose system. The closed system
requires a special coupling without dead space (see Sect. 10.2.2). This prevents air and
other contaminants, even in very small quantities, from entering the system.

Coupling,
connection designed as
flange or screw connection
Tank valve
Dead Space Tank filling
line
Tanker hose

Flush valve

Flush line

Tanker hose with Tank to be filled

coupling with coupling

Fig. 3.9 Illustration of the dead space forming in front of the coupling half
42 3 LNG: From the Source to the End Customer

3.4.1 The Open Hose System

In old plants and abroad, the open hose system can still frequently be encountered during
refuelling. The open hose system is characterised by a simple hose connection that is open
on both sides. The hose has a flange or screw connection as the connection end. This is
inexpensive, but has significant disadvantages and, above all, involves hazards.

Safety Note The procedure described below is not permitted for LNG for ecological
reasons!

At rest, the hose is disconnected from the pump and the tank. It lies in the hose box of
the vehicle while driving, so that air inevitably penetrates the hose. This disregards the fact
that LNG is a product that cools the hose down to approx. −161 °C. Warm, moisture-­laden
air replaces the evaporating gas, which even any sealing dust caps do not prevent. The
moisture in the air condenses in the hose and freezes to form ice crystals (see also
Sect. 13.1).
Before refuelling the next local tank, the dust caps must be removed and the open hose
is connected to the pump. The connection with the tank connection of the tank is made.
Consequently, air must remain in the hose. According to the regulation for air gases, the
hose must be flushed before refuelling. This regulation also applies to LNG. The flushing
medium is the very cold gas from the gas compartment of the vehicle tank. For this pur-
pose, the gas phase is switched so that it flows through the pump of the tanker. As a result,
the flushing nozzle on the tank (behind the tank coupling) is opened. The inlet valve of the
tank is closed. The gas escapes through the purge valve on the tank. Despite all the care
taken during purging, it is inevitable that the cryogenic gas from the gas compartment of
the tank truck will suddenly cool and displace the air in the hose. Humidity in the air is
likely to condense on the inside of the hose and suddenly freeze into ice crystals. The gas
is blown off into the environment, possibly carrying solid components with it. Due to the
inertia of the particles, some of the particles are carried into the dead space of the pipe
section behind the purge nozzle and remain there. Only the air is exchanged for the gas
(see Fig. 3.9).
With the start of refuelling, thought are flushed into the tank when switching to liquid
phase and thus contaminate the local tank. The concentration of crystals in the tank
increases with the number of refuellings. They are flushed with the LNG into the down-
stream components (pump, evaporator, pressure reducer, etc.), where they change to the
liquid phase when heat is added and cause malfunctions in some processes, e.g. cryogenic
pumps (see Sects. 5.2.2 and 13.5) or valves, especially non-return valves. Contamination
in the tank is dealt with by cleaning the tank.

Note The tank is cleaned by blowing off liquid product from the almost empty tank via
the liquid discharge line. The liquid gas flows off at tank pressure, taking the ice crystals
and other contaminants with it.
3.4 Closed and Open Hose System 43

The tank is then clean again, but the process of renewed contamination begins anew.
This procedure is not very economical and only justifiable for air gases from an ecological
point of view.

Note The procedure is not permitted for environmentally harmful (LNG) or toxic gases.
This is one of the reasons why it is mandatory to use the closed hose system for LNG.

Another problem is the accumulation of air in the gas space of the tank. If not properly
purged, air remains in the hose and with the start of the pumping process, the air is forced
into the gas space of the tank. This air cannot condense and subsequently accumulates in
the tank. It can be assumed that stratification is very likely to occur.

Note Mathematically, it is not necessarily to be expected that an explosive and thus an

ignitable mixture can form in the tank. Due to the possible stratification of the gases in the
tank, explosive methane-air mixtures could very well form.

In case of careless disconnection of the coupling, leakage of LNG is possible. Because

of its potential danger, the workplace must be supervised or accompanied by a second
person. The liquid poses a considerable risk of accident, as it causes cold burns on contact
with the skin. For safety reasons, the appropriate protective work clothing is therefore
mandatory.

Practical Advice
The open hose system is not permitted for LNG refuelling. The hose is usually connected
to the tank with a screw connection or by means of a flange. The regulation requires purg-
ing before refuelling for air gases in the open hose system. This is prohibited for
LNG. When using the open hose system, other contaminants besides air enter the tank and
natural gas enters the atmosphere. Air cannot condense in the gas compartment of the
natural gas tank. An explosive air-gas mixture can form in the tank. Natural gas escapes
uncontrolled into the environment when the hose is disconnected. Refuelling is only per-
mitted under the supervision of a second person.

3.4.2 The Closed Hose System

The closed hose principle requires a special coupling. Due to a lack of possibilities, ball
valves or similar constructions are often used which, despite all the care taken in their
design, have cavities due to their construction. When the coupling is closed, a few cubic
centimetres of air remain in these cavities. This air is inevitably flushed into the gas space
of the tank and accumulates there.
In the case of applications of such couplings, it is essential to check how much air could
enter the gas compartment of the tank as a result of a large number of refuellings. From
this it can be deduced when an explosive mixture could have formed mathematically. To
be noted:
44 3 LNG: From the Source to the End Customer

• The air cannot condense for physical reasons;

• the air content can only be minimized by removing the gas phase;
• the air is not evenly distributed/diluted in the gas space;
• due to stratification of the gases, zones with ignitable concentrations can form.

The latter in particular must be prevented at all costs. If the gas phase in the tank can be
continuously or cyclically fed to direct combustion (thermal or catalytic), the exchange is
increased and it may be assumed that no explosive mixture is formed as a result. This
applies to gas burners or to gas engines (e.g. CHP plants). Experiences in this respect are
not yet known. Simple discharge into the environment is prohibited. In the case of exclu-
sive liquid discharge, the described danger of the formation of explosive mixtures must be
assumed.
The closed, cavity-free hose system requires a cavity-free coupling (e.g. FUHEKA
coupling; see: [3]) for high pressure. The hose is no longer opened when disconnected
from the vehicle tank, and no cavities are formed when the coupling halves are brought
together. Air cannot be trapped and thus cannot enter the gas compartment of the tank. The
coupling is technically gas-tight on the tank side as well as on the hose side. A residual
liquid remains in the hose after the refuelling process. It evaporates after the pumping
process and flows back into the tank. At the end, the hose is under gas pressure from the
tank. However, this requires a circuit on the tanker that can safely discharge the gas into
the gas compartment. Pressure equalisation between the tank and the hose must be possi-
ble. The hose-side half of the dead space-free coupling is closed in the rest position against
damage or contamination with a cap (see also Sect. 10.2.2). The tank connection itself has
a permanently installed cover.
A dead-end coupling generally has the advantage that costly flushing is no longer nec-
essary, because the hose, firmly connected to the pump, is only run cold. This remaining
gas flows into the tank to be refuelled and is condensed during the subsequent mixed con-
densation, initiated by the refuelling. At the end of refuelling, the hose is disconnected
from the local tank and safely stowed on the vehicle.

Note The dead space free coupling is absolutely gas and liquid tight even in the separated
state. The sealing cones inevitably return to their initial position before separation. This
allows a one-man operation [4].

There are couplings on the market that meet these conditions and work almost fully
automatically. Leakage of residual fluid after refuelling is thus ruled out. Consequently,
the risk of accidents is reduced to a minimum.

Practical Advice
The closed hose system requires couplings without dead space. In the case of existing
couplings with dead space, it must be assumed that air enters the system. Air cannot be
condensed by LNG and can therefore form an explosive air-gas mixture. This can only be
countered by frequent gas extraction from the gas compartment of the tank. For systems
3.5 Refuelling from Above 45

with 100% liquid withdrawal, the gas withdrawal required for safety reasons is not possi-
ble. Purging of the gas space could only be made possible by combustion.
The dead space-free, tightly closing coupling system eliminates these dangers. Dirt and
air cannot penetrate the system. It meets the requirements of a one-man workplace.

3.5 Refuelling from Above

The standard process for LNG tank filling is refuelling from the top. If there is only a
residual quantity in the tank, it has to be refuelled again. The residual content had warmed
up during the past time and thus the pressure in the tank has increased. This is the equilib-
rium pressure as described in Sect. 2.2. This pressure must be lowered, otherwise refuel-
ling would not be possible without exceeding the permissible operating pressure.
By refuelling from the top, the effect of mixed condensation is used to lower the tank
pressure. In the uppermost part of the tank, the product is fed from the top via a distributor,
which can be a nozzle head, a baffle plate or another installation for spraying the LNG (see
Fig. 3.10).
The filling pipe of the upper filling is led into the gas space of the tank. There, the liquid
emerges from the pipe via the aforementioned internals at high pressure (pump pressure).
The aim is to atomise the liquid jet as finely as possible so that the liquid can be distributed
in the gas as very fine droplets (see Sect. 2.2).
The hose of the tanker has a coupling firmly connected to it. This coupling half is con-
nected to that of the tank. The tanking process begins with the cold run of the pump. LNG

Fig. 3.10 Refuelling Top refueling

from above Spray head

LNG is
consumed

Gas phase

LNG

Lower tank
46 3 LNG: From the Source to the End Customer

is forced through the pump in a circuit until it reaches the temperature of the LNG. Now
the coupling and the valve of the hose connection are opened – flushing of the hose is not
necessary. The hose is immediately exposed to liquid, and the first part evaporates. Heat is
extracted from the coupling and the connected components (hose, pipeline, fittings). This
leads to the evaporation of the LNG. The system is closed. The resulting gas phase rises
into the gas space of the tank. Consequently, the pressure increases, the product in the tank
leaves the thermodynamic equilibrium, because the gas pressure is higher than the pres-
sure attributable to the boiling temperature.
The liquid product, LNG, is sprayed into the tank at boiling temperature and a boiling
pressure of approx. 1–1.5 bar. The fine droplets form a liquid curtain through which the
warmer gas is forced as the liquid rises. It is cooled. The heat transfer takes place at the
surface of the cold drops. In the veil, the gas condenses into a droplet, thus the gas content
is reduced, consequently the pressure must fall. The cold drop falls into the already exist-
ing liquid. It has assumed approximately the temperature of the liquid veil, namely a
temperature close to the boiling temperature of 2 bar.
Due to the onset of mixed condensation, the equilibrium is restored during refuelling
from above. The cold mass supplied from the tanker is considerably greater than the exist-
ing warm residual mass that was present in the tank. Another source of heat is the tank
body itself, whose temperature must be lowered from the higher boiling temperature to the
lower one with the added liquid. The mixing temperature at the thermodynamic equilib-
rium is between 2 bar and 8 bar and is determined by the mass ratios, from experience
closer to the temperature of the supplied liquid. The tank pressure was lowered by the
decreasing thermodynamic equilibrium.

Note No heat is added to or removed from the system. The sum of the energy in the tank,
i.e. the heat content of the gas, the residual liquid and the added liquid is constant. The
pressure adjusts itself on the isobar below the critical point.

By reading the pressure on the pressure gauge, you can determine the temperature in
the Ts diagram. The average temperature and the prevailing pressure can be approximated
from the initial state before refuelling (empty tank) and the added mass at the end of refu-
elling. An exact value cannot be determined in a simple manner, since the mass of the
inner tank must be cooled down. This is usually not known.

Summary
During refuelling from above, the gas pressure drops due to mixed condensation in the
tank. A mixed temperature is established in the liquid phase and in the gas. At the end of
refuelling, it can be assumed that the tank is in thermodynamic equilibrium, i.e. the tem-
perature and the gas pressure correspond to the parameters of the isobar below the critical
point. The gas pressure, indicated on the manometer, allows the conclusion where the
temperature is approximately.
3.6 Refuelling from Below 47

3.6 Refuelling from Below

The filling line of the lower filling ends in the sump of the tank (see Fig. 3.11). The liquid
supplied is cooled by the mixing of existing, warm residual product and fresh, cold prod-
uct. The level increases during refuelling and so does the gas pressure, in contrast to refu-
elling from the top. An energy exchange between the gas space and the liquid does take
place, but this takes a relatively long time. Due to the rapid rise of the liquid, the pump
delivers between 20 and 40 m3/h depending on the power and back pressure, this time is
not available and the gas space volume is reduced. The pressure increases and the gas pres-
sure does not correspond to the equilibrium pressure as in the case of filling from above.

Note During the lower filling, the gas pressure of the tank must be observed closely. If,
for example, the tank had a pressure of 12 bar at the start of filling, care must now be taken
to ensure that the permissible tank pressure is not reached as the filling level increases. In
this case the prescribed safety valve MG 97 (set pressure 17.5 bar) would close. The tank
could not be filled any further.

In order to counteract an overpressure, it is necessary to alternate between lower and

upper filling. Complete filling from below is never possible, because the tank pressure
rises very quickly to the maximum permissible value, even with a very low initial pressure.

Fig. 3.11 Filling from below

Gas is
compressed

Gas

Bottom filling pipe

48 3 LNG: From the Source to the End Customer

With an initial pressure of only 5 bar, the pressure increases to 10 bar after displace-
ment of the first half of the gas chamber. If refuelling were to continue, 20 bar would be
reached with further displacement of the second half. This is not possible due to the
installed safety devices, because these usually close beforehand, depending on the setting,
at e.g. 17.5 bar. In this scenario, the only remedy is to change from lower to upper filling
or expansion of the gas phase.
To maintain the connected production process or a turbine, a constant outlet pressure is
often required at the tank. If such a tank were filled from the top alone, the pressure would
drop unacceptably far. Therefore, in these cases, the tank truck driver performing the fill-
ing must switch between lower and upper filling. This is relatively simple, the valve for the
lower filling is opened once and the valve for the upper filling is opened once. However,
this still requires the full attention of the operating personnel.

Practical Advice
If a tank is filled from below, the gas pressure in the tank increases because the liquid
added reduces the gas volume. In order to fill the tank to 100%, it is always necessary to
alternate between bottom and top filling, or else gas must be vented. The tank is not in
thermodynamic equilibrium at the end of refuelling.

3.7 Refuelling While Maintaining Process Pressure

In another case (see Sect. 3.6), a certain gas pressure, i.e. working pressure, must be main-
tained during refuelling. For example, 5 bar must be available at all times for a process
(gas turbine). For this purpose, an 18 bar tank is refuelled alternately from below and
above. The pressure can thus be kept at the desired level. The prerequisite for this is that
the pressure on the pressure gauge is closely monitored.

Note Filling from the top reduces the gas pressure due to the previously described mixed
condensation. The gas pressure is lowered to the desired value when filling from above.
When filling from below, the gas pressure increases.

Pressure can be maintained by changing from bottom to top fill for the connected pro-
cess during refueling. The process can continue as scheduled, uninterrupted. Subsequently,
the pressure booster evaporator maintains the tank pressure at the desired pressure level.

Practical Advice
Before reaching the permissible tank pressure, the refuelling must be switched from lower
to upper refuelling. The process must be followed exactly on the tank manometer. When
the lower pressure value is reached by upper refuelling, it must be switched back to lower
refuelling.
References 49

References

1. www.umweltinnovationsprogramm.de/sites/default/files/benutzer/36/dokumente/151110_ab_
vtg_kesselwagen_kl_final.pdf LNG-Kesselwagen von Chart Ferox Decin.
2. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilayer_Insulation
3. EU-Patent Nr.: 12 816 427.44.
4. Arbeitsschutzgesetz – (ArbSchG) § 5 Beurteilung der Arbeitsbedingungen.
Operational Management
4

Abstract

LNG, like oil and LPG, is stored in tanks and called up on demand, but the tanks for
LNG are vacuum insulated. The call-off can be continuous, even with smaller or larger
pauses. As there is no precise definition of discontinuous operation, it shall be assumed
that any interruption of LNG offtake longer than 12 h shall be discontinuous.

LNG, like oil and LPG, is stored in tanks and called up on demand, but the tanks for LNG
are vacuum insulated. The call-off can be continuous, even with smaller or larger pauses.
As there is no precise definition of discontinuous operation, it shall be assumed that any
interruption of LNG offtake longer than 12 h shall be discontinuous.

4.1 Continuous Management

In continuous operation, product is constantly removed, sometimes more, sometimes less,

and the removal may also be at a standstill for a few hours. This means that there does not
have to be a constant withdrawal. What is important is the continuous readiness to deliver.
A combined heat and power plant is a good example of this. This has to supply electricity
continuously, but fluctuating, in terms of power. As the power fluctuates, the LNG with-
drawal quantities also change. At selected times of the day, electricity demand could drop
to zero. This brings the withdrawal to a standstill.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 51

GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2024
W. Hermeling, Compendium for the LNG and CNG Practitioner,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38258-2_4
52 4 Operational Management

Note The heat that is inevitably generated during power generation is always transferred
to a storage tank, from which it is withdrawn as required. Power generation primarily
serves another purpose, which is why the heat output from the process can fluctuate.
Therefore, the storage tank compensates for fluctuations in the supply of heat and is usu-
ally integrated into a heating circuit that is supported by a burner. Although interruptions
are to be expected during power generation, this is referred to as continuous operation.

For the supply of plants with continuous operation, a tank as large as possible should
be installed. It should be able to hold at least the volume of the tank truck. This reduces the
specific transport costs, because the start-up of the tank is charged at a fixed price by
almost all LNG suppliers.
The delivery from the tank to the consumer, the gas engine, is either gaseous or liquid.
A gaseous withdrawal takes place from the gas space of the tank, a liquid withdrawal from
the liquid phase. In both cases, the phase passes through the downstream air evaporator,
whereby the liquid phase evaporates and the gas phase is heated to approximately ambient
temperature. A double-acting pressure regulator, such as those offered by Herose (see Fig.
8.3), automatically releases the respective paths. It is advantageous to install another pres-
sure regulator after the air vaporizer, which offers the consumer the exact pressure required,
because the gas phase is always supplied to the gas engine. Different gas engines require
a gas pressure within very narrow limits. These gas pressure regulators are equipped with
an integrated safety shut-off valve (see Sect. 9.4) from the Medenus company, among others.

Summary
Continuous operation is characterised by a constant readiness to supply, but does not
require continuous gas withdrawal. With withdrawal, the fluctuations in heat generation,
caused by the demand-dependent power requirement, are balanced with a storage tank. A
tank as large as possible should be installed. Gas engines may need to be separately pro-
tected against overpressure or underpressure.

4.2 Discontinuous Operation Management

Discontinuous operation control will become increasingly important in heat supply (in
summer one needs no or little heat). The process control must be adapted to these require-
ments. One controls the extraction via the gas pressure in the tank. At a correspondingly
high pressure, the gas is extracted from the gas phase.

Note When gas is withdrawn, the gas pressure does not drop proportionally at boiling
pressure in the gas space, because the liquid and the gas phase always strive for thermody-
namic equilibrium. Withdrawal from the gas phase causes the gas pressure and tempera-
ture of the liquid to drop at the prevailing boiling pressure. This proceeds relatively slowly
due to the immediate onset of evaporation. The thermodynamic equilibrium is disturbed
during withdrawal (see Sect. 2.1).
4.2 Discontinuous Operation Management 53

To cool the liquid or to lower the pressure in the tank, this is the right method. Adiabatic
cooling is effective. The cooling allows the liquid to be stored longer, as the permissible
operating pressure is not reached as quickly. All adiabatic cooling processes are based on
this effect, on a small scale in the tank on site, as well as on a large scale in the tank of the
transport ship or in the atmospheric tank of the hub.
For an 18 bar tank, for example, the gas pressure regulator is set to 12 bar. The gas is
generally taken from the gas phase. The gas has boiling temperature. This cold gas could
result in system malfunctions. To avoid malfunctions, the gas flows through the air evapo-
rator to the consumer for heating.
When the pressure in the tank has reached 12 bar, the gas pressure regulator of the pres-
sure booster evaporator slowly closes. If the gas pressure drops below 12 bar again, the
pressure regulator on the pressure booster evaporator opens and liquid can flow into it. The
liquid evaporates there and the gas is led into the gas space of the tank. The pressure in the
gas space increases. Another possibility is the extraction of the liquid. It is pressed with the
gas pressure – in the example 12 bar – into the air evaporator and regasified there. This gas
flows out of the air evaporator at 12 bar tank pressure and is almost at ambient tempera-
ture. Plant malfunctions are not to be expected at these gas temperatures.
If a higher gas temperature is required, which cannot be achieved by heat exchange
with the environment, a gas reheater (also called gas preheater) must be provided. This
heats the gas to the required operating parameters (see Sect. 8.5). At a correspondingly
high pressure, the gas is removed from the gas phase.

Note With withdrawal of the gas, the pressure in the gas space does not fall proportion-
ally, because the liquid and the gas phase always strive for thermodynamic equilibrium.
Withdrawal from the gas phase at boiling pressure causes the gas pressure and temperature
of the liquid to fall. This proceeds relatively slowly. The thermodynamic equilibrium is
disturbed during withdrawal, and is constantly re-established by the evaporation that
takes place.

With a rough calculation one can estimate the pressure rise and thus the possible stor-
age time. Assuming a tank pressure of 8 bar, a permissible operating pressure of 18 bar and
no withdrawal, the product can be stored for approx. 30 days until blowing off at a daily
increase of 0.3 bar. It should be noted, however, that not only the pressure increases, but
also the density decreases. This has the consequence that without withdrawal the filling
level increases.

Note If the tank is still comparatively full and there is no withdrawal, the liquid expands
and, in the worst case, is pressed into some of the measuring lines of the gas phase and into
the connection line of the safety valve. The lines and the safety valve freeze, the display on
the level meter fails. The tank is thus out of control.

Icing of safety-relevant parts should be avoided under all circumstances, but must be
taken into account when selecting the safety valve. Therefore, the safety valve must always
54 4 Operational Management

be approved for this condition. If liquid presses into the lines, the tank is overfilled. Such
an irregular condition must be eliminated. The tank must be drained, that is, the consumer
must pull product.
This critical condition is avoided with the overflow protection, as in Sect. 9.5 ff. If this
circuit is used, gas is always generated, which is discharged in accordance with the process
via the process relief valve, and if this is not available, via the safety valve. Liquid can
never get into the measuring lines or the safety valve line. This also means that no level
indicator can fail. This circuit is not considered in the current regulations.

Practical Advice
In case of discontinuous operation, longer plant shutdowns may occur. Consequently, the
isobaric pressure below the critical point may increase due to the heat penetration. This is
lowered by withdrawal by the consumer from the gas phase. If there is no withdrawal, only
the overfill protection provides a remedy. The storage time can be determined with an
estimation.
LNG Applications
5

Abstract

The economic importance of LNG supply is shown on the basis of statistics and selected
possibilities of LNG application are described. These explanations consider the low-­
pressure area, i.e. gas supply systems with connected consumers, and the high-pressure area
with the description of the compression of CNG. The high-pressure area focuses on the use
of CNG as a fuel. Assemblies and components are described in detail and avoidable mal-
functions are pointed out in terms of safety. Operational considerations and their application
are explained and the environmental benefits are elaborated. It may be recognized that eco-
logical solutions are the most economical, as they are always operated in combination.

LNG is generally used as an energy source for heating, electricity and cooling and has
recently been used as a fuel. In Germany, LNG can become an important energy carrier due
to its high ecological acceptance, relatively simple handling, local independence and high
calorific value. This tendency is supported by the use of the possible, energetic combination
of heat, electricity and cold. Only LNG allows such a combination. The specific energy
costs of the end customer can fall below the purchase price of the gas if the consumption
structure of heat, electricity and cooling is appropriate. An example demonstrates this:

Purchase price for LNG: 2.5 Cent/KWh = 0.25 €/m3

+ Energy tax 0.5 Cent/KWh
+ Transport and logistics costs 0.7 Cent/KWh
+ Plant costs/cap. service 0.1 Cent/KWh
+ Terminal costs 0.15 Cent/KWh
Price, total 3.95 Cent/KWh = 0.385 €/m3

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 55

GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2024
W. Hermeling, Compendium for the LNG and CNG Practitioner,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38258-2_5
56 5 LNG Applications

From 1 m3 natural gas, this contains approx. 10 KWh, can be won with a combined heat
and power (CHP):

Approx. 4 KWh electricity

Approx. 6 KWh heat

Selling price of the energy.

Electricity 0.20 €/KWh Approx. 0.80 €/KWh/m3

Heat 0.07 €/KWh Approx. 0.42 €/KWh/m3
Revenue, total 1.22 €/KWh/m3
Cost price −0.385 €/KWh
Profit 0.835 €/KWh
−20% operating, capital and other costs −0.167 €/KWh
Net result 0.688 €/KWh

From the revenue of approx. 1.22 €/m3, the transport, operating and maintenance costs
and the capital service of the plant, in total estimated at 20%, are to be deducted. Despite
taking these further costs into account, a profit per unit of energy can be expected. This
possible result is to be discussed for every LNG application.
In order to burn LNG in a CHP plant, the gaseous CNG must be produced from the
liquid LNG. This is done by adding heat. The heat of vaporisation of the LNG can be used
for cooling (see [1]). This possibility is described in detail in Sect. 5.1.3, operating prin-
ciple module 3. A cold extraction during the evaporation of the LNG to CNG is technically
rarely implemented at present. The reasons for this can only be speculated. In any case,
this refrigeration can support a refrigeration cycle and reduce costs.
As part of the energy transition, nuclear power plants and, in the future, coal-fired
power plants (see [2]) will be decommissioned. The following graph, Fig. 5.1 shows the
energy generation of 2017 and 2018.
In 2017, 611.8 billion KWh of electricity was produced, the share from nuclear energy
was 11.8%, which corresponds to 72.2 billion KWh. In the future, this amount is to be
compensated by alternative sources. This compares to wind power generation in Germany
in 2017 of 104 TWh = 104 billion KWh of electricity (see [4]), apparently more than was
needed. Unfortunately, this electricity was not provided according to demand, but volatile.
In the future, coal-fired power generation will be cut back. That is another 36.3% of gen-
eration, or 222 billion KWh. If we assume that only half of the capacities will be shut
down, 111 billion KWh will still have to be compensated for with alternative options.
A prerequisite for the demand-oriented use of electricity from wind power and photo-
voltaics is electricity storage. In Germany, however, storage capacities are lacking (see
[5]). The literature states that just 40 million KWh are available with a capacity of
11,025 MW. The existing pumped storage power plants can only store a minimal amount
of wind power. New constructions are geologically hardly feasible. The concept of the
5 LNG Applications 57

Fig. 5.1 Structure of energy generation in Germany 2017 and 2018. (Source: [3])

Ringwallspeicher (see [6]), which can be adapted to almost any open-cast mine, is hardly
taken into account, so that the conclusion suggests itself that with the existing energy
demand in Germany, a demand-oriented and secure supply with renewable energies is
only possible with difficulty.
This does not mean that solutions have been successfully implemented for small net-
works. Some projects show excellent results (see [7]). Unfortunately, a hasty and unscien-
tific conclusion is drawn from these findings to a broad-based solution. The problem is
solvable, but very complex.
The alternative energy sources supply their energy in an absolutely unscheduled/vola-
tile manner, so that either the quality of supply would have to be restricted – this is not
feasible – or conventional, calorific energy generation capacities have to be created and
maintained on a large scale in parallel to wind and photovoltaic plants. These must react
immediately to the loss of wind energy and/or the lack of solar radiation. Only gas-fired
and hydropower plants are capable of doing this. Hydroelectric power plants, as already
mentioned, are only feasible to a limited extent due to geological requirements, so that the
only universal option is the gas-fired power plant. It is essential to consider the cost of
providing these supply units in the overall consideration of energy costs. Since some of the
plants are already available, these costs are often neglected. This distorts the overall pic-
ture of energy costs. On the other hand, new buildings exert a high capital service, so that
58 5 LNG Applications

in order to save costs, they should be abandoned, this should be considered carefully.
Alternative energy (sun, wind, water power) is available at zero cost, but not the complex
technical implementation.
If we assume that 11.8% nuclear power is currently generated in Germany (Statista
2019) and that this share cannot currently be replaced by alternative energies, this leaves
only power generation with gas-fired power plants.
Decentralisation of energy supply is a future trend. Small generation units will gain in
importance. The energy carriers for electricity and heat will be available in a decentralised
manner due to the changing generation. LNG is actually the only available energy carrier
that meets the environmental and technically feasible requirements. Although pipeline gas
is cheaper than LNG, under energetically and technically correct design, the specific
energy costs will fall below those of pipeline gas through the use of LNG. In a combina-
tion of energy uses, LNG will be very close to, if not competitive with, pipeline gas in
terms of price; provided that the capabilities of LNG are fully exploited. The small calcu-
lation example presented earlier shows the potential of LNG.

Summary
LNG will gain in importance. The proclaimed energy turnaround will accelerate this pro-
cess. By decoupling the energy types electricity, heating and cooling, the CHP circuit is
the most economically advantageous use of natural gas. This will make LNG, which is
more expensive at cost price, equal if not superior to pipeline gas.

5.1 LNG Supply Facilities

Gas from LNG supply facilities must be odorized. If this is not the case, a gas warning
system or methane detectors must be installed to indicate any gas leakage. Advantageously,
they should automatically shut down the plant immediately in case of gas leakage and
indicate this on a fixed alarm path. It is up to the plant operator to assess the response time
available to shut down the fault. Knowing that even the smallest methane content (a few
ppm) in the air is detected, the duration of the formation of an explosive mixture can be
concluded.
Leakage must be prevented with absolute certainty. One possibility is the continuous
double-walled design of the plant. However, this is extremely costly and the question
arises whether an automatic warning and shutdown device is not more sensible. A gas
leakage must be avoided or indicated with all solutions.

Practical Advice
The gas phase of each LNG facility shall be odorised or gas warning systems shall be
installed or technical measures shall be taken to exclude with absolute certainty the pos-
sibility of gas leakage.
5.1 LNG Supply Facilities 59

LNG tank

Interface customer plant

Supply pressure
regulator E.g. connection of a burner
for heat generation

LNG is 100%
converted into heat

Evaporator

Fig. 5.2 Module 1 – LNG stored in the tank, regasified in the downstream air vaporizer and deliv-
ered to the consumer, a gas burner, via a pressure regulator after the air vaporizer. The odorization
after the air vaporizer was not shown

5.1.1 Operating Principle Module 1

The most common application today is still regasification and subsequent simple combus-
tion of the gas to produce heat (Fig. 5.2). It is also the most inefficient use of the high-­
grade energy carrier in terms of energy and economy. The gas is forced out of the LNG
tank into the vaporizer at its own pressure and transferred to the gas phase.

The First Pressure Control Stage

The desired pressure is secured with the first pressure control stage of the energy provider.
The pressure for the first pressure control stage is achieved by the naturally occurring tank
pressure, possibly supported by the pressure booster evaporator. The pressure booster
evaporator only comes into operation when the decrease is greater than the natural evapo-
ration rate of the tank. A pressure booster evaporator should always be installed, as it is to
be assumed that the offtake will be greater than planned. It secures the set gas pressure at
the pressure regulator and presses with the gas on the liquid. With this pressure the liquid
is pressed into the air evaporator.

The Second Pressure Control Stage

In the care of the consumer, it provides the burner with the exact working pressure. Gas
engines often require an inlet pressure within very narrow limits. Underpressure and over-
pressure must therefore be safeguarded. Integrated safety shut-off valves with pressure
control function are available for this purpose (see Sect. 9.1.3). Since experience has
shown that this is a malfunction in the system, these must be manually unlocked.

Module 1 is a technically and energetically simple solution. It is preferably installed for

the direct replacement of heating oil.

Note The specific energy price cannot fall below the purchase price of the gas, but it can
fall below the customer’s current specific energy costs.
60 5 LNG Applications

Often for technological reasons, manufacturing plants have a highly fluctuating demand
from the grid. These power fluctuations, which are reflected in the supplier’s power price
in the case of grid supply, significantly increase the customer’s energy costs. For the pur-
chase of LNG, these fluctuations are of no significance, because the gas comes from the
tank just like oil or LPG, making the power peaks meaningless. However, the latter must
be taken into account in the design of the vaporizer and the pressure control devices.

Summary
The consumption of LNG has neither a performance price nor a volume price. It is drawn
on demand, just like oil or LPG from a tank. Fluctuations in output are insignificant, but
must be taken into account when dimensioning the plant. The gas pressure is built up with
the pressure booster and brought to the desired working pressure with pressure regulating
equipment.

5.1.2 Operating Principle Module 2

Module 2 (Fig. 5.3) is practiced in cogeneration. This circuit guarantees a much more
economical, energetic yield of the energy carrier – see example calculation from Chap. 6.
Regasified and odorized gas is used to generate electricity via a gas engine or gas tur-
bine, usually a microturbine. Microturbines operate with an excess of air, so that the
exhaust gas values develop positively and expenses for exhaust gas treatment are reduced.
The gas pressure is generated by the tank pressure build-up, as described in module 1
(Sect. 5.1.1).

Note The electricity generation should be the basis for the calculation of the system. The
heat that is inevitably generated is used to feed a storage tank, which must be part of a heat
supply system.

The heat generated is buffered and called up as required. There are various options for
heat storage, but these will not be explained here. What is important is that module 2
achieves significantly better economic efficiency than module 1 when all possibilities are
utilised.
By changing the current yield, the exhaust gas temperature can be influenced via the
turbine (preferably microturbine) (see [3]). If the electricity yield is reduced, the exhaust
gas temperature increases; if the electricity yield is maximised, the exhaust gas tempera-
ture decreases. In each case, the exhaust gas heat is available as a heat source. Microturbines
require little maintenance as they are mainly air-bearing and therefore do not require lubri-
cation. They generate electricity by excitation with a permanent magnet and operate with-
out gears. These turbines are often used in biogas plants because of their robustness with
regard to combustion, as the composition of the gas varies. Unlike a gas engine, a turbine
burns gas mixtures containing up to 30% calorific gas. The total energy yield consists of a
5.1 LNG Supply Facilities 61

Interface customer plant

Pre-pressure regulator Working pressure regulator
Tank

Evaporator
Turbine or
gas engine
with generator

Heat exchanger
for heating

Fig. 5.3 Module 2 – LNG stored in the tank, regasified in the downstream air vaporizer and deliv-
ered to the consumer, a gas engine or turbine, after the air vaporizer via a first pressure control stage
via a downstream second pressure control stage. Turbine or gas engine release their heat to a heat
accumulator, which is part of a heat supply. Odorization downstream of the air evaporator is
not shown

smaller portion of electricity and a larger portion of heat. The electricity yield is about
25–32% of the caloric effective part, the remaining energy is heat. The gas engine pro-
duces up to 40% of electricity from the energy used. The remaining part is therefore heat.
For both types of generation, it depends on the specifics of the consumer. If heat is required,
for example in a retirement home, the electricity generated is added to that drawn from the
grid. Depending on the feed-in tariff, it may also be economical to feed the electricity into
the grid. If electricity is required, the heat is fed into a storage tank and called up as
needed. If the generated heat is significantly higher than the demand, it has to be checked
whether the electricity generation with the CHP circuit should be reduced and the missing
electricity should be drawn from the grid instead. A binding statement can only be made
on the basis of an optimisation of consumption, CHP costs and tariffs. In any case, the
power peaks of the electricity consumption are to be minimized. This usually has a benefi-
cial effect on energy costs.
In the gas engine, the cooling circuit is bound to narrow limits with regard to tempera-
ture. There, the heat dissipation is controlled by the quantity. This means that the mass
flow through the heat exchanger determines how much heat can be dissipated from it. An
increase in temperature is only possible within very narrow limits, as otherwise the
62 5 LNG Applications

machine would suffer damage. The heat is transferred to a storage tank via which the con-
sumer is supplied. Direct heat dissipation to the consumer is not common or only possible
in rare cases.

Summary
With combined heat and power (CHP), the energy yield is significantly improved com-
pared to module 2. LNG has neither a power price nor a volume price, but is traded accord-
ing to energy content. The price basis is the price of the energy in the hub. Withdrawal at
the consumer is on demand from a tank, just as with oil or propane gas. Fluctuations in
output are insignificant. The gas pressure is secured with the pressure booster and brought
to the desired value with pressure regulating devices. In addition to heat, electricity is also
provided. It must be decided which form of energy is to be the leading one.

5.1.3 Operating Principle Module 3

Module 3 (see Fig. 5.4) corresponds to module 2 of cogeneration, except that the evapora-
tion heat is extracted from a cooling circuit.

Note Refrigeration is a very expensive energy. The possibility of integrating the evapora-
tor into a refrigeration circuit, e.g. an air conditioning system, should always be checked.
It should be noted that only a part of the applied cold can be used. The heat of evaporation
is decisive for the design. The extent to which the heat can be used to superheat the gas/
steam depends on a number of factors.

The larger the plant, the more usable the cold and the greater the benefit. If we assume
that the internal tank pressure is 10 bar at equilibrium, 415 KJ/kg of evaporation heat can
be used. Since heat is also absorbed during superheating to −15 °C, at least 515 KJ/kg of
cooling capacity of the Mathan can be expected. This variant improves the economic effi-
ciency of the plant a further time, the use of LNG becomes particularly advantageous
because it is especially economical.
During evaporation, LNG extracts at least approx. 515 kJ/kg of evaporation energy
from the environment, which is expressed in cold. In the case of cogeneration, an addi-
tional minimum of 0.14 kWh/kg can be obtained without a refrigerating machine or simi-
lar equipment, only by means of a heat exchanger:

Approx. 4 KWh electricity

Approx. 6 KWh heat
Approx. 0.14 KWh cold
Selling price of the energy
Electricity 0.20 €/KWh Approx. 0.80 €/KWh
Heat 0.07 €/KWh Approx. 0.42 €/KWh
Cold 0.30 €/KWh Approx. 0.04 €/KWh
Revenue, total 1.26 €/KWh
5.1 LNG Supply Facilities 63

Interface customer plant

Pre-pressure regulator Working pressure regulator
Tank

Evaporator
Turbine or
gas engine
with generator

Cold production by Heat exchanger

using the for heating
evaporation heat in
the refrigeration cycle

Fig. 5.4 Module 3: LNG stored in the tank, regasified in the downstream air vaporizer and delivered
to the consumer, a gas engine or turbine, after the air vaporizer via a first pressure control stage and
further via a downstream second pressure control stage. The turbine or gas engine transfers its heat
to a heat accumulator, which is part of a heat supply system, and thus cools the cooling liquid.
Regasification takes place as required in the heat exchanger of a cooling circuit. Odorization after
the air evaporator or heat exchanger is not shown

The available cold is a very high-quality energy (approx. 0.30 €/KWh). The tempera-
ture of the evaporated gas can be far below −100 °C and thus greatly relieve the refrigera-
tion circuit, or reduce the system parameters. The refrigeration plant can possibly be
designed smaller. Refrigeration cannot be obtained directly for cooling purposes when
using either oil or LPG. This is an advantageous use of LNG at a very low investment cost
in relation to the total investment.

Summary
By taking into account the heat of evaporation of the LNG, the process becomes more
economical. The cold can be fed into cooling or air conditioning systems. The economic
advantage does not take into account the saved plant engineering expenses, only the caloric
value due to the additional cooling capacity.
64 5 LNG Applications

Circuit diagram Mains stabilisaon

Symbols are not in
Tank for LNG accordance with standards!
18 bar
Gas phase
max. 18 bar Vaccinaon site Gas pressure regulator 18/ 5 bar

Grid feed-in
Vaporizer
for LNG

max. 6 bar

Odorant Mass flow controller

Flow measurement tank
Gas phase gives Gas phase Odorant
signal to mass flow Nitrogen max 20 bar
controller

Nitrogen tank
18 bar
Evaporator for
nitrogen 18 bar

Fig. 5.5 Simplified representation of the circuit diagram of a mains stabilisation/emergency supply
with admixing of nitrogen

5.1.4 Functional Principle of Grid Feed-In/Grid Stabilisation

The injection of larger quantities of natural gas into the grid for grid stabilisation is very
feasible with LNG or the gas phase obtained from it with a suitable technical effort
(Fig. 5.5). This can be used, for example, to overcome temporary bottlenecks. Such bottle-
necks can occur when new consumers, such as new housing developments or commercial
facilities, register their demand in addition to the supply, when consumption peaks are to
be absorbed, or when the continuous supply of an entire network section is to be taken over.

Note It is fed into an existing network. Each gas of a network has a calorific value,
expressed as a Wobbe number, it is in a certain range that must be guaranteed by the sup-
porting supply.

LNG has a calorific content of 98% methane plus other calorific components, the calo-
rific value of which is in most cases higher than that of the pipeline gas. The calorific value
must then be lowered, otherwise damage will occur to the gas appliances in the supply
area. The reduction to the network-relevant Wobbe number takes place by admixing calo-
rically dead accompanying gas, mostly nitrogen.
5.1 LNG Supply Facilities 65

Emergency supply as well as grid stabilization, both processes require a suitable plant
technology for the feed-in.

Note The plant must automatically control the supply and admixture of nitrogen. Since
the demand can fluctuate greatly, these plants must react very flexibly. As they often have
to be installed far away from the supplier, they also require automatic remote monitoring.

Industrial consumers can compensate for power peaks in network withdrawal with sta-
bilisation at plant level. At the moment of increasing demand, the network stabilisation is
automatically switched on, and the gas supplier only takes note of the steady withdrawal.
The expensively paid performance price only has a limited effect. If technologically con-
ditioned power peaks occur, these plants are profitable after a short time, unless the gas
supplier responds to the special nature of the process with price reductions. An example of
technologically induced power peaks would be when a gas engine manufacturer tests its
engines and has to ramp them up to full load for a short period of time. The gas draw sud-
denly spikes for a short period of time and then drops back to normal after the test. The
performance peak for the price calculation has occurred. In such and similar cases, the
solution described is ideally suited.
LNG is stored in the tank and regasified in the downstream air vaporizer. After the air
vaporizer, the mass flow is recorded and nitrogen is added proportionally (cf. Fig. 5.5).
The odorant quantity is determined from the mass flow rates and added before the nitrogen
is injected. A first pressure control stage ensures the pressure for a downstream second
pressure control stage of the consumer.
The natural gas mass flow delivered to the network must be measured. This is possible
with orifices via the pressure loss and a correction via the temperature, but the measure-
ment of the mass with the Coriolis mass measurement method is more elegant. A wide
variety of systems are available for this purpose, including explosion-proof versions. The
measurement is required for calculating the quantity of nitrogen admixture and for the
quantity of odorant to be proportioned.
The gas pressure is secured by the tank pressure. The pressure generated by the evapo-
ration is always sufficient for the grid feed. Assuming a low pressure supply, no additional
mechanical pressure increase is necessary. In the medium pressure network, network sta-
bilisations are not known.
In addition to the LNG tank, supply systems for grid stabilization are equipped with a
nitrogen tank and an odorization system. Nitrogen is added to the methane via a gas mix-
ing unit in a quantity-corrected manner. Odorization must be provided in all cases, as this
is required by the regulations (see Sect. 8.6).

Summary
Grid stabilization is used for temporary supply. The injected gas must have the same
Wobbe number as the gas in the pipeline. This is preferably done with nitrogen. For this
purpose, the mass flows are measured, from which the nitrogen and odorant quantities to
be added are calculated.
66 5 LNG Applications

5.1.5 Mobile Emergency Care

Emergency supply can be equated with grid stabilisation. It is used on a mobile and tem-
porary basis. It will always happen that a site has to be temporarily supplied with natural
gas due to a disruption. A mobile emergency supply based on LNG can feed in larger
quantities compared to trailer emergency supplies (gas phase is provided). In the case of
gas trailers, the capacity is limited to a few 1000 Nm3. The LNG emergency supply basi-
cally consists of the mobile LNG tank with air vaporizer, the gas mixing unit, which adds
nitrogen from the mobile nitrogen tank, and the gas odorization unit. All aggregates should
be controlled t with an automatic system.
The gas regasified from the LNG tank must not be injected unprocessed into the pipe-
line. As mentioned above, the Wobbe number must be adjusted and the odorant added to
the gas. Odorization can present special challenges. Relatively small but fluctuating quan-
tities can be expected, so a high degree of flexibility is required. Known odorization plants
only odorize the gas flow homogeneously from approx. 500 Nm3/h onwards. Hoffmann &
Hoppestock of Wernigerode has developed a system for very small quantities (1–500 Nm3/h)
which can also cope with larger quantities by connecting odorization modules in parallel
(see Sect. 8.6).
The emergency supply process is simpler if LNG is burned directly during regular
operation. Then it is not necessary to add nitrogen to the gas. The burner is set to this high
calorific value.

Practical Advice
Natural gas from the pipeline cannot be unconditionally substituted for natural gas
obtained from LNG. The Wobbe number of the pipeline gas must be taken into account
and the gas to be injected must be adjusted and odorized to this number. The Wobbe num-
ber is adjusted by adding nitrogen.

5.2 Possibilities of Gas Compression

Natural gas filling stations for CNG must offer the gas in compressed form. Small natural
gas filling stations are supplied from the low-pressure line, while larger facilities, e.g.
buster minals, are generally supplied from the medium-pressure line. The gas supplier
alone decides whether a natural gas filling station can be connected to the medium-­pressure
line or the low-pressure line. This depends on a wide variety of factors, including the avail-
able tap capacity, the existing gas pressure, the location, etc.

Note Line gas is already odorized in the low pressure rail, gas from the medium pressure
rail may need to be odorized.

The pipeline gas can only be compressed to the refuelling pressure (approx. 250 bar)
using compressors. If LNG is the starting product, gas compressor, cryogenic pump or the
application of the Liqui-Flow process are possible.
5.2 Possibilities of Gas Compression 67

5.2.1 Gas Compression with Compressor, Cryo-Pump

and Liqui-Flow Process

For each of the variants, the gas phase resulting from LNG must be odorized.

Note CNG from LNG are necessarily to odorize, because natural gas is not toxic, but
odorless and tasteless and has a suffocating effect. A gas leak would not be perceptible by
humans without odorization.

The two methods with compressor or with cryopump have a high power consumption.
The compressor requires several times the cryogenic pump (approx. 1:10). The greater the
volume flow and the higher the storage pressure, the higher the electrical connected load.
For this reason, the pressure at the compressor is minimised at the filling station and the
volume flow per hour is kept as low as possible. This is to be compensated with larger
storage volumes, which are divided into three pressure banks. However, it must be remem-
bered that no matter how large the storage tank is, if the withdrawal is greater than the
output of the compressor, the shortcoming of the lack of compression power cannot be
compensated for.
For example, a compressor with 60 Nm3/h can only manage this quantity 24 times a
day, i.e. 1440 Nm3/day. This may still be sufficient today, but with an increasing number
of CNG vehicles, such a compressor will be overtaxed at most locations. 1440 Nm3/h can-
not be delivered either, as this would require continuous refuelling for 24 h a day. This
volume is only theoretically achievable.

Example Cars with a storage volume of 30 Nm3 each refuel at a filling station with a
compressor for 60 Nm3/h. A connected load of approx. 20 KW is to be installed. After two
cars have been refuelled one after the other in approx. 5 min, the storage pressure for a
third car is no longer sufficient to fill it to 200 bar. The compressor has to help. With the
third passenger car something must be filled up with the compressor. With the next ones
the time will be much longer with increasing tendency. The situation becomes quite
extreme if the accumulators are empty. Then the refuelling with this compressor (60 Nm3/h)
for the following passenger car takes approx. 1/2 h, a long time.

Larger and more powerful compressors require electrical connected loads of 100 and
more KWh. Since this is often not feasible, relatively small compressors are currently
installed at public natural gas filling stations. These achieve a standard volume flow of
60–100 Nm3/h. Another reason for the low compressor capacity may be the available tap
capacity of the gas pipeline. At present, these installations meet the expectations of the
CNG customer. If they become more, one will have to think about the current
performance.
The situation is more favourable for supplying the gas storage facilities with a cryo-
genic pump. They get the gas from the LNG tank and are consequently off-grid. Pumps
with 500 l/h would be very common, for large consumers pumps with 1000–2000 l/h
68 5 LNG Applications

would be available. This volume generates about 600–1200 Nm3/h. Of course, as the vol-
ume increases, so does the power requirement. If a pump with 500 l/h still runs with
approx. 15 KW connected load, the large pump systems already require 25–50 KW. With
the latter, buses, trucks (storage volume from approx. 150 Nm3) and vans (storage volume
from approx. 80 m3) could be refuelled very comfortably. A pump with 500 l/h would
deliver approx. 300 Nm3/h, i.e. 10 cars/h (storage volume approx. 30 Nm3) could refuel, an
obviously good solution. A big advantage is the relatively low investment costs of the
cryogenic pump compared to the compressor. This is offset by the following
disadvantages.

Note Cryogenic pump systems have a relatively long cold start-up time (up to 30 min),
regardless of performance. Already after several hours of standstill time, cold start-up
must be carried out again. They should only be operated under professional supervision.
The short and cost-intensive maintenance intervals (see Sect. 5.2.2) do not serve the
purpose.

The duration of the cold run time suggests that the pumps should run continuously if
possible. This will not be feasible. The cold run times are very dependent on the pump
set-up and the LNG level in the tank. It is to be expected that these waiting times at a filling
station will not be tolerated by the majority of customers. For predicted reasons, this pump
system for LNG refuelling has not yet become established.
The Liqui-Flow process compensates for some of these disadvantages. Here, too, the
LNG comes from the tank, but it does not need electricity to drive the motors, as is the case
with the compressor or the pump. The investment costs are half or less compared to the
compressor. Maintenance is foreseen only after several 1000 h (calculatively 10,000 h).
The capacity depends solely on the size of the system and the associated evaporator sur-
face. Both can be varied as required. There is no cold run time, the system always
remains cold.
For the company, larger quantities of gas delivery are economically favourable. The
process is ideally suited for refuelling large fleets (e.g. bus terminals, trucks and van
fleets). These plants (2000 Nm3/h and more), working according to the Liqui-Flow pro-
cess, are considerably cheaper than comparable plants in which the gas is compressed with
a compressor, but they are still too expensive for supplying individual transport. Here, a
few 1000 Nm3 per day or less are to be expected. For these small quantities, satellite filling
stations are currently used (see Sect. 5.4).
They use CNG bundles to supply the vehicle by simply overflowing the CNG, prefer-
ably passenger cars. The bundles are filled at the base station with the Liqui-Flow system,
thus increasing the utilization of the equipment and reducing the specific cost of refueling.
For small CNG bus terminals (less than 20 buses), trailer stations are offered that store
odorized CNG at 300 bar and deliver to vehicle storage for 200 bar. The function corre-
sponds to that of a satellite system and is therefore not explained further.
5.2 Possibilities of Gas Compression 69

At present, the costs for the Liqui-Flow system are below 0.10 €/Nm3 at 6000 Nm3/day
and 300 bar (see Sect. 5.2.3). No comparable compressor system can compete with these
costs in terms of operation and, as consumption increases, maintenance. The cryogenic
pump would be eliminated because of the disadvantages mentioned, especially the short
maintenance intervals.

Summary
Natural gas is odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, but has a suffocating effect. The gas must be
odorized before it is delivered to the consumer. The higher the final pressure and delivery
volume, the higher the operating costs.
The compression energy per unit volume is always the same. As the tapping capacity
increases, the electrical power increases.
The cryopump has a much lower power consumption (approx. 1/10), but the short
maintenance intervals and the unconditional supervision speak against it.
The Liqui-Flow filling station offers an alternative for large dispensing quantities. It
does not need electricity or a gas pipeline. Small quantities can be supplied with the satel-
lite CNG filling station. The cost structure is the most favorable of the above.

5.2.1.1 Gas Compression with Compressor

The Compressor
The compressor is a piston machine. With approx. 0.2–0.3 KWh/Nm3 it compresses gas in
a multi-stage process from the inlet pressure to the final pressure (approx. 220–250 bar).
This pressure is used to refuel the CNG vehicles or fill the storage tanks at the filling station.

As a rule, the compressors are powered by electricity. In countries with a lack of elec-
tricity infrastructure for power transmission, electricity is generated with gas engines that
drive the compressor electrically by means of a generator.
The capacity of the compressor must be determined very precisely depending on the
required hourly tapping capacity. For example, if buses with a storage of 150 Nm3 are to
tap CNG, a compressor of 600 Nm3/h is a minimum size. Experience shows that there are
more than 20 CNG buses in a depot. If these are to be supplied with CNG, at least 5 h are
mathematically required with the previously mentioned equipment. If the capacity of the
compressor system were to be doubled to 1200 Nm3/h, a connected load of approx.
380–400 KVA would have to be available. The extent to which this power can be transmit-
ted must be checked with regard to the local conditions. Even in the well-developed
German power grid, this will not be unproblematic.
Regular and, above all, professional maintenance ensures a long service life and reli-
able availability of the compressor. It is advantageous if the compressor runs continuously,
because the start-up phase causes particular wear. The maintenance intervals are specified
by the manufacturer and must be strictly adhered to. This work, as well as maintenance, is
cost-intensive and involves considerable technical effort. For example, the filters have to
70 5 LNG Applications

be replaced regularly and disposed of properly, as they mainly contain pollutants that are
absorbed during the compression and transport of the gas. They must not be classified as
normal waste. If the CNG is not compressed from the pipeline but from the liquid phase
(LNG), only residues from the compressor are to be expected. At longer intervals (approx.
1500 operating hours, specification depends on the manufacturer and is influenced by the
size of the plant and its operating characteristics) a major inspection must be carried out.
For this purpose the machine is opened and disassembled. A suitable crane system must be
available for lifting the heavy cylinder heads. Further technical aids with an overhead
crane system should be erected. A building to protect the plant is essential. The crane not
only picks up the cylinder heads, but also performs other maintenance tasks.
In addition, a highly qualified staff is required for maintenance and servicing of the
compressors. Personnel costs are incurred in addition to the cost of spare parts. Even with
good work organisation, several days are required for the work. During this time, the
equipment is down 100% of the time. These costs are included in the company’s profit and
loss account and will be reflected in the price of the gas.

Note Experience has shown that small systems have higher specific costs than the large
systems. The maintenance and operating costs (not the costs for the electricity) are always
a cost item where much is hidden and negated. For the economic consideration of an
investment, approx. 10% of the investment value (own long-term experience value) should
be planned for annual operating and maintenance costs over 10 years. Exact figures are not
available for this, but this order of magnitude is confirmed by many practitioners. This
does not exclude that the costs over some years are far below this. In the case of a neces-
sary major repair, the savings made up to that point are very quickly consumed in full.

The ionic compressor, a LINDE GAS development, operates without a piston. The gas
is displaced with an ionic liquid column. Ionic liquids are salts with a melting point which
is in the range of 90–100 °C for this application. The compression energy is entered with
a pump and is said to be up to 20% less than that of a compressor. The pump moves the
liquid in accordance with the process. Notably, piston friction and piston movement are no
longer present, eliminating a major wear factor of the reciprocating compressor. The main-
tenance cycles should be much further apart. In practice, these systems are still very rarely
encountered.

Summary
The multi-stage piston compressor has high operating and maintenance costs in addition
to the high purchase costs. Based on 10 years, they amount to approx. 10% of the invest-
ment costs per year. It consumes approx. 0.2–0.3 KWh/Nm3 at a pressure of 250 bar.
The ion compressor has less wear because the gas is compressed with a liquid. The
compression energy is applied with a pump that moves the liquid. The liquid reduces the
energy requirement by up to 20% compared to the compressor.
5.2 Possibilities of Gas Compression 71

Compression of Pipeline Gas

When considering the construction of a compressor unit for the compression of pipeline
gas, the necessary infrastructure must be examined. As shown in section “The Compressor”,
the following conditions must be met:

• Presence of a high-capacity gas pipeline;

• Availability of electrical power.

For small facilities, as they are known from public filling stations, these conditions are
usually feasible. However, if there is a need to refuel a larger fleet of buses on a daily basis,
the above-mentioned conditions will be more difficult to fulfil. In addition, there are the
not insignificant investment costs for creating the infrastructure of the facility and its con-
struction measures. Since natural gas filling station projects have sometimes failed because
of this, a detailed project study, including consideration of the surrounding area, is of pri-
mary importance.

Note The CNG demand must be determined as accurately as possible. From this, the
minimum tapping capacity, investment measures for the plant and the required infrastruc-
ture are derived.

Pipeline gas is pressurized to storage pressure with a compressor. After withdrawal

from the pipeline, the gas is processed for compression and refuelling, regardless of the
size of the plant. It is cleaned, in particular dehumidified, desulphurised, the CO2 and
interfering hydrocarbons (oils) are separated. The impurities collect in the filter, which
must be replaced regularly. Purified gas is sucked in by the compressor and compressed
and forced into the storage tanks.
If the gas is taken from the high or medium pressure rail, it must be odorized before
being delivered. Gas from the low-pressure line is already odorized by the local gas sup-
plier, as it is used to supply the end consumer.

Note The volume flow in the supplying pipeline must be significantly higher than the
installed compressor capacity. If this is too low, the gas network, with which other con-
sumers are still supplied, would collapse.

It is advantageous to take the gas from the medium pressure or high pressure network.
The applied network pressure reduces the energy consumption of the compressor, since
the gas already flows into the chamber of the compressor with a higher density and thus
more mass can be conveyed per cycle. Unfortunately, this is rarely possible in practice, as
these lines are often laid far away from the consumer.
72 5 LNG Applications

Summary
The compression of pipeline gas requires the examination of the demand and the infra-
structure. The gas must be purified before compression and odorized depending on its
origin. The filter must be replaced and disposed of regularly. The volume flow of the pipe-
line must be much greater than the volumetric capacity of the compressor. A high inlet
pressure to the compressor is advantageous.

Compression of Regasified Gas from LNG

Compression of a gas phase formed from LNG by means of compressor is much easier in
the refuelling process. The gas can be sucked in by the compressor at tank pressure imme-
diately after the vaporizer and, after separation of the impurities by the compressor itself,
be forced into the storage tanks. The tank pressure, adjusted with the pressure booster
evaporator, can be close to the permissible tank pressure. This relieves the compressor and
saves electricity. Before the tank is filled again, the pressure is lowered by the compressor
so that advantageous filling conditions exist.

Since LNG is a condensate, a mixture of hydrocarbons with methane as the main com-
ponent is present. The engine receives 100% calorically usable gas. This means that more
energy per unit volume is extracted from this product than from pipeline gas, as the latter
carries calorically dead associated gas. With the same energy input, the compressor deliv-
ers more calorically usable gas. This is a significant advantage, considering its share of the
total volume. The vehicle covers a longer distance with the same storage capacity. Since
the pipeline gas has a different composition (up to 10% caloric dead gas), the difference in
range of the vehicle can be up to 10%. In any case, the CNG must be odorized before or
after the compressor and before the storage tank.
The cleaning process is limited to the separation of impurities from the compressor
(e.g. oil). In addition, the transport losses in the line gas, caused by the dead accompanying
gas, are saved.

Practical Advice
CNG from LNG has a high purity. Only the impurities caused by the compressor have to
be separated. There is no calorically dead associated gas. This increases the range of the
vehicle, for example. The gas is at maximum tank pressure and must be odorized after the
vaporizer.

Energy Requirement of the Compressor

The gas compressor compresses the gas in several stages. It requires electrical power to do
this. This is taken from the grid. In undersupplied regions, the compressor is supplied with
electricity by diesel or gas-electric generators.

The energy requirement of the compressor depends on a wide range of factors. The
most significant influence is exerted by the upstream pressure. In the most favourable case,
5.2 Possibilities of Gas Compression 73

Fig. 5.6 High pressure piston

pump of the Cryostar. (Source:
Cryostar)

this can be 100 bar and more (high-pressure line) and can drop to just a few bar for
regasified LNG. In a low-pressure pipeline, only a few mbar are available.
For initial estimates, an electrical energy requirement of 0.2–0.3 KWh/m3 gas should
be calculated. The exact value depends not only on the pre-pressure but also on the respec-
tive manufacturer of the system and must be determined together with the manufacturer.

Summary
The electrical energy requirement of the compressor depends on a wide range of condi-
tions, especially the inlet pressure, and should be determined with the supplier of the
compressor. For initial estimates, a value of 0.2–0.3 KWh/m3 gas should be calculated.

5.2.2 Gas Compression with Cryogenic High-Pressure Piston Pump

5.2.2.1 General Information on the Cryogenic High-Pressure Piston Pump

The cryogenic high-pressure piston pump – or cryogenic pump for short – is a proven
component of cryogenic technology (Fig. 5.6). It is mainly used for filling gas cylinders
and other pressurised gas containers and as a process pump in technological processes. It
operates at a wide range of pressure levels. Consequently, it is also suitable for the produc-
tion of CNG from LNG. The pump is advantageously connected to a pump tank (see Sect.
6.2.2.1).
The LNG flows to the piston pump from the tank through the geodetic pressure. The
suction valve is located in the vacuum-insulated cooling jacket of the piston pump. The
piston is used to cyclically force the liquid into the evaporator via the outlet valve. Before
the piston pump delivers the liquid to the evaporator, the liquid shocks are damped with a
pulsation damper.
74 5 LNG Applications

Note This pulsation damper is absolutely necessary, otherwise the pressure surges will be
transmitted to the entire system, including the high-pressure accumulators, and damage is
to be expected. It is installed directly at the high-pressure outlet of the pump.

The cryogenic pump is an energetically more favourable variant of compression com-

pared to the compressor. The difference is that liquid volume is evaporated in the evapora-
tor. In the process, the compression work is set. The compression energy is partially
extracted from the environment.
The compressor compresses the voluminous gas, while the pump forces the small vol-
ume of liquid into the evaporator, where it evaporates. The pump displaces a much larger
liquid mass per stroke in the cylinder than the compressor. Therefore, the connected load
of the piston pump is much lower (up to 1/10 of the compressor load). The investment
costs of the piston pump are much lower, but the service life of the pumps is much shorter
than that of the compressor. The pump has to be serviced when methane is released into
the environment. This can occur after less than 200 h of operation. According to experi-
ence, the compressor is subjected to a first service after more than 750 operating hours, the
major service is required after 6000–8000 h depending on the manufacturer and is almost
equivalent to a new acquisition.
Experience shows that the service life is limited by the leakage rate at the piston rod.
Therefore, special attention must be paid to this point. The sealing at the piston rod can
indicate a leakage after only a few operating hours by means of the methane sensor. This
means that the economic advantage achieved at the beginning, due to the low purchase
price, is relativized by the high maintenance effort.

Practical Advice
The cryogenic pump forces the liquid phase of the gas into the evaporator. The energy
consumption is lower and is only approx. 10% compared to the compressor. The running
performance of the pump is mainly limited by the leakage at the piston rod. Special atten-
tion must be paid to the leakage. Advantageous are the low investment costs, which partly
lose importance again due to the short service life.

5.2.2.2 The Cryopump Head

The cryogenic high pressure pump is a piston pump. It consists of the specially designed
pump head, varying between single or multiple head pump. The piston runs in the cylinder
of the pump head and is connected to the gear via the piston rod. This is driven by an elec-
tric geared motor. The models of the various suppliers differ only in details.
If possible, the cylinder in the pump head must only be able to suck in liquid gas. For
this purpose, it must be cooled to liquid temperature. If this temperature is not reached,
evaporation would already start in the cylinder and the efficiency of the pump would
decrease extremely. Therefore, the liquid must not carry any vapour components (i.e.
x = 1). This requires that the supply line is well insulated and that the pump head is cooled
to said product temperature. The liquefied gas from the tank is used for cooling or to
5.2 Possibilities of Gas Compression 75

dissipate the penetrating heat from the environment, the compression heat and the fric-
tional heat. The delivery rate is also dependent on the density of the LNG and thus on the
boiling pressure. As the boiling pressure rises, the delivery rate falls.

Note The density decreases with increasing thermal equilibrium pressure. It decreases
from 4 to 18 bar by approx. 20%. This means that the same proportion of the pump’s
delivery capacity also decreases.

The pump head is enclosed in a vacuum insulated double jacket which minimizes evap-
oration of the cooling liquid. This liquid comes from the tank. Part of the liquid is drawn
in by the pump, the other part dissipates the heat that penetrates despite the vacuum jacket,
absorbs the frictional heat of the pump head and returns to the tank as a gas phase (Fig. 5.6).
In the pump tank, this recirculated gas enters the liquid phase. The gas rising in the tank
partially condenses, supplies the condensation heat to the liquid and causes the equilib-
rium pressure and also the gas pressure to rise there. The gas pressure increase is reduced
by the liquid withdrawal while the pump is running.
The inlet to the pump head (Fig. 5.7) enters the head, i.e. the jacketed casing, at the
front or from below and fills the entire cooling jacket of the head with liquid. The suction
valve of the pump is also located in this inlet area. When the pump is cooled to liquid
temperature, i.e. cold run, there is liquid in both the inlet and the gas return. The pump can
only be started in this condition. To prevent damage to the pump, a temperature sensor in
almost all models locks the pump and does not allow the pump to be started until the liquid
temperature at the pump head has adjusted.

High pressure connection

with check valve to
Gas decline the evaporator

Vacuum insulation
Piston rod seal
Cooling jacket LNG

Inlet LNG

Piston rod

Piston Inlet valve with spring

Fig. 5.7 Principle sketch of a pump head of the high pressure piston pump
76 5 LNG Applications

Note The pump is disconnected from the tank after pumping is complete by closing the
gas return. When at rest, external heat penetration vaporizes the remaining product in the
pump head and forces the liquid remaining in the pump head back into the tank. The liquid
in the pump head flows around the pressure-resistant working cylinder of the pump. This
has a suction valve (also called a low-pressure suction valve) and a high-pressure dis-
charge valve, a component that works like a familiar check valve. It is designed for a large
number of load cycles (over 400 1/min). The piston runs in the working cylinder. When the
piston retracts, the pressure in the chamber drops and the inlet valve opens. The fluid flows
into the chamber. As the piston moves, the liquid is pushed in the opposite direction. The
valve is closed by the momentum of the liquid. The product is compressed and the high
pressure outlet valve (non-return valve) opens, the product flows into the connected pipe
which, in a gas cylinder filling system, leads into the air vaporizer. This is only possible if
the pump capacity overcomes the pressure prevailing in the air evaporator. The low-­
pressure inlet valve is spring-loaded, it is forced open by the upcoming geodetic height of
the liquid and the prevailing tank pressure (NPSH). The meaning of the spring force and
the NPSH value are described in Sects. 5.2.2.4 and 5.5.

The gas pressure that builds up displaces the liquid through the inlet into the tank when
the gas return is closed. There the gas pressure increases insignificantly. The pump con-
tains no cooling medium and becomes warm in a few hours. The pressure of the tank can
only increase within the scope of the natural heat input.
In the pump tank with thermosiphon, the pipeline of the gas phase ends in the liquid
phase of the tank, but above the liquid withdrawal line.
If the inlet were closed at rest, liquid could enter the pump from the thermosiphon via
the gas return. The inlet is straight and therefore cannot form a gas cushion during system
standstill. Liquid can always run into the pump head. The tank pressure would rise. This
should be avoided (see Sect. 6.2.3). If the inlet and gas return were closed, the safety valve
would blow off the resulting gas.
It is advantageous to use a speed-controlled motor. With this, the pump duration can be
influenced.

Note A long running time is beneficial to the pump’s service life. The pump remains cold
and all thermal processes run with fewer repetitions/load changes.

A uniform pump speed over the entire running time should be aimed for. If it is known
how many containers are to be filled and what time is available for this, it can be deter-
mined how long the pump can run without interruption. This time should be used and, as
already mentioned, is beneficial to the service life of the pump.
Naturally, the aim is to fill the gas cylinders/pressurised gas containers as quickly as
possible. It was observed that for this purpose the pump speed was initially increased and
the speed of the pump was reduced when the pressure in the pressure vessels approached
the permissible level.
5.2 Possibilities of Gas Compression 77

Note It is wrong to think that initially high speed with decrease of pumping speed towards
the end of filling will reduce the development of compression heat.

This compression heat is ultimately responsible for the container heating up and the
pressure also increasing as a result. The permissible limit is reached even though the
desired mass is not yet in the vessel. This cannot be compensated by slowing down the
filling speed towards the end of filling. It does not matter how the compression energy is
generated in the container, it is generated in any case, whether the machine is running fast
or slow.

Note The advantage of a slow speed pump is that the heat of compression is spread over
a longer period of time. The heat can penetrate more evenly into the material and be
released to the environment, thus the temperature rises less selectively.

Due to the slow filling, the pressure rises less strongly and a low temperature level is
established. Heat can be released into the environment over a longer period of time. This
is visible through a corresponding temperature distribution on the cylinder, which is filled
lying down or standing up. The lying variant corresponds to the CNG tanks in the vehicle
or a lying gas cylinder bundle, for example to supply the satellite natural gas filling station.
If the compressed gas cylinder is filled upright, the upper area, the shoulder, is the warmest.
At the CNG filling station, a slow-running pump is not feasible, as there will always be
a desire to refuel the vehicle as quickly as possible. In vehicle refuelling, the system
switches off in a pressure-controlled manner, regardless of the quantity dispensed. It can
be assumed that the volume of the tank has not absorbed the mass that would be possible
at low temperature.

Practical Advice
It is advantageous to operate the pump cycles for as long as possible, or to distribute the
running time over the day as far as possible. This is achieved with reduced pump speed and
benefits the service life of the pump.
The LNG flows into the working cylinder and is forced into the vaporizer by the cyclic
piston movement. The pump head is cooled for pumping, the evaporated cooling medium,
LNG, returns to the tank as a gas phase. At the end of the process, the tank is separated
from the pump. The product remaining in the pump head evaporates and returns to the tank
as a gas phase. The pump heats up.

5.2.2.3 Influence of the Piston Rod Seal on the Service Life

of the Cryogenic Pump
The piston rod transmits the power of the engine to the piston. It comes from the relatively
warm gearbox and connects the cold piston to the pump. In the area near the piston, the
piston rod is therefore cool, so that air humidity can condense. It should therefore not
come into contact with air. The moisture in the air condenses on the very cold surface and
78 5 LNG Applications

ice crystals are formed immediately. They damage the sensitive sealing lips of the piston
rod seal. The service life of the pump is thus minimised. It is advantageous to flush the
piston rod with a dry gas at a low overpressure to the environment. The gas phase of the
pumped medium is usually suitable for this purpose. However, this is technically not easy
to solve for natural gas. Therefore, it would have to be considered to work with dry nitro-
gen, which of course causes additional costs. Care must be taken to ensure that the pres-
sure of this purge gas does not cause the gearbox to burst when it enters (in the event of
seal failure), as the gearbox is generally not designed to be pressure-resistant. The tight-
ness of the piston rod seal must be checked constantly (e.g. methane sensor) and restored
by replacing the seal if a leak is indicated. Escaping methane represents a safety risk.
In the past, another possibility was tried with the installation of a sleeve between the
gearbox and the pump head. The success was only limited. A leaking piston rod allows
methane to escape into the environment, and this must be avoided at all costs. A piston rod
will not only leak due to the ice crystals rubbing and wearing away, but also if the pump
head and gearbox are not exactly aligned. Then the lips of the seals are loaded on one side.
This monogate error inevitably leads to leaks after a short running time. This work requires
extreme precision, because it depends on a few 100ths of a mm.

Notice
If the piston rod leaks, the pump head must be replaced. The exact alignment after chang-
ing the pump head must be observed, the piston rod must be exactly aligned with the outlet
of the pump head and the outlet of the gearbox.

Safety Note The exit of the piston rod from the pump head must be monitored with a
methane sensor. This indicates any leakage. Based on the measurement results, a decision
must be made on whether to replace the pump head. An ignitable gas mixture occurs at
4.4% methane in the air. This is a safety risk.

Summary
The service life of the pump is significantly influenced by seal wear on the piston rod. The
one-sided load on the piston rod seal is to be avoided by an exact alignment of the pump
head. The exit of the piston rod from the pump head must be monitored with a methane
sensor. An ignitable mixture is already established at 4.4% methane.

5.2.2.4 Significance of Tank Pressure and Spring Characteristics

for Pumping Capacity
The spring characteristic has a significant influence on the operation of the pump. At rest,
it closes the inlet valve of the chamber and is opened in the working cycle by the geodetic
pressure in interaction with the negative pressure in the chamber.
If this is too hard, the total pressure of the tank must be correspondingly high. This
worsens the delivery rate. Safe opening with a primed piston is not possible or only
5.2 Possibilities of Gas Compression 79

possible with a delay. The boiling point is reached, steam is formed in the chamber, so that
it is not filled properly. The pump performance does not meet expectations.
A high geodetic pressure at a low equilibrium pressure leads to an improved flow rate.
Due to the low equilibrium pressure, the density of the liquid is at its highest, the liquid
becomes heavier and thus the geodetic pressure also increases. This pressure increase is
often supported by an elevated placement of the tank.

Note High geodetic pressure and low equilibrium pressure improve the pump deliv-
ery line.

To achieve a higher geodetic pressure, so-called foot extensions are built under the
tank. This installation variant has the advantage that falling density (heating of the liquid
and increase of the equilibrium pressure in the tank) can be partially compensated by the
greater height (see Fig. 5.9). With increasing geodetic tank pressure, subcooled liquid
forms in front of the pump inlet valve. Theoretically, it does not contain any gas. A maxi-
mum possible density is reached.
If the spring is too soft, a safe and fast closing of the valve is not guaranteed when the
piston returns. Part of the liquid in the chamber is pushed out again, but not via the exhaust
valve, but via the inlet valve.

Summary
A high geodetic and a low equilibrium pressure enable a maximum flow rate. The spring
characteristic is additionally decisive for the pumping capacity.

5.2.2.5 Instructions for Setting up and Installing the Cryogenic Pumps

A prerequisite for a properly working cryogenic pump is suitable tank piping, i.e. a suit-
able tank type, and a corresponding connection of the pump (Fig. 5.8).

Note The inlet from the tank to the pump should have a diameter of at least 25 mm, the
gas return at least 20 mm.

It is advantageous to install a pump tank, which is marked by a siphon. The refrigera-

tion tank is only a stopgap solution, as it was not designed for pump operation and the pipe
cross-sections may therefore be too small. Special attention must be paid to the cross-
sections of the inlet and gas return for this type of tank.

Note The vacuum insulated inlet and the gas return should be as short as possible and
should never be laid vertically, but always at an angle.

A short pipe minimizes the heat absorption by the product. The gas produced in spite
of all this rises on one side against the direction of inflow through the obliquely laid inflow.
If the pipe were laid vertically, the gas would return to the tank as a large bubble – thus
obstructing the inflow. The inflow is hindered to the same extent if the diameter of the gas
80 5 LNG Applications

Gas

High pressure connection to the air evaporator

Vacuum pressure swing

Cryopump head Gear motor

Thermosiphon Vacuum-rolled Fluency advance

Fig. 5.8 Schematic diagram for connection of high pressure piston pump to tank with thermosiphon

return is too small, as the gas cannot be discharged quickly enough into the gas space of
the tank. Too little liquid cools the pump head insufficiently and prolongs the cold run time
of the pump with additional gas generation and additional pressure build-up in the tank.
This means that not enough liquid can flow in and the whole system can come to a
standstill.
The supply line and the gas return each have a shut-off valve for repair purposes. The
valves are to be placed upright, with a maximum angle of inclination of 30°. If the general
conditions do not allow this, a valve of the type “Frees” (Stöhr Valves), which can be
installed in any position, can be used.
It is possible that liquid is trapped due to incorrect operation, therefore this section must
be protected by a safety valve.

Safety Note A safety valve must be installed in the liquid supply or in the gas return to
protect against possible overpressure. For this purpose, the installation instructions for
safety valves in Chap. 6 must be observed.

The pump should be firmly bolted to the floor by means of a frame. It is advantageous
if the control cabinet of the electrically operated pump is installed in the immediate vicin-
ity. Attention should be paid to the explosion-­proof design of the cabinet.
LNG has a lower density (422.6 kg/m3) than nitrogen (806.6 kg/m3) and other air gases.
This circumstance could cause the pump to prime poorly. The remedy is a softer spring for
the inlet valve and/or a greater inlet height (foot extension, as shown in Fig. 5.9). However,
this has the consequence that more heat is introduced through the longer lines (inlet and
gas return). For supply line lengths over 1.5 m, it would be advisable to install a triax line
(see Fig. 11.8).
5.2 Possibilities of Gas Compression 81

Vacuum-insulated triax leaching for liquid gelatine flow

High pressure connection to the air evaporator
Vacuum insulated Gas decline

Foot extension
Thermosiphon
Cryopump head Getrlebemotor

Fig. 5.9 Recommendations for the installation of a cryogenic pump

Summary
The path between the tank and the pump should be made as short as possible and at an
angle so that the gas can rise into the tank on one side of the pipe. The geodetic pressure
of the liquid is improved by placing the tank higher. The valves should be vertical, inclined
positions up to 30° are permissible. In extreme conditions, position-independent cryogenic
valves should be installed. A safety valve must be installed in the liquid supply or in the
gas return.

5.2.2.6 Energy Requirement of the Piston High-Pressure Pump

The energy for the compression of the gas formed in the evaporator, the friction losses of
the piston and seal rings, must be supplied as electrical power. The volume pumped by the
cryogenic pump is much smaller, but the mass is much larger compared to the compressor.
Therefore, the energy demand of the piston pump is a fraction (up to about 1/10) of the
demand of the gas compressor and can be considered as 0.04–0.05 KWh/kg. In the case of
decreasing density of the liquid, i.e. boiling pressure increase in the tank, the specific
power requirement increases, because now the pump delivers less mass per stroke than
under low boiling pressure.

Practical Advice
The energy requirement is lower than for a compressor, but it increases as the density or
boiling pressure of the LNG decreases.

5.2.3 Gas Compression with the Liqui-Flow Process

5.2.3.1 The Liqui-Flow Method

The process tested and subsequently patented by the Austrian Patent Office (see Fig. 5.10)
is an alternative solution and, compared to the other processes described, is more advanta-
geous in terms of economics, energy and ecology. The process is currently in the market
82 5 LNG Applications

Gaseous
to the 300bar
gas accumulator

Gas pressure
Vacuum insulated Air Evaporator
tank
Gas storage
tank Control medium
CNG max. 300bar
Liquid

Memory for smoothing

the cycles
Liquid

High-pressure
valves Pneumatic CNG drive

Vacuum insulated pipe

High Pressure Chambers

Piston with piston rod

Cooling jacket

Insulation
Perlite debris
Inlet valve cooling jacket
Inlet valves in chamber

Fig. 5.10 Simplified circuit diagram of the Liqui-Flow process. The pressure lock, which separates
the low-pressure section from the high-pressure section, is located in the perlite bed

entry phase. The Liqui-Flow process was first used at a natural gas filling station to convert
LNG into CNG at up to 300 bar.
Parts of the Liqui-Flow process are, as in the cryogenic pump process, a low pressure
part and a high pressure part. The separation of the low pressure part, the tank and the
higher pressure part, the air evaporator and with the following assemblies, is done by a
kind of sluice system – called pressure sluice.
In the pressure lock, LNG is dosed and cyclically pressed into the vaporizer by the
pneumatic drive. The amount of LNG dosed into the vaporizer determines the pressure to
be expected in the high-pressure section of the plant. Since only valves open and close and
a slowly running piston empties or fills the respective chamber, less maintenance is
expected compared to the compressor system and the cryogenic pump (approx. 10,000
operating hours).
In the Liqui-Flow process, LNG flows from the tank, which is approved for 18 bar, into
the pressure lock solely due to the geodetic pressure. When the tank is completely filled,
the valves of the pressure lock are closed. This is one of the advantages of the process.
While the piston pushes LNG into the air vaporizer with one side, LNG from the tank
flows to the other side of the piston. The liquid has no gas content (x = 0). The maximum
possible mass is delivered. With the next stroke, the piston pushes the liquid into the
evaporator. In the air evaporator, which forms a closed space with the connected accumu-
lators, the liquid is evaporated exclusively by supplying the ambient heat. This creates the
5.2 Possibilities of Gas Compression 83

desired high gas pressure in the evaporator and in the downstream accumulators. The
cyclic piston movements are slow, which results in less wear and tear and – compared to
the fast-running compressor or the sensitive cryogenic piston pump – less maintenance is
required.
The limit of the pressure development is determined solely by the density of the super-
critical gas phase, because the piston must be moved with the generated gas pressure. If
the density of the supercritical phase is too high, pumping is no longer possible. In this
case, the same quantity is pumped that is required to move the piston.
The control medium, CNG, is generated to move the piston in the system. Consequently,
no electricity is required for its movement. By dispensing with electrical energy to drive
the piston, a particular ecological advantage emerges.
In addition to using ambient heat for compression, the process has another special fea-
ture: the supercooled liquid flows to the chamber due to the geodetic pressure. This
excludes reaching the boiling line in the cold pump head (cooled to boiling temperature).
The high-pressure gas cyclically generated in the air evaporator is collected in the accumu-
lator and the pulsating pressure surges are smoothed by the volume expansion in the pres-
surized gas tanks.
The accumulator is similar to the design of the compressor-operated filling station,
except that fewer accumulator cylinders are used. In the Liqui-Flow process, the storage
only has the function of smoothing the pressure peaks, the storage function is insignificant
due to the possible high delivery rate. The CNG is provided just-in-time. The storage addi-
tionally provides the control medium for the piston. This control medium is a subset of the
total delivery.
A similar process takes place in the piston pump. Here, however, the liquid is sucked in
by the returning piston. This creates a slight negative pressure, which supports the opening
of the inlet valve. This negative pressure can change the supercooled liquid to a boiling
one. When this happens, it has a negative effect on the delivery rate of the pump, because
at the moment of boiling, the vapor content is increased. In a pump the cycles run several
100 times per minute, in the Liqui-Flow process much less often.

Summary
In the Liqui-Flow process, LNG runs through the geodetic pressure into the chambers of
the pressure lock. The piston pushes the liquid into the air vaporizer and releases the other
chamber for filling. In the air vaporizer, the high pressure develops solely by supplying the
ambient heat. The piston is driven by its own medium.

5.2.3.2 Notes on the Installation of the Pressure Lock

in the Liqui-Flow Process
Like the pump, the pressure lock is the interface between the low-pressure and high-­
pressure sections of a natural gas filling station that is supplied with LNG and converts it
into CNG. The pressure lock is installed in a module in which all fittings and measuring
84 5 LNG Applications

lines are installed. This module is delivered prefabricated to the future filling station and
connected there with short pipelines directly next to the tank.
For the supply, one line each is installed on the cooling jacket and another one each for
the right and left chamber of the pressure lock. A shut-off valve must be placed in the sup-
ply line. When this valve closes, the system is shut down; this is not the case with a pump.
The resulting gas phase is fed directly into the tank, but is not incorporated into the
liquid at the bottom, as in the pump tank, but into the tank at the top of the gas space. If
gas or phase separators are installed at the gas return of the cooling jacket and the cham-
bers, the lines of the gas returns into the tank can be connected together to the gas space.

Note Each gas recirculation is provided with a shut-off valve. Therefore, a safety valve
must be set after each gas separator, as it cannot be ruled out that the shut-off valve will be
closed. If liquid still remains in one of the chambers of the pressure lock, the gas escapes
through the high pressure outlet valve into the evaporator. This is protected by a safety valve.

Without gas separation, the cooling jacket and the chambers require their own gas
rejections. Care must be taken to ensure that the gas recirculation of the cooling jacket and
the gas recirculation of the chambers do not interfere with each other. Appropriate pipe
routing precludes this. In order to prevent the aforementioned obstruction, it is advanta-
geous to draw a separate pipe into the gas space of the tank for the gas return of the cham-
bers. This must already be taken into account in the tank piping (see Sect. 6.2.2.4).

Summary
The pressure lock of the Liqui-Flow process is delivered to the filling station as a modular
unit and connected to the tank there via the shortest possible pipe connections. Depending
on the equipment, the gas return is designed. The pressure lock has its own cooling circuit.
The installation of a gas separator for each line is advantageous.

5.2.3.3 Energy Requirements of the Liqui-Flow Process

For all processes, the energy costs and the required power to be installed are decisive. If
the energy costs are still manageable, the installation of the required electrical supply line
is often problematic.
The energy required for evaporation and compression also plays a role for a filling sta-
tion with Liqui-Flow (see Sect. 5.2.1). In contrast to other processes, it comes 100% from
the air, free of charge and unlimited. The pressure can be increased as required and the
refuelling time is minimised by a strong mass flow.
Thus, a simple 240 V connection is sufficient to supply the automatic system control.
This supply can also be replaced by a photovoltaic system, supplemented with a battery
storage.
5.3 CNG Filling Stations 85

Summary
The process does not require any external energy to build up the pressure and vaporize the
LNG. This is extracted exclusively from the environment. Only the control system must be
supplied with a voltage source for 240 V.

5.3 CNG Filling Stations

CNG is provided from the gas line or from the LNG tank (Fig. 5.11). Only the compressor
can be used to push gas from the gas pipeline to storage pressure. In the case of an LNG
supply, the gas can also be compressed using the cryogenic pump or the Liqui-Flow pro-
cess. If the compressor is used, the LNG must be regasified beforehand.
The space requirement is a problem that should not be underestimated at many filling
stations. You will hardly find a location where there is space for a powerful compressor
unit (space requirement approx. 100 m2) in addition to the traditional tank facility.

5.3.1 Natural Gas Filling Stations with Compressor

The technical feasibility of gas compression with a compressor has been proven many
times. In every small workshop there is a compressor for the compressed air tools. With
increasing pressure and large delivery volume, such installations become more complex
and therefore rarer. The compressor needs a powerful high-voltage connection. If large
volumes are to be compressed, a powerful gas supply must also be available. If, for exam-
ple, more than 1500 Nm3 of natural gas is to be delivered per hour, these requirements
must be met. This volume could be used to refuel about 10 buses or 20 vans or 50 cars.
This example should illustrate that the limits in terms of infrastructure are quickly reached.
At present, these capacities are common for petrol and diesel at larger filling stations dur-
ing peak times. If a high-performance gas pipeline is lacking for this, it could be compen-
sated for by an LNG supply.
For a filling station, such as in the example given above, the plant engineering effort is
considerable. For 1500 Nm3/h, for example, three compressors with 500 Nm3/h each
would have to be installed. These would have to be housed in a hall with a crane runway
and other technical equipment. The electricity would have to be supplied by means of a
separate transformer station. It is estimated that an area of at least 150 m2 would be
required, including the necessary workshop and social rooms. Investment costs of several
million euros with this technology significantly limit a broad market penetration of CNG.

Summary
The great technical effort, the high investment costs and the mature infrastructure set nar-
row limits to the natural gas filling station with compressor in widespread use.
86 5 LNG Applications

Fig. 5.11 CNG filling station. Base LNG, is stored in the tank and compressed with cryopump.
(Source: Rolande NL)

5.3.2 Natural Gas Filling Station with Cryogenic Pump

A natural gas filling station equipped with a cryogenic pump (see Fig. 5.11) requires an
LNG tank to supply the filling station with gas. The tank, vaporizer and storage tank
require an area of at least 30 m2, depending on the system capacity. The pump capacity
should supply at least 500 l/h, which is equivalent to a volume of about 300 Nm3/h. With
this, the filling station can theoretically deliver more than 6000 Nm3 per day with the
appropriate storage capacity. The running time of the pump, with few short interruptions,
has a positive effect on its service life. Even when the storage tank is empty, two buses can
still be refuelled per hour. Before filling the storage tanks, the gas must be odorized,
because only odorized gas may be dispensed.
A heavy current supply is a prerequisite for the operation of the pump, which should
have a connected load of about 20 KVA. The screw connection, the non-welded connec-
tions and the piston rod of the pump must be monitored with methane sensors. Increasing
the capacity is possible by replacing the pumps and increasing the evaporator area. The
increasing electrical connected load must be checked for feasibility beforehand, as well as
the characteristics of the LNG tank and its storage quantity.
5.3 CNG Filling Stations 87

Summary
The low investment costs and the small space requirement as well as the possibility of
expansion speak for the cryogenic pump. Disadvantages are the maintenance and servic-
ing costs due to the limited pump service life. The prerequisites for the provision of the
necessary electricity as well as for a larger tank must be checked before expanding the
capacity.

5.3.2.1 Process Control of the Cryogenic Pump

The operating behaviour of a cryogenic pump determines the possibilities of process con-
trol. A cryogenic pump cannot be kept cold without significant gas generation. The insula-
tion surrounding the pump head is not designed for this. This means the system must be
run cold again before each startup. Automation of the process would have to be investi-
gated and appears feasible from the present point of view. In any case, all possibilities
should be exhausted to achieve the longest possible pumping cycles. To do this, the pump-
ing capacity must be minimised rather than maximised and the gas forced into suitably
large storage tanks. These do not have to be designed for the maximum pumping capacity,
but should be designed for the daily demand. The storage tanks are connected in groups,
the storage banks.
CNG delivery is always from the accumulators. These are to be emptied in cascade. If
the last accumulator is no longer able to fill the vehicle tank to a final pressure of 200 bar,
the pump must be restarted. The accumulators are filled again.

Summary
The pump must be run cold again after shutdown, manually or automatically. The pump-
ing time should be maximized by reducing the speed. Appropriate accumulators must be
installed for this purpose. Withdrawal is always from the accumulators. The gas must be
odorized.

5.3.3 Natural Gas Filling Stations with Liqui-Flow Process

A Liqui-Flow natural gas filling station (Figs. 5.12 and 5.13) corresponds in almost all
parts to the cryogenic pump natural gas filling station – with filling hose, dispenser, odor-
ization – but unlike the latter has no power connection and very small gas storage tanks.
They are not designed for the daily volume, but serve as buffer tanks and pulsation damp-
ers. The system is designed for the maximum required tapping capacity. The compression
energy is meaningless in terms of supply, as 100% of it is extracted from the environment.
This energy is available in unlimited quantities, so that a minimum buffer capacity is pos-
sible. The system will be able to offer sufficient gas to the vehicle at the moment of demand
(just-in-time) and in the shortest possible time due to the very fast evaporation.
88 5 LNG Applications

LNG tank

Exhaust vent
High pressure air evaporator

CNG – Storage
Pressure lock and
odorization
CNG – fuel pump

Collision protection
(only for free-standing systems)

Fig. 5.12 Principle sketch of an LCNG filling station with the Liqui-Flow process. (Source:
Hoffmann & Hoppestock, Wernigerode)

Fig. 5.13 Pilot plant of a

natural gas filling station using
the Liqui-Flow process,
capacity 2000 Nm3/h at
300 bar – the tank is covered.
(Source: Hoffmann &
Hoppestock GmbH,
Wernigerode)
5.3 CNG Filling Stations 89

A filling station for 2000 Nm3/h at 300 bar has an open space requirement of approx.
20 m2. In comparison, a compressor unit requires a hall with approx. 200 m2 and a power-
ful power supply (approx. 700–800 KVA).
The free-standing Liqui-Flow systems are secured with a collision protection. The pro-
cesses at the filling station can be monitored with cameras. The exhaust gas chimney
makes it possible to draw off any natural gas clouds that may arise without danger. The
safety distances between the dispenser and the gas processing unit must be maintained in
accordance with the regulations (see TRBS 3151).
With the projected dispensing capacity, approx. 10 buses can be refuelled per hour.
However, in order for several buses to be able to receive gas at the same time, several dis-
pensing hoses and a corresponding circuit are required. The capacity of the filling station
makes it possible to supply additional satellite filling stations. This high dispensing capac-
ity and the currentless compression make this additional utilization of the filling station
possible.
The gas line and a power connection are not required, the maintenance and servicing
costs are minimal due to the long service life of the individual components. Gas leaks are
not to be expected due to the compact design, nevertheless NPT screw connections are
controlled with methane sensors. The system runs fully automatically and can be moni-
tored remotely using specially developed software. The “refuelling” workplace, i.e. from
the tanker to the LNG tank at the filling station, is designed as a ONE-man workplace so
that LNG can also be delivered safely outside operating hours.
The pressure lock is used to meter the amount of LNG. LNG is pressed into the vapor-
izer by the piston of the pressure lock and vaporized. Since, apart from the start-up of the
plant, a pressure of over 200 bar prevails in the evaporator, only a small amount of energy
is required to convert the liquid into the supercritical state. This means that the evaporator
surface of the air evaporator can be relatively small. In concrete terms, this means that an
air evaporator for 400 Nm3/h only requires this area if the initial pressure is very low. It is
not worthwhile to install an air evaporator especially for these requirements, one uses a
standard evaporator, which is therefore oversized. This has the advantage that an increase
in capacity is possible simply by increasing the number of load cycles.
Gas flows from the evaporator into the buffer and control accumulators. First, the con-
trol accumulators are always filled to final pressure, so that the control accumulator has
reached the required control pressure to move the piston. The gas produced afterwards is
fed into the vehicle tank. The decisive factor is the yield of gas per liquid volume unit. As
with the cryogenic pump, this is determined by the density of the liquid. If the liquid has
a low equilibrium or boiling pressure, it has a greater density than if it has a high boiling
pressure. The gas yield at low boiling pressure is greater than at high. Furthermore, the
liquid must be degassed. After filling the pressure lock, degassing takes place. For this
purpose, in contrast to the pumping process, the inlet and outlet valves remain open for a
short moment, any gas that may occur can escape through the gas recession. Advantageously,
a triax pipe is installed in the case of longer supply lines, so that the gas is already sepa-
rated from the liquid before the pressure lock and is returned to the gas space of the tank.
90 5 LNG Applications

A condensation of the gas in the liquid of the tank is not possible. This means that the
boiling pressure in the tank is also not raised by this gas. The liquid enters the pressure
lock with the lowest gas content.

Summary
The CNG dispensing capacity can be increased as required by means of modular exten-
sions (e.g. Liqui-Flow, patented). The liquid must be degassed before entry or in the pres-
sure lock. The space requirement is significantly lower than for comparable tank systems,
the power requirement is zero, and the system can be monitored remotely.

5.3.3.1 Process Control of the Liqui-Flow Process

The process control is carried out with specially developed software and pursues the goal
of a fully automatic process sequence. The operator picks up the nozzle to refuel the
vehicle and connects it to the vehicle tank. The refuelling process is controlled fully auto-
matically. Intervention in the software on site is not possible without the appropriate
access authorization and takes place from the central monitoring or on site.
The valves are partly pneumatically, but also electrically controlled. Electrically oper-
ating valves must have the prescribed explosion protection. The processes are not designed
redundantly. In the event of a fault, the safety valves or the quick-acting shut-off valve
(SAA) respond. In such a scenario, the system switches off automatically and can only be
restarted with the appropriate authorisation.
The software is equipped with an interface to the central monitoring software. It con-
tinuously accesses selected data from the sensors. Their evaluation allows the service life
of the respective sensor to be predicted. The process control also monitors valves for their
closing and opening behavior. If the slightest deviations occur, these are signalled and the
occurrence is manually observed. In this way, the software constantly checks the sensors
and valves for reliability and, above all, forecasts their service life. This is to avoid
unscheduled plant shutdowns.

Summary
Process control allows automatic and safe handling of the plant. The control software is
connected to the central remote maintenance. The status of the plant, the sensors and the
fittings is monitored via this.

5.4 Satellite Natural Gas Filling Station

A satellite natural gas filling station (see Sect. 5.4.1) is intended for market development
and for the rapid and short-term supply of a site. It consists of high-pressure cylinder
bundles with 300 bar (gas cylinders firmly connected to each other), which are intercon-
nected to form large groups according to demand and are emptied as required. The groups
can also be used to refuel cars, buses or trucks. Refuelling takes place in the same time as
at the base station (Fig. 5.14).
5.4 Satellite Natural Gas Filling Station 91

Fig. 5.14 300 bar cylinder

bundle. (Source: BBA Müller,
Wittstock)

A satellite refuelling station (basic variant four bundle groups of two bundles each, one
was shown in; Fig. 5.15) can refuel up to 32 to 40 passenger cars in its smallest variant.
The specified range comes from the different residual pressure of the vehicles. After refu-
elling the mentioned number of vehicles, the first bundle group is emptied to about 2–3 bar,
the other three groups are partially emptied.
The refuelling of transports and buses is also possible, but the number of vehicles to be
refuelled then decreases extremely – the refuelling quantity depends on the installed bun-
dles. Should this requirement exist over a longer period of time, the storage capacity must
be increased. This means that more bundles must be available or a supply via gas trailers
must be provided. These are refuelled and emptied according to the same principle as the
satellite station. The principle of cascading emptying is not abandoned in the event of an
increase in size, so that compatibility with the software is maintained. Satellite natural gas
fueling stations are installed on the existing fueling station system and can be seamlessly
integrated into the system. Stations with gas trailers require the largest footprint and will
rarely find space on an existing fueling station. Since these are used to refuel buses and
vans, they are preferably stationed at the respective depot.
92 5 LNG Applications

Fig. 5.15 Schematic representation of the smallest satellite natural gas filling station with four
bundle groups. (Source: Hoffmann & Hoppestock GmbH, Wernigerode)

All systems require electricity to operate the control system, which is taken from the
existing grid or provided by a photovoltaic solution. The gas is already odorized and com-
pressed and flows through pressure equalization into the vehicle storage.
The satellite natural gas filling station consists of a commercial CNG dispenser, the
system control, the remote monitoring system, the data communication and the natural gas
cylinder bundles. The commercial dispenser can be integrated into the billing system of
the existing filling station.
The gas cylinder bundles are connected to each other with pipelines and valves. In the
smallest version, everything can be accommodated in a standard container or a steel frame
construction. The connection between the bundle and the plant is made with quick cou-
plings, a special locking device on the bundle group ensures that the connection with the
plant was made properly when the bundle was exchanged.
The gas withdrawal is cascaded. This means that gas is always taken first from the
bundle group/trailer with the smallest pressure difference to the vehicle tank pressure. If
the pressure balance between the bundle group and the vehicle tank is established, the next
bundle group is switched on, and so on. A central control unit regulates from which bun-
dle/trailer the gas is taken. In order to lower the pressure of the bundle group with the
lowest pressure as far as possible, this is constantly sucked off, so that the pressure sinks
to 2–3 bar. When this pressure is reached, the bundle group/trailer is considered empty and
is automatically reported for exchange. The filling level of the bundles/trailers is displayed
on a central computer and the course of the extraction is observed. Based on these figures,
the next exchange can be forecast.
5.4 Satellite Natural Gas Filling Station 93

Summary
A satellite natural gas filling station is used to develop the market or to supply a location
quickly and at short notice. It supplies customers with low annual offtake by means of
natural gas cylinder bundles (300 bar). The bundle groups are emptied to 2–3 bar. The
alternative is the trailer station.

5.4.1 Filling of Natural Gas Cylinders, Natural Gas Bundles

and Natural Gas Trailers

The cylinders, bundles and trailers for CNG are filled at the base station. For safety rea-
sons and to prevent contamination (ingress of atmospheric moisture), they must be fitted
with residual gas valves (also known as residual pressure valves). These exclude any con-
tamination of the inside of the pressure vessels, especially with air. In the event of operat-
ing errors of a conventional valve, it would be possible for air and thus moisture to be
sucked into the cylinder through a valve that is not fully closed. The only remedy would
be an extensive cleaning process, which is technically very demanding due to compliance
with environmental regulations. Apart from safety, this is the reason for the necessity of
snap-in gas valves.
Bottles, bundles and trailers are filled with a cryopump or via the Liqui-Flow process.
Filling from the gas phase with a compressor requires considerably more energy than with
a cryogenic pump. The Liqui-Flow process is the most energy-efficient, because it takes
the compression energy from the free air available. When filling with a compressor, it must
be assumed that the inside of the bottle will become contaminated by residues from the
compressor. No contamination should be visible after a single filling, but it accumulates
after numerous repetitions.
A distinction is made between manometric and gravimetric filling. In the manometric
method, filling is based on pressure. The standardized filling pressure of 200 bar refers to
15 °C. This means that the cylinder temperature must be taken into account during filling.
If the bottle is warm (summer), the filling pressure must be higher than the nominal bottle
pressure in order to fill it with the assigned mass; if it is cold (winter), it must be lower than
the nominal bottle pressure. A table tells the filler how high the filling pressure should be.
The procedure is relatively imprecise.
In gravimetric filling, the gas is filled by weight. A cylinder, the reference cylinder, is
placed on the scale and the mass of the gas to be filled is calculated on the basis of the
volume entered. Experience has shown that this is done by the filling system computer,
which determines the required mass on the basis of the entered cylinder volume. Once the
mass in the reference cylinder has been reached, the entire group is filled to standard,
regardless of the prevailing temperature. The filling process is controlled by the deter-
mined mass and thus terminated. It does not matter how large the volume to be filled is,
but it is important to know that the greater the difference in volume between the reference
bottle and the unit to be filled, the greater the error can be. Despite all this, this variant is
94 5 LNG Applications

the most reliable, since the temperature at the bottle can only be determined with sufficient
accuracy.
In order for all cylinders to receive the same quantity in a filling with reference cylinder
as a function of their geometric volume, the pressure losses in the supply lines must be
similar. At the end of filling, all bottles have the same pressure and the mass to be assigned
to their geometric volume. The pressure adjusts itself according to the temperature level,
but now no longer plays a role. If filling is carried out too quickly, the temperature and thus
the pressure will rise to an inadmissible level and the system will switch off automatically,
even though the required final weight has not yet been reached in the containers. After a
certain dwell time, during which the bottle cools down and the pressure has dropped to a
permissible value, filling to final weight is possible. A simple increase in the specific fill-
ing speed is achieved by filling several containers (bottles or bundles) at the same time; i.e.
by increasing the filling volume per filling operation. Since the conveyed mass is the same,
but it is divided among several containers, the absolute filling time is extended, but the
specific filling time is reduced.
Both processes have one thing in common: too high filling speeds generate too much
compression heat, so that the permissible filling pressure of 250 bar is reached too quickly.
After temperature equalization, the containers do not have the desired filling quantity. This
phenomenon is particularly extreme with 300 bar containers, as used for the satellite fill-
ing station. Knowing the heat of compression, the cylinder temperature is monitored in the
manometric filling with an applied temperature sensor. If the temperature rises, the filling
speed of the pump is reduced by a speed-controlled motor on some systems. It is hoped
that this procedure will allow faster filling. This has not yet been proven.

Practical Advice
The pressure vessels shall be equipped with residual gas valves or residual pressure valves.
Gravimetric filling of CNG cylinders, bundles or trailers shall be preferred to manometric
filling. Filling from the liquid phase shall be preferred to filling from the gas phase. In the
case of gravimetric filling, the pressure losses in the supply lines shall be compensated by
appropriate cross-sections. In the case of manometric filling, it is not certain whether the
pressure vessel(s) is/are overfilled or underfilled.

5.4.2 Energy Requirements of the Satellite Natural Gas

Fuelling Station

The satellite natural gas filling station releases compressed and odorized gas so that no
energy is required for this process. The extraction of the residual quantity for the complete
emptying of the bundle groups takes place without current by using fluidic effects. Only
the control system requires a 240 V power source. This can be provided by the existing
grid, or a self-sufficient photovoltaic system in combination with a battery storage system
would be conceivable.
5.5 Significance of the Holding Pressure Head in the Liqui-Flow Process… 95

Note A satellite natural gas filling station only requires electrical energy for the system
control.

5.5 Significance of the Holding Pressure Head in the Liqui-Flow

Process and for High-Pressure Piston Pumps

The holding pressure head or NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head) value specifically
describes the suction conditions of a centrifugal pump and is also partly transferred to
piston pumps. For cryogenic pumps, the importance of this value should not be
overestimated.

Note Good inlet conditions (e.g. directly under the tank), a supply line with sufficient
cross-section (approx. 25 mm) and a well-functioning gas return are decisive for the reli-
able function of the piston pump.

In the pump there is liquid in the range around the boiling point. Since boiling liquid
behaves completely differently than liquids far below boiling point – as is also the case for
water, oil, etc. – comparisons with these substances are only of limited value. For the
application of a cryogenic pump, it should be noted that liquid flow and gas reflux can
communicate well. The attention especially to the pressure ratios, i.e. gas pressure and
liquid pressure are crucial.
For the NPSH value calculation of a piston pump, the inlet conditions, the inlet height,
the boiling pressure, the flow velocity in the inlet line and the liquid density must be taken
into account. The pump stands under the tank, penetrating heat leads depending upon
condition of the liquid (undercooled or on the boiling point) to the gas formation, where-
upon the NPSH value is fallen below, a further pumping is hindered and is in the worst
case no longer possible. The line must be degassed.

Note The gas pressure must be higher than the boiling pressure of the liquid. The greater
the pressure difference, the more reliable the pumping with the cryogenic pump. Another
determining factor is the spring characteristic of the pump inlet valve (see Sect. 5.2.2.4).

In the Liqui-Flow process, the liquid is not sucked into the pump chamber, but runs in
without any further action due to the geodetic pressure. Liquid inflow and gas return com-
municate, with the chamber of the pressure lock to be filled in between. Before the valves
close, there is no flow and thus the NPSH value is irrelevant for the Liqui-Flow process. In
contrast, the pump sucks in, which means there is negative pressure.

Summary
The NPSH value, oriented to the centrifugal pump, is overrated for cryogenic pumps (=
piston pump), in the Liqui-Flow process it is meaningless. The decisive factors are gener-
ally the inlet conditions (inlet height and pipe cross-section), the gas content in the liquid
and its density.
96 5 LNG Applications

References

1. Recknagel-Sprenger, Taschenbuch der Heizung und Klimatechnik, R. Oldenbourg München

Wien 1972, S. 192 + 1182
2. www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/DE/Artikel/Energie/gas-­erdgasversorgung-­in-­deutschland.html
3. www.bdew.de/media/documents/Nettostromerz_D_Vgl_VJ_o_online_jaehrlich_
Ki_18062019.pdf
4. Fraunhofer Gesellschaft – www.ise.Fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/
studies/daten-­zu-­erneuerbaren-­energien/Stromerzeugung_2017.pdf
5. www.bundestag.de/resource/blob/496062/759f6162c9fb845aa0ba7d51ce1264f1/wd-­8-­083-­16-­
pdf-­data.pdf
6. http://www.ringwallspeicher.de/
7. www.wildpoldsried.de/se_data/_filebank/alte_ pdfbank/LKRenergie14.pdf
The Thermodynamic Consideration
of the Vacuum Insulated Cryogenic Tank 6

Abstract

The thermodynamic processes in the tank are described, the tank designs are explained
and the requirements for the LNG tank are dealt with in particular. A tabular overview
summarizes the following explanations.

Overview of operations see Table 6.1

6.1 General Information on the Thermodynamic Function

of a Tank

A summary overview of the conditions in the vacuum-insulated tank is given in Table 6.1.
The natural heat input through the vacuum insulation is not explicitly shown in the table,
since this is always present and results in an unavoidable pressure increase.
The liquid gas is stored in a vacuum-insulated cryogenic tank, usually with a permis-
sible operating pressure of 18 bar. Such tanks are offered with permissible operating pres-
sures up to 38 bar. Versions with other pressures are possible on customer request. The
maximum possible pressure is the critical pressure of the medium.
Regardless of the insulation method, heat penetrates through the vacuum insulation,
there is no absolute insulation. The LNG always absorbs heat. A flow is established in the
tank. It can be assumed that the heated liquid rises up the wall and forms a warm layer on
the surface. It cools down due to the onset of evaporation (adiabatic process) and sinks
down in the middle area. Thermodynamic equilibrium prevails in this area. The liquid is
colder and also heavier in the lower area of the tank. The geodetic height of the liquid

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 97

GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2024
W. Hermeling, Compendium for the LNG and CNG Practitioner,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38258-2_6
Table 6.1 Thermodynamic states of the vacuum-insulated tank
Energy Temperature Print Density Volume Display on
State differential
thermo­ Liquid Gas Liquid Liquid pressure
Feed Retrieved Process dynamic phase phase Liquid phase Gas phase phase Gas phase phase Gas phase gauge
No No Equilibrium Evenly rising with Uniformly rising Decreasing Increasingly Decreasing, Increasingly No level
extraction withdrawal is delayed boiling line Isobar = boiling line due to around change
Tank 100% evaporating decreasing
full liquid fluid
Added No Refuelling Equilibrium Condition on boiling To isobaric decreasing Boiling line Boiling line Increasingly Decreasing Level rises
mass extraction from above at upper line adjusts itself according to the supplied by increasing
Mixing refuelling during refuelling mass liquid
consdensation
Added No Refueling Subcooled Sinking Sinking Rising, to Rising Increasingly Increasingly Increasingly Decreasing Level rises
mass extraction from below liquid when supercooled by increasing
refueling liquid liquid
from below
Evaporator No Refuelling No Rising to >Boiling Setting pressure SV or Decreasing Increasingly Constant Increasingly No level
of the extraction 100% no equilibrium boiling temp. process relief valve around change
overfill withdrawal, point evaporating
protection expansion of
the liquid,
pressure
build-up in
the gas space
Liquid
Energy Temperature Print Density Volume Display on
State differential
thermo­ Liquid Gas Liquid Liquid pressure
Feed Retrieved Process dynamic phase phase Liquid phase Gas phase phase Gas phase phase Gas phase gauge
Gas Gas Equilibrium Falling Falling Falling Falling Increasingly Falling Decreasing Increasingly Level
sampling extraction is maintained drops
low Liquid
absorbs
evaporation
energy
Gas Gas Equilibrium Falling Falling Falling Falling Increasingly Falling Decreasing Increasingly Level
extraction extraction is not drops
strong/heavy maintained
Liquid cannot
absorb
necessary
evaporation
energy
Pressure Gas Gas Pressure Falling Falling Falling Falling Increasingly Falling Decreasing Increasingly Level
booster extraction extraction according to drops
evaporator strong/heavy the regulator
of the tank on the
additional
evaporator
No pressure
reduction on
withdrawal

(continued)
Table 6.1 (continued)
Energy Temperature Print Density Volume Display on
State differential
thermo­ Liquid Gas Liquid Liquid pressure
Feed Retrieved Process dynamic phase phase Liquid phase Gas phase phase Gas phase phase Gas phase gauge
Pressure Liquid Liquid Subcooled Boiling >Boiling Boiling >Boiling Increasingly Increasingly Decreasing Increasingly Level
booster extraction withdrawal liquid no temp. temp. pressure pressure drops
evaporator (pumps, equilibrium
of the tank liquid supply,
liquid flow
process)
Pressure Liquid Liquid No No >Boiling Regulator Regulator Constant Constant Decreasing increasingly Level
booster extraction withdrawal equilibrium temperature temp. pressure pressure drops
evaporator (pumps, change
of the tank liquid supply,
liquid flow
process)
Pressure No No No Boiling >Boiling Rising Falling Increasingly Decreasing Increasingly No level
booster extraction extraction equilibrium-­ temperature temp. change
evaporator sets when slowly
of the tank boiling increasing
pressure has
reached the
set pressure
of the
regulator
6.1 General Information on the Thermodynamic Function of a Tank 101

column always creates a higher pressure at the bottom of the tank. At the surface, the geo-
detic pressure of the liquid is zero. Therefore, the vapor rises directly from the uppermost
layers. This is called vapor because the gas phase is on the vapor line.
The gas pressure of the tank increases and the total energy balance of the tank contents
increases by the heat that has penetrated from outside. The higher gas pressure of the tank,
which corresponds to the equilibrium pressure, also results in a higher boiling tempera-
ture. It would be wrong to assume that the evaporating liquid could lower the energy level
in the tank: If there is no withdrawal, the energy level rises, expressed by the tank pressure.
The liquid product flows to the consumer through the geodetic pressure at the bottom
of the tank (liquid withdrawal). The liquid withdrawal lowers the liquid level and would
result in a pressure drop. The expected pressure drop is compensated in thermodynamic
equilibrium by the onset of evaporation in the gas space (adiabatic cooling). The system
remains approximately in equilibrium.
If the permissible pressure of the tank is reached, cooling must be adiabatic or by mixed
condensation. Adiabatic cooling is carried out by draining the gas phase. In the case of
methane, the fulfilment of various prerequisites is required. For ecological and safety rea-
sons, it is not possible to simply blow off into the flue gas stack. Only combustion would
be an option. Whether this is possible depends on the location. In the case of a gas supply
plant, it is necessary to switch from liquid extraction to gas extraction. The gas is supplied
to the consumer until the pressure and thus the temperature of the liquid are again in the
desired range. For liquid withdrawal, such as at a natural gas filling station, the pressure
reduction is more complicated, regardless of whether a pump or the Liqui-Flow method is
used. Without connected combustion (caloric or catalytic), the release of the gas is not
possible. The pressure reduction via the process relief valve or the safety valve are not
affected by this.
The pressure can only be reduced by refilling by means of mixed condensation. This
means that the tank must be emptied accordingly. If this is not the case, mistakes were
made during planning or the acceptance profile has changed significantly. Close observa-
tion of the tank pressure is important. From the course of the tank pressure, the cycles of
filling the tank can be derived.
If gas development occurs in the supply line to the pump or the pressure lock, the gas
rises in the supply line against the flow and in the gas return with the flow. Part of the gas
reaches the gas space, the other part is condensed in the liquid of the tank. The gas reach-
ing the gas space increases the pressure there. The pipe thus takes over a partial task of the
pressure booster evaporator. The gas condensed in the liquid increases its energy level, the
equilibrium pressure increases. To avoid this, it is better to discharge the vapor from the
feed line directly into the gas space of the tank with a triax line. In this case, the product
remains colder and the density greater. Only the gas pressure in the tank increases and
leaves the thermodynamic equilibrium.
The removal of boiling liquid is only possible to a limited extent for the subsequent
process, regardless of whether with cryopump or in the Liqui-Flow process. If the equilib-
rium would be disturbed by an additional pressure build-up in the gas space (opening of
102 6 The Thermodynamic Consideration of the Vacuum Insulated Cryogenic Tank

the pressure booster evaporator), the boiling liquid becomes supercooled, which cannot
form a gas phase and, especially in the pumping process, improves the degree of delivery
of the pump as well as the Liqui-Flow process. The effect of additional pressure in the use
of a cryogenic pump is explained in Sect. 5.2.2 ff.

Summary
Without withdrawal, the tank pressure increases. The tank pressure can only be reduced by
withdrawal. The most effective way to reduce it is by withdrawing gas. If liquid is with-
drawn, a very large volume must be drained to reduce the pressure. The amount depends
on the total volume of the tank. Gas generation in the supply line must be avoided by
appropriate insulation. If the gas flows through the liquid into the tank, the thermodynamic
equilibrium increases; if the gas is fed directly into the gas space, the tank pressure
increases.

6.1.1 The Thermodynamic Function of the Pump Tank

A natural gas filling station that operates with a piston pump is ideally equipped with a
pump tank (i.e. with a thermosiphon). The pump inlet is connected to the liquid phase of
the tank, and the gas return line is connected to the gas return above it. The gas coming
from the pump rises through the liquid into the gas space of the tank and partly condenses.
The pump is thus always under liquid (see Sect. 5.2.2.5).
If the Liqui-Flow method is used, the gas return of the pump tank must end in the gas
space and should not be led through the liquid but in the double jacket of the tank. For this
purpose, the gas withdrawal line is suitable for tanks that have not been explicitly built
for LNG.
If such a line is not available, a vacuum-insulated line must be laid horizontally outside
the tank. It corresponds to the overfill protection. Both lines end above the permissible fill
level of the tank. Above this level, they are brought together and led back down as a paral-
lel line. There it is connected to the gas withdrawal line. A vacuum-insulated double pipe
in which the liquid rises on the inside and the gas flows back to the gas sampling line on
the outside (see Fig. 6.1) is also possible.

Note During operation, LNG is in the line. For this reason, the gas return of the tank
should always be isolated. Otherwise an uncontrolled gas pressure increase would be
caused in the tank.

On existing tanks, the connection to the gas extraction should be made outside the per-
formance limits of the tank manufacturer’s approval. For this reason, it must be placed
before the gas withdrawal valve. The original valve must be blocked in the open position.
Another valve shall be set instead to close the gas return. This will not interfere with the
6.1 General Information on the Thermodynamic Function of a Tank 103

Gas Gas
Max. filling level
Max. filling level
LNG sprayed
LNG sprayed

Liquid phase
Liquid phase
Both lines vacuum insulated
gas phase Gasphase

Vacuum insulation

Gas extraction Gas extraction

Filling line
Filling line
Blocked Blocked

Fig. 6.1 Connection of the overfill protection to the gas sampling line – single pipe (left), double
pipe (right)

Gas

Vacuum insulated triax pipe for liquid flow

High pressure connection to the air evaporator
Vacuum insulated gas return

Barrel extension
Thermosiphon
Cryopump head Gear motor

Fig. 6.2 Connecting the cryopump to the tank for greater clearance and improving the geodetic
pressure by means of a foot extension for the tank

approved range of the tank. In the other case, a modification to the tank would have to be
reported and approval obtained.
If the distance between the tank and the pressure lock or pump is too great (more than
1.5 m), it is recommended that a triax line be laid in the pump inlet (Fig. 6.2). The gas
return of the triax line of the pump like the pressure lock must be connected to a separate
gas return.
104 6 The Thermodynamic Consideration of the Vacuum Insulated Cryogenic Tank

Fig. 6.3 Gas separator with

level gauge

The gas return of the pressure lock must be routed separately from that of the triax line
over the maximum possible fill level of the tank. This is not necessary for the cryogenic
pump. If the gas return is equipped with a gas separator or other separation of liquid and
gas phases (see Fig. 6.3), the vacuum insulation for the gas section of the gas return can be
omitted. If the gas returns from the pressure lock and the triax line were combined without
a gas separator, liquid would be in the gas return line. The returns would interfere with
each other. Only if a free gas return is ensured can the communicating tubes form in the
required manner.
The pump head of the cryogenic pump or the chambers of the pressure lock always
carry heat into the liquid. Heat reduces the density of the liquid. The difference in density
forces the hydraulic pressure gradient. Circulation from the tank to the pump head or pres-
sure lock occurs and the system is continuously supplied with liquid phase. The vapour
produced is discharged through the liquid into the gas space of the tank (Fig. 6.4).

Summary
The pump tank, completed with a thermosiphon, is to be given preference in the equip-
ment of CNG filling stations. In the Liqui-Flow process, unlike the familiar pump tank, the
6.1 General Information on the Thermodynamic Function of a Tank 105

Gas is compressed

Gas

High pressure connection to the air evaporator

Vacuum insulated gas return

Cryopump head Gear motor

Thermosiphon Vacuum insulated Liquid feed

Fig. 6.4 Pump tank with connected cryogenic pump

gas return must end in the gas space. The gas return of the triax line should be led sepa-
rately into the gas space. The gas phase should be separated from the liquid phase by gas
separators or phase separators. This saves insulation effort.

6.1.2 The Thermodynamic Function of the Refrigeration Tank

The refrigeration tank is designed to supply liquid to the consumer. In the refrigeration
tank the liquid is drawn off at the bottom and led to the consumer in an insulated pipe (in
the case of the cold gasifier it is different). The connection of the pipeline must always be
completed with a vacuum connection. This can also be used to connect a piston pump or a
Liqui-Flow system, assuming an appropriately large pipe cross-section. If the tank pres-
sure is to be kept within certain limits, it is inevitable to insulate this line accordingly, just
like the liquid inlet.
106 6 The Thermodynamic Consideration of the Vacuum Insulated Cryogenic Tank

Note It should be noted that a refrigeration tank does not have a vapour recovery line and
therefore the vapour phase must be connected to the vapour withdrawal line (see Sect.
6.1.1). There is liquid in the vapour recovery line after the start-up process.

Newer tanks are piped as a cold tank and as a cold gasifier. The additional expense is
minimal, but the possible applications expand considerably. The insulation effort can also
be reduced by placing a gas separator directly behind the consumer, i.e. the cryogenic
pump or the ­pressure lock (cf. Fig. 6.3). The gas phase escapes into the gas space, the
liquid phase is retained.

Note The gas sampling line often has a very small cross-section. This is less advanta-
geous as the gas cannot be drawn off quickly enough and hinders the liquid from running on.

Practical Advice
The use of the refrigeration tank is also suitable for supplying the cryogenic pump or the
pressure lock. The gas phase should be discharged via a gas return with the largest possible
cross-section. With a gas separator in the respective pipe section, the insulation effort is
reduced.

6.1.3 The Thermodynamic Function of the Cold Gasifier

The use of a cold gasifier is only considered for the CHP circuit. In the cold gasifier, the
gas is extracted from the gaseous phase or the liquid phase, depending on the tank pres-
sure. The extraction line dips into the liquid from above and runs downwards in the double
jacket. There it exits the tank. This is the connection for the air evaporator. The liquid is
pressed further into the evaporator with the differential pressure between the tank and the
tapping point. If necessary, the tank pressure is built up with the pressure booster evapora-
tor and adjusted at the pressure regulator. A gas engine or turbine is supplied from the
evaporator. When the withdrawal is finished, a rising gas cushion forms in the upper bend
of the withdrawal line. The further supply is interrupted. No further product flows in and
the tank pressure is not affected by the subsequent infrastructure. When the system is
restarted, the tank pressure difference between the tank and the consumer again forces
liquid into the tapping line and the gas cushion is displaced in the direction of the consumer.

Note The use of such a tank is incorrect for systems with pump or Liqui-Flow process.

Practical Advice
A cold gasifier is best suited for supplying CHP plants, but it is unsuitable for plants with
a pump or Liqui-Flow plants.
6.2 The Design Description of the Vacuum Insulated Tank 107

6.2 The Design Description of the Vacuum Insulated Tank

6.2.1 General

All vacuum insulated tanks consist of an inner and an outer tank. The inner tank is made
of austenitic steel, the alloy of which is specially designed for cryogenic stress. It is used
to store the cryogenic liquefied LNG. The outer tank is made of plain black mild steel. The
outer tank is given a coat of paint, which on the one hand serves as corrosion protection
and on the other hand has an optical component and is executed according to the custom-
er’s wishes.
The inner tank, a pressure vessel, is supported by the outer, pressureless vessel. Inner
and outer tank are thermally decoupled. Depending on the manufacturer, there are differ-
ent variants of fixation and thermal decoupling of the inner tank. In the interspace of the
double jacket the vacuum is built up by means of vacuum pumps. For the purpose of
evacuation, the tank is heated, i.e. baked, in order to dissolve any residual moisture from
the surfaces and drive it out of the insulating material. This process is completed when the
vacuum remains stable for a longer period of time with the pump switched off. This pro-
cess takes several days and depends, among other things, on the tank size and the selected
insulation method.
Two different methods are used for the actual vacuum insulation. Traditionally, the
evacuated interstitial space was filled with perlite and then a vacuum was created by pump-
ing. Perlite is slowly filled into the interstitial space while being vibrated and lies there as
loose fill. It encloses all internals without gaps, is a poor conductor of heat and binds any
water molecules that may be present. The exact technology of thermal separation and
vacuum drawing is the secret of every manufacturer. Recently, vacuum super insulation
(VSI; or also called MLI – Multilayer Insulation) has become increasingly popular (see:
[1]). In this process, which originates from space technology, a very thin, reflective film is
wrapped in several layers with a spacer, a profiled plastic film around the container and the
internals and then evacuated.
The foils (aluminium or plastic vapourised with aluminium) have a reflective effect and
interrupt the radiant heat. The spacers reduce heat conduction and convection.
Piping of the tank is generally carried out in this double jacket. The pipes are attached
to the inner tank. The feedthrough from the inner to the outer tank presents a particular
design challenge. The temperature difference of the warm to the cold full tank results in
length changes of the exiting pipes. The tubes are connected to the outer vessel and must
be routed to the outside. This transition from the inside to the outside is critical because the
pipes shrink during the filling of the container. The changes in length are compensated for
with bends.
The outer tank takes on the temperature of the environment, so that there are fluctuating
temperature differences between the inner and outer tanks. The temperature changes occur
not only in the cold running process, but also due to the changing boiling temperature of
108 6 The Thermodynamic Consideration of the Vacuum Insulated Cryogenic Tank

the LNG. For example, LNG has a temperature of −146 °C at 3 bar, and a temperature of
−114 °C at 15 bar. The stresses caused by temperature changes are also compensated for
by expansion bends. The weld seams of the pipe penetrations (risk of capillary cracks) are
thus relieved.
The gas or liquid product delivery is controlled by the gas pressure of the tank. The gas
presses on the liquid so that a pressure difference to the tapping point is established. If the
gas pressure is too low, it is increased by evaporation in the pressure booster. The desired
pressure at the tapping point is set with the pressure regulator on the pressure booster
evaporator. The gas flows into the pressure booster evaporator due to the geodetic pres-
sure. Consequently, a pressure booster evaporator must always be located at the bottom of
the tank.
There are applications for which the evaporator capacity of the installed pressure
booster is not sufficient. This circumstance is detected by a lack of gas pressure during
withdrawal. To support the existing evaporator, an additional evaporator can be connected
to the liquid withdrawal point. This is also connected to the gas space of the tank. By addi-
tional evaporation the desired pressure is reached and guaranteed with another gas pres-
sure regulator.
It must be decided which evaporator should open at which pressure. Setting both to the
same final pressure is impractical. They are set to different pressures, e.g. 10 bar and 9.5
bar. The desired pressure is 10 bar. Open both regulators. The pressure of 9.5 bar is reached,
the regulator remains open during tapping. The 10 bar regulator is open and reaches 10
bar. The withdrawal fluctuates, so that the 10 bar regulator closes and opens first.

Note If it is found that the pressure cannot be maintained at 10 bar despite withdrawal,
the pressure regulators or the evaporators or both are designed too small.

If the tank pressure is too high, either gas or liquid must be vented, or the tank pressure
is lowered by refilling through the mixing condensation already described (see Sect. 2.2).
If gas is discharged, adiabatic cooling occurs (see Sect. 2.1). If liquid is removed, the
tank pressure decreases by the now increased gas volume. This causes the gas pressure to
drop to equilibrium pressure. Evaporation starts as in the case of gas withdrawal. The liq-
uid enters into thermodynamic equilibrium with the gas. Since, as a rule, no liquid can be
discharged, this variant is of secondary importance. In almost all cases, the gas pressure is
lowered during the next refuelling by withdrawal, a simple and economical variant.
Natural gas must not be blown into the air. This is dangerous and harmful to the envi-
ronment. This is why the overfill protection system (see Sect. 9.5) was developed. These
pipes should be laid in the space between the tanks in new buildings; older tanks can be
retrofitted. In both cases, the evaporator should be positioned at the side at the bottom of
the tank (see Sect. 9.5 ff.).
The tank stands on feet with which it is fixed to the ground at the installation site. All
forces acting on the tank (weight, wind and snow load) are diverted via these feet. They
must therefore be anchored to the ground accordingly. A static calculation is required.
6.2 The Design Description of the Vacuum Insulated Tank 109

Vacuum breakage is a very common but often unnoticed fault. This means that the
insulation is damaged. A vacuum rupture can be recognized by an impermissibly rapid
increase in pressure and possibly also by misting in the area of the damage with frost or
condensing water. The tank can still be used as a container, but it must be noted that the
storage time of the product is shortened. It is essential to avoid reaching the permissible
pressure and blowing off the safety valve.
The cause of a vacuum fracture is usually capillary cracks at the weld seams. Often, the
exact location of the defect is not identifiable, so that repairs can hardly be carried out in
an economically viable manner.
Each tank is equipped with a fuelling nozzle and a level gauge (differential pressure
gauge). The gas type-specific fuelling nozzle with safety shut-off valve (MG97) is com-
pleted by a shut-off valve – this also applies to dead space-free couplings. Valves are used
to control the process. Manual valves are usually installed, only the liquid withdrawal
valve, which supplies the pressure lock, the pump or the evaporator, is then designed as a
pneumatic version for automatic operation control. The dip tube installed on tanks for air
gases must not be installed on the LNG tank or, if present, it must be blocked. This dip
tube is used to check the fill level by diverting gas to the outside until the liquid begins to
escape. This is not permitted with LNG. Instead, the tank must have an overfill protection
system that performs this task more safely and without any impact on the environment.

Note Unlike tanks for air gases, an LNG tank should not have a dip tube. The function of
the dip tube is taken over by the overfill protection.

The safety valve is designed as a safety interchangeable combination (see Sect. 9.1 ff.)
and is provided with a lead seal. If the seal is missing or damaged, the tank must be taken
out of service. In addition, each tank has a gas and a liquid discharge line through which
the tank can be emptied if necessary. According to the regulations, each tank must bear a
nameplate (manufacturer, year of manufacture, permissible operating pressure, type of
construction, etc.) and product-­specific labeling. An RI diagram showing which valve has
which task must always be clearly visible and firmly attached. In addition to the labeling
(liquid withdrawal, etc.), the valves must be marked with numbers that can be found on the
RI scheme. Reference must be made to the product (LNG) and the health and safety to be
observed (including no smoking), and the emergency plan (first aid, doctor, etc.) must be
clearly and visibly displayed. All notices must be firmly attached to the tank.

Summary
The vacuum of a vacuum insulated tank is created between the inner and outer tank, the
double jacket, using various processes. The piping is guided in this double jacket. The tank
pressure is built up by a pressure booster evaporator and lowered by gas withdrawal or
refilling. Liquid withdrawal lowers the pressure only in the order of magnitude of the
increasing gas volume, or the decreasing filling level, and is therefore not very suitable for
pressure reduction. For LNG an overfill protection is always required, the function of the
110 6 The Thermodynamic Consideration of the Vacuum Insulated Cryogenic Tank

dip tube is taken over by the overfill protection. Each tank has a safety valve change fitting.
The labelling has to be done according to the regulations.

6.2.2 Tank Designs

Another distinguishing feature is the pressure level. In the past, tanks were built with 6 or
8 bar, but today we know the pressures 18 bar, 22 bar, 38 bar and others according to cus-
tomer requirements. The design of the installation can be horizontal or vertical.

6.2.2.1 Pump Tank

The piping of a pump tank is largely the same as that of the refrigeration tank. In addition,
a pump tank has an extension at the bottom of the tank. The liquid supply and the gas
return are routed in this extension. Both end in the tank just above the bottom, the gas
return with a gooseneck slightly above the liquid supply. Since the pipes end just above the
bottom, total draining is not possible. This has the advantage that when the tank is emp-
tied, it still has a residual amount for adiabatic cooling of the tank. The pipelines leave the
tank through this extension via a pipeline designed as a siphon. The extension at the bot-
tom of the tank is integrated into the vacuum insulation of the tank (see Sect. 5.2.2.5).
When the pump is started, the gas return is opened – the inlet should always remain
open – liquid flows to the pump. It initially absorbs the heat of the pump material and
returns to the tank as gas. When the pump is cold, the gas content is reduced to a minimum
and the pump can deliver. A temperature sensor detects the temperature and enables the
pump to start. If the pump is switched off, the gas return is closed, the resulting gas presses
into the inlet and prevents further flow of the liquid as a gas cushion. The pipe connections
to the pump are kept as short as possible and are vacuum insulated.
With the piping mentioned at the beginning, the pump is kept cold. Liquid is kept in the
pump even during short interruptions, so that it pumps again immediately after starting.
The process is similar in the Liqui-Flow process. The pressure lock, which replaces the
pump, is kept permanently cold with a cooling jacket. If the plant is shut down for a longer
period of time, the gas recirculation is closed. Analogous to the pump, a gas cushion is
formed, which prevents the liquid from running on. When the process starts, the valves of
the pressure lock are opened. The cooling liquid flows into the chambers. After it has
evaporated, liquid stands in the chamber and the gas recedes. Unlike the pump, this line
must end in the gas space of the tank (see Sect. 6.2.2.4).

Note For the pump tank it should be noted that for pumping there is no thermodynamic
equilibrium, the gas pressure in the pump must be above the boiling pressure. This is also
advantageous for the pressure lock.
6.2 The Design Description of the Vacuum Insulated Tank 111

Summary
The pump tank can be identified by the thermosiphon circuit. Flow and return have a
siphon. For the Liqui-Flow process, the gas return must be led into the gas space of
the tank.

6.2.2.2 Refrigeration Tank

This type of tank plays a minor role for LNG, as the requirements of LNG are better met
by the pump tank.
Generally, this type of tank is used to continuously dispense liquid for cold supply,
therefore it is called a refrigeration tank. Such tanks do not have a downstream evaporator
and are installed for cold grinding of plastic, inoculation of beverage cans, shock freezing
or other cooling processes for temperatures far below −70 °C. The liquid flow must be
continuously available. The main feature is that liquid can be drawn directly from the bot-
tom of the tank. The flow rate is controlled by the gas pressure of the tank.
At the outlet it is advantageous if a vacuum connection is fitted for the continuing
vacuum-insulated pipeline. This minimizes the heat transfer from the tank to the pipeline.
In order to use these tanks more universally, the cold gasifier piping is usually also
installed.

Summary
The refrigeration tank discharges liquid product at the bottom of the tank and can be used
for pumping processes and Liqui-Flow processes under certain conditions. The pressure of
the liquid is built up by the gas pressure. For universal use, the piping of the cold gasifier
is additionally installed.

6.2.2.3 Cold Gasifier

A cold gasifier is the oxygen tank in a hospital, the argon tank in a welding plant, the
nitrogen tank for inerting in a food manufacturer, the natural gas tank in a CHP or the tank
of a simple gas heating system. These tanks are used to supply gas and have an extraction
line that leads into the air vaporizer where the liquid gas is vaporized and heated, i.e., the
vapor is superheated. The liquid is forced into the line to the air evaporator by the gas pres-
sure of the tank and is withdrawn at the air evaporator outlet as a gas phase from the con-
nected pipeline via a pressure regulating valve (see Sect. 8.2).
The special feature of these tanks is that the liquid withdrawal line in the tank has an
ascending and a descending line. At the top, both lines are connected with a bend so that
they resemble a hairpin in their geometry. In the upper bend is a connection to the gas
space. The liquid supply can be abruptly interrupted via this connection. Continuous liquid
withdrawal is not possible in this way, as the liquid flow stops immediately whenever there
is a backflow of gas in the line (rising gas bubbles due to heat supply).
112 6 The Thermodynamic Consideration of the Vacuum Insulated Cryogenic Tank

Practical Advice
The cold gasifier is designed to deliver gas and is ideally suited for natural gas heat sup-
plies or CHP plants. A continuous liquid withdrawal is not ensured due to the design.

6.2.2.4 Special Requirements for an LNG Tank

Today, tanks are still used for LNG that actually only meet the requirements for air gases.
A tank filled with air gases can be emptied into the environment if it is overfilled, i.e.
drained to the permissible level. This is prohibited for LNG.
A tank for LNG must meet the following conditions:

(a) The tank shall have an overfill prevention device as specified in Sect. 9.5.
Justification: The tank cannot be overfilled because a gas pressure forms beforehand,
which shuts off further supply. Valve MG97 (SAA) is closed, refuelling is aborted.
(b) The overfill protection must take over the task of the sounding pipes.
Substantiation: The 100% level is confirmed for air gases with dip tubes. For this
purpose, the tank must be vented to the atmosphere during refuelling. This is prohib-
ited for LNG. In the case of the theoretically possible overfilling in an LNG tank, the
product runs into the air evaporator of the overfill protection (not part of the regula-
tions) and creates a sudden pressure increase there by evaporation, which leads to the
closing of the safety shut-off valve (SAA).
(c) The overfill protection allows the tank to be filled to 100%.
Justification: If the tank is 100% full, the liquid takes up 95% of the geometric vol-
ume. At this level, the filling process is automatically stopped. If LNG or gas is not
withdrawn in the short term, the liquid expands due to incoming heat. If the expan-
sion, i.e. the decrease in liquid density, is so great that the overflow is reached, LNG
runs into the evaporator of the overfill protection. The gas pressure in the gas compart-
ment of the tank increases and when the blowdown pressure of the process relief valve
or the safety relief valve is reached, it blows off. The liquid can never reach the con-
nection of the measuring lines or the safety valve.
(d) For the Liqui-Flow process, the tank must be equipped with a thermosiphon, which
should have an additional connection for the cooling jacket, i.e. a liquid flow spread
over two lines (chambers of the pressure lock and cooling jacket) and two independent
gas returns.
Reason: During start-up of the system, LNG cannot be vented to the atmosphere.
Unhindered circulation must be possible for the chambers of the pressure lock. With
process start-up, the pressure lock is cooled with the cooling jacket. Only when this is
under liquid, the chambers are opened, the liquid must evaporate and then be able to
rise unhindered. If there is liquid in the gas recirculation, this impedes the circulation,
therefore the gas recirculation must end in the gas space, or a free gas outlet must be
possible through a gas separator. From the gas separator, both gas returns can be led
together into the gas space.
6.2 The Design Description of the Vacuum Insulated Tank 113

(e) For reasons of plant safety, the tank must be equipped with a dead space-free coupling,
which is not yet part of the regulations. This is installed upstream of the SAA. The line
between the SAA and the coupling must be pressure-secured. For this purpose, a
safety valve must be installed or a relief line drawn into the gas space. The same
applies to the section between the respective valve for upper or lower filling.
Reason: Air must certainly not be allowed to enter the system. This can only be guar-
anteed with a dead space free coupling. According to the regulations, the sections that
can be shut off must be protected in terms of pressure, either with a safety valve or
with a relief line into the gas space.

Summary
An optimal LNG tank for a filling station must have an overflow protection in connection
with a safety shut-off valve (SAA), the gas return must end in the gas space, it must be
equipped with a dead space free coupling. The sounding pipe, if present, must not be used,
must be blocked or not installed at all.

6.2.3 Significance of the Tank Pressure

The pressure measured at the bottom of the tank reflects the total pressure. It is made up
of the gas pressure above the liquid and the liquid pressure. The highest pressure is directly
at the bottom of the tank. There, the liquid is subcooled, while it may be boiling at the
surface.
The liquid pressure depends on the density and the filling level in the tank. The density
is temperature-dependent and assumes the boiling temperature in the state of thermody-
namic equilibrium.
The gas pressure in the gas space of the tank is part of the thermodynamic equilibrium.
This pressure is increased by the pressure booster evaporator. Then the thermodynamic
equilibrium is left. The liquid temperature is still equal to the temperature during thermo-
dynamic equilibrium. It can be changed, i.e. lowered, by adiabatic cooling or by adding
cold product (refuelling from below). The pressure generated by the pressure additive
evaporator no longer corresponds to the thermodynamic equilibrium. A subcooled liquid
is produced not only at the bottom but in the entire tank.
The total static pressure is outside the tank, at the inlet to the pump or the pressure lock.
By raising the tank (foot extension), the static liquid pressure can be increased to the pump
or the pressure lock with regard to the inlet conditions.

Note Often the pumping process is improved by increasing the total static pressure by
selecting an elevated tank location.

One builds the foot extension under the tank (see Fig. 5.8). This is correct, although
theoretically the effect could also be achieved by increasing the gas pressure. However,
114 6 The Thermodynamic Consideration of the Vacuum Insulated Cryogenic Tank

with this variant it is difficult to set the correct pressure increase at the pressure booster
evaporator. For cryogenic pumps there is the danger that the pressure becomes too high
and therefore the suction valve of the pump does not close correctly or with a delay. The
pump efficiency then decreases, but the problem can also lead to a standstill of the pump-
ing process. This problem can be avoided by a foot extension. The foot extension increases
the geodetic pressure at the pump inlet and is only effective until it is used up by the with-
drawal. This critical level fluctuates, because it is in turn dependent on the density and the
boiling pressure.
The situation is different for the Liqui-Flow process: increasing the pressure by means
of gas pressure is always advantageous. Of course, the gas pressure cannot be increased
indefinitely, because as soon as the permissible operating pressure would be reached, the
process relief valve or the safety valve must respond. If the heat supply is already so great
that the pressure increase in the tank has reached the permissible operating pressure, it is
no longer possible to increase the pressure by means of the pressure booster evaporator.
This is the cause of a fault. Either the tank is

• misinterpreted,
• or the tank has a vacuum rupture
• or the tank had an unscheduled long standstill phase, which means that there was no
withdrawal.

The fault can only be rectified by draining the gas phase. Adiabatic cooling occurs in the
tank. The pressure drops.
The gas pressure and the liquid temperature indicate whether the tank is in thermody-
namic equilibrium. If this is the case, the pumping of liquid by means of a pump is only
possible to a very limited extent. During the suction process of the pump, the boiling liquid
would evaporate abruptly and the flow rate of the system would not reach the projected
values. The gas pressure in the tank must be increased slightly (the emphasis is on slightly).
The corresponding boiling temperature increases, supercooled liquid is produced, the
product temperature does not change. No evaporation can take place, the pump can deliver.
It is often observed that the tank is filled again to stop the shortage. In principle, the same
thing happens: The boiling temperature is lowered by the fresh product, the density
increases, the static pressure at the pump inlet increases.
The pressure lock is able to convey liquid with boiling temperature and boiling pres-
sure. If the vapour content in the liquid is too high, it will rise into the gas space of the tank
when the valves are open.
The tank pressure can be lowered by adiabatic cooling, i.e. by relaxing the gas phase.
The system strives for thermodynamic equilibrium, the liquid temperature decreases, the
density increases. Similarly, the tank pressure can be lowered by mixed condensation. This
occurs during each refueling. If refueling is done from the top, the liquid veil that sets in
cools the gas molecules to the point of condensation. They fall into the liquid or condense
on the tank wall.
Reference 115

The tank pressure can be increased by adding gas or by refuelling from below. When
gas is supplied, evaporation takes place in the heat exchanger, which is usually the pres-
sure booster evaporator – the pressure in the tank increases. To prevent the pressure from
rising immeasurably, the flow of liquid into the pressure booster evaporator is limited by
the gas pressure regulator. When the set pressure is reached, the regulator closes.

Summary
The total pressure of the tank significantly influences the operation of a piston pump. A too
high pressure worsens the efficiency of the piston pump. Pressure and temperature on the
isobaric below the critical point make pumping with a pump almost impossible, as the
boiling liquid evaporates during the suction process. The gas pressure can be increased by
the pressure booster evaporator.
A pressure reduction is only possible by mixed condensation (refuelling) or by draining
the gas (adiabatic cooling). The pressure lock of the Liqui-Flow process can convey boil-
ing liquid.

Reference

1. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilayer_Insulation
Sensor Technology in an LNG Plant
7

Abstract

It is explained how to connect pressure gauges for recording the total pressure.
Furthermore, the special feature of the temperature sensitivity of electronic measuring
instruments is discussed. Measuring methods are explained and compared.

Electronic measuring devices are subject to very specific operating conditions. The opera-
tion of electronic components is temperature-dependent. Therefore, special attention
should be paid to the data sheets of the manufacturers.

Note When using electronic components, particular attention must be paid to the mini-
mum permissible operating temperature specified in the data sheet. This is usually limited
to −40 °C.

A temperature limitation of electronic components means that special precautions must

be taken to protect the components or analogies must be used to infer the condition values.
The same applies to mechanically operating measuring instruments. If the cryogenic
liquid were to reach the measuring cell of a manometer, material damage to it or inaccurate
measured values must be expected. The measuring device may fail.
Pressure gauges for cryogenic liquefied gases are preceded by a gas pressure cushion;
this applies to both mechanical and electronic gauges. This is possible by installing a loop
or, as shown, a U-bend (see Fig. 7.1). In the U-bend, LNG vaporizes, a gas cushion forms,
and “warm” gas transmits pressure to the pressure sensing point. The cold product cannot
reach the sensor or the pressure cell.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 117

GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2024
W. Hermeling, Compendium for the LNG and CNG Practitioner,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38258-2_7
118 7 Sensor Technology in an LNG Plant

Direction of flow
Measuring line

Variant 1
Stopcock

Variant 2

U-bend or loop upwards

Fig. 7.1 Connection of a pressure measuring point to a pipeline

In order to record the correct measured value, the measuring line must be connected in
such a way that it reflects the total pressure. This means that the entire pressure must act
in the measuring line. This is particularly important when high flow velocities occur.

Note At high flow velocities, the dynamic component of the pressure is particularly high,
while the static component is low.

If the pipe were connected vertically, as in variant 1 of Fig. 7.1, the static pressure
would be measured first and foremost, the dynamic pressure would only have a limited
effect. For variant 2, a T-piece with pipe expansion and a long pressure equalisation sec-
tion was used. Due to the pipe extension, the total pressure is adjusted in the pressure
equalisation section. With a connection to the U-bend, the total pressure presses into the
measuring line. Instead of a bend, a T-piece is installed in the line whose pressure is to be
measured. The straight outlet of the T-piece is also the connection point for the measuring
line, so that the total pressure is effective there.

Note If the compression is to be measured in a chamber, the line volume must be taken
into account. The line volume increases the dead space of the chamber and could reduce
the result of the compression. Both are true for mechanical and electronic gauges, because
the electronic gauge also has a measuring line, at the end of which the pressure sensor is
installed. Therefore, for these measurements the measuring line should be as short as pos-
sible and the diameter as small as possible (capillary).
7.1 Level Measuring Instruments 119

Summary
The permissible operating temperature of electronic measuring instruments must be
observed; this is usually limited to −40 °C. A gas cushion is connected upstream to protect
the measuring device. The volume in the measuring line must be observed. The measuring
line must be connected in such a way that the total pressure is recorded. When measuring
compression, the volume of the measuring line must be included in the calculation. The
measuring line expands the volume of the chamber and can, if necessary, significantly
influence the result.

7.1 Level Measuring Instruments

A level gauge is installed to measure the liquid level. It is an indispensable and prescribed
measuring device on every vacuum-insulated tank. It is not only used to record the level,
but also to control it if necessary. Differential pressure gauges have become widely
accepted for level measurement, while gravimetric gauges are only used to a limited extent.
The density falls with increasing boiling pressure. This means that a lower level is indi-
cated as present, because the device has been set to a higher density (usually standard
density). This applies to the differential pressure measurement as well as to the gravimet-
ric measurement. Since the average tank pressure is often not known when the tank is
delivered, some LNG suppliers reduce the permissible fill level to a value below 100%.
However, this is not always expedient, as the boiling pressures of some systems fluctuate
considerably. In this case, the max. Permissible blow-off pressure of the safety valve
would have to be taken as the reference value for the permissible fill level. The tank vol-
ume is only used to a limited extent. This can be avoided by using the overfill protection
(see Sect. 9.5). This allows 100% filling because it discharges the expanding liquid into the
evaporator, where it is evaporated and returned to the gas space of the tank. When the
response pressure of the process relief valve or the safety valve is reached, the gas is dis-
charged in a controlled manner via the exhaust vent.

Note In both processes, the respective density must be taken into account. It changes not
only from medium to medium, but also with the boiling pressure in the case of cryogenic
liquefied gases.

For both systems, the scale division is specified by the manufacturer on the basis of the
expected density and the tank height, which includes the maximum possible filling level.
Therefore, level gauges are only interchangeable within the same tank size with the same
product.
120 7 Sensor Technology in an LNG Plant

7.1.1 Differential Pressure Level Gauge

A level gauge is the most prominent measuring device on an LNG tank. It measures the
pressure difference resulting from the liquid column and its density minus the gas pressure
in the tank. The manufacturer sets the gauge to these values. For example, a differential
pressure gauge for a nitrogen tank may not be used uncorrected for an LNG tank. The
density of nitrogen to natural gas is approximately 1:2. The device set to nitrogen would
therefore only indicate half the level for the same tank size (Fig. 7.2).

p  p Total  p Gas

p  p hyd.

p Total  p Gas  p hyd.

 . = p hyd . / Density
H fullst

pGas = Gas pressure in the tank, is read on the pressure gauge

phyd. = Level height ∗ density of the liquid
Hfüllst. = Fill level
Δp = Pressure difference corresponds to the level height
pTotal = Pressure at the bottom of the tank, determined by the liquid column and the gas pressure
resting on it

Storage tank Media 6 with valve block

H
Ar, N2, O2,
h CO2 etc.

H Measuring range h measured high (= tank capacity)

Fig. 7.2 Pressure distribution at the tank. (Source: Samson, Data Sheet T 9527)
7.1 Level Measuring Instruments 121

The density is dependent on the boiling temperature, which decreases over time due to
the aforementioned heat supply. If no withdrawal takes place, the liquid level rises. The
volume increases, but a change in the level is not indicated. If no overfill protection is
installed, the liquid can enter the measuring lines and the safety valve line. Due to the pres-
surized measuring line, the current level can no longer be detected, the tank is metrologi-
cally out of control. For this reason alone, the overfill protection (see Sect. 9.5) is absolutely
necessary for LNG tanks. In the case of an air gas tank, the gas can be vented (gas at boil-
ing point) via the gas withdrawal line, provided the precautionary measures are observed.
In doing so, the product in the tank is cooled adiabatically.

Installation
The measuring device is pressurized with the gas pressure with one measuring line, con-
nected to the gas phase, and with the total pressure with the other measuring line, con-
nected to the bottom of the tank. Both pressures act from one side against a diaphragm,
which moves more or less to one side depending on the pressure difference. This move-
ment is transmitted to a pointer system (Fig. 7.3).

Notice
In the meter, the gas pressure alone opposes the liquid column pressure plus the gas pres-
sure. The gas pressures cancel each other out so that only the pressure of the liquid column
is displayed.
If the liquid column were not present, i.e. the tank was empty, both pressures would
exert the same force on the diaphragm. The diaphragm would not move, there would be no
deflection and the pointer would be at zero. The device usually displays the fill level in
percent. This value can also be converted into a volume measure and can be marked
accordingly on the scale.

For the connection to the liquid phase, make sure that it is made at the lowest point of
the tank and that a gas cushion can build up in front of the measuring unit. Liquid product
must not get into the measuring unit (lay a U-tube or loop).

Note Pressure must be equalized at the measuring device before start-up. The gas pres-
sure and liquid pressure lines are short-circuited by the connecting line in the upstream
valve block. The zero point is fixed. The pressure compensation valve is closed again, the
lines are separated again and the gas pressure and the total pressure at the diaphragm
become effective. The filling level is displayed.

Practical Advice
The differential pressure gauge determines the pressure difference between the gas phase
and the total pressure and derives the level from this. The measuring lines are connected to
the gas phase and to the liquid phase. Before commissioning, the pressure must be equal-
ized at the measuring device. Liquid must not reach the measuring cell.
122 7 Sensor Technology in an LNG Plant

Display housing with LCD

Digital indicator
9
7
Connection A
UB = 12 bis 36 V
lA = 4 bis 20 mA
6
8
Connection B 1 Differential pressure measuring cell

Alarm 1 1.1 Measuring diaphragm

5 1.2 Range spring

Alarm 2 1.3 Lever

Pulse output 11 1.4 Elastic washer
RS-232
3
µP 1.5 Diaphragm axis
FRAM 10
4 2 Displacement sensor

Measuring cell 3 Microprocessor

4 Data memory (FRAM)
2
1.1 5 Keys for operating functions
1.4 6 4-pole DIL switch – selection of gas types,
1.3 voltage and write protection
1.5 7 Indicator house with digital indicator
8 Limit switch and pulse output, Media 6Z only
1.2
1.2 9 D/A converter
1
10 RS-232 interface
Valve block
with pressure
gauge

P2– P1+

Fig. 7.3 Mode of operation of the Media 6 differential pressure gauge. (Source: Samson, Data
Sheet T 9527 EN)

The density depends on the prevailing boiling pressure. A change of the filling level is
not indicated by the density change.
The devices are bound to tank size and medium and must be adjusted for the respective
tank by the manufacturer of the differential pressure gauge.

Version
The pressure gauge shut-off valves are connected upstream of the differential pressure
level gauge. They are necessary for servicing, as they allow unhindered work on the mea-
suring system or its replacement. On mechanically working devices, points can be recorded
and transmitted by adjustable limit value transmitters. The electronic devices work digi-
tally. Both work on the same principle. They are adjusted/calibrated by the manufacturer
to max. Level and product. For the electronically working one the Ex-zone has to be
7.1 Level Measuring Instruments 123

considered. For methane it is zone 0, as the electronic measuring unit comes into direct
contact with the medium, unless there is a blocking non-flammable liquid in front of
the sensor.

Practical Advice
Electronic and mechanical devices operate according to the same measuring principle.
Digitally operating devices must have Ex zone 0. The differential pressure gauge is pro-
vided with pressure gauge shut-off valves.

Operating Mode
Before filling the tank, estimate how long the tank will stand with liquid and how the with-
drawal will take place. If no withdrawal will take place in the foreseeable future, the tank
should not be filled to the permissible level. For example, the density of nitrogen decreases
by about 1/3 when the pressure increases from 5 bar to 18 bar. With the change in density
(decreasing) the volume has increased. The level gauge shows no change. In extreme
cases, liquid could get into the measuring line of the gas pressure, the device fails.

Practical Advice
If it can be estimated that no product will be withdrawn for a certain period of time, tanks
without an overfill prevention device should be filled to a lower level, as it expands due to
heating and would overfill the tank without refuelling. This precaution can be dispensed
with for tanks with overfill protection.

Maintenance and Control

Like all measuring devices, the differential pressure gauge must be checked regularly
according to the manufacturer’s operating instructions. Since the indication on the differ-
ential pressure gauge depends on the density of the medium, the level gauge can only be
replaced within the gas type and for the same tank heights.

Practical Advice
The level measuring device must be checked regularly according to the manufacturer’s
instructions. The exchange of the devices is only possible for the same medium and
tank size.

7.1.2 Gravimetric Level Measurement

This method makes use of the weight of the liquid. The weight of all liquids depends on
the volume and density. The state of the liquid in the tank is changed by the heat input.
This means that the density decreases. The volume can be determined from the density and
the measured weight, so that the geometry of the tank makes it possible to calculate the
level. The level gauge is calibrated by the manufacturer with respect to tank height and
124 7 Sensor Technology in an LNG Plant

product. The tank pressure has a non-negligible significance for the process. If the tank has
an additional pressure evaporator and if this is not closed, it is not possible to conclude the
density from the gas pressure of the tank. Only in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium do
pressure and density correspond. The measured value would describe a false result. The
measurement method will be encountered relatively rarely, but should not be discarded.
The tank must be cleared of snow for measurement. The sensors must not be loaded in any
other way.

Installation
The electronically operating pressure gauges are built under the feet of the tank. Care must
be taken that they are not mechanically damaged. These generally supply an electronic
signal. For level determination it is processed via a measuring bridge and the level is
shown on a display. The sensors must comply with Ex zone 1.

Maintenance and Control

As with all measuring devices, the load cells must be checked regularly according to the
manufacturer’s instructions. The environment of the load cells must be clean and must not
be exposed to any additional stress.

Summary
From the weight and the pressure immediately after refuelling, the density can be con-
cluded. From the density and the weight, the volume in the tank can be determined. The
fill level can be derived from this.
The weight in the tank is determined with the pressure sockets connected to the measur-
ing bridge and the filling level is derived from this. The sensor system must at least comply
with explosion protection Ex 1.
The level meter must be factory set/calibrated for tank size and product.

7.2 Temperature Measurement

The PT-100 sensor has proven itself for measuring the temperature of LNG or CNG. It is
designed as a contact thermometer. Its accuracy is sufficient in this case. The measuring
range extends almost linearly to −73 K (platinum resistance). It is a resistance thermom-
eter in which the conductivity changes as a function of the temperature. An exchange is
possible without recalibration. Other sensors are also possible, but will not be discussed in
detail as they are of secondary importance.
In contrast to the tank for air gases and CO2, a temperature measuring point shall be
provided on the LNG tank, if possible directly at the liquid outlet. It is used for automatic
process control, especially for checking the thermodynamic state of the product. The
aforementioned contact thermometer is sufficient for this purpose.
7.3 Mass Flow Meters 125

Practical Advice
The PT-100 sensor is mainly used for temperature measurement. It should be used to con-
trol the thermodynamic condition in the tank and should be installed directly at the outlet
of the liquid line.

7.3 Mass Flow Meters

Mass flow meters are used in the LNG plant at a wide variety of locations with different
tasks: the tanker delivers the LNG, measuring the delivered mass with a calibratable mass
flow meter. The filling station delivers CNG or LNG. In these cases, experience has shown
that the traded mass is recorded with Coriolis meters and must therefore be determined
with an officially calibrated device. For internal dispensing, official calibration is not
required, the measurement is only used for internal information.
Before delivery to the vehicle tank, the gas must be odorized. The quantity of odorant
to be added depends on the mass and must therefore be determined precisely. LNG is
vaporized in the gas supply plant. This gas must be processed according to its calorific
value. For this purpose, the gas mass must be known in order to additionally determine the
quantity of nitrogen to be added. This requires that the gas flow is determined in order to
adjust the calorific value with the nitrogen mass. No officially calibrated measuring instru-
ments are required for the technologically determined measurements.
Other measuring methods include the Roots and turbine meters, combined with tem-
perature correction, thermal measuring methods and the ultrasonic flowmeter. The most
common devices for the cryogenic range are described below.

Practical Advice
The measurement of the mass flow is possible with a wide variety of methods. The mea-
surement is carried out for technological or commercial reasons. Commercially used mea-
suring devices must be calibratable.

7.3.1 Coriolis Measuring Device

The Coriolis mass flow meter (Fig. 7.4) operates independently of the density, temperature
and pressure of the mass flow to be measured. However, the device must be approved for
the respective operating pressure. The principle is based on the inertia of a moving mass.
If a mass is made to oscillate in a pipe, the oscillation of a flow will be unequal at the inlet
and outlet. If the mass does not flow, the oscillations at the inlet and outlet will be equal.
From the deviation of the oscillations, the flowing mass can be inferred proportionally.
With increase or decrease of the flowing mass, a stronger or weaker deflection will result.
These changes are recorded and evaluated by sensors at the beginning and end of the
126 7 Sensor Technology in an LNG Plant

Fig. 7.4 Coriolis flow meter

CNGmass D8CB, explosion-­
proof. (Source: Enders
+ Hauser)

measuring section. The principle of the Coriolis meter was derived from Newton’s laws by
Laplace as early as 1775, but was not described in detail by Coriolis until 1835.
The flow meter is advantageously installed in the gas phase. The measured values are
evaluated as required, whether for billing the tapped quantity at the natural gas filling sta-
tion (with a calibratable device) or the gas mass flowing through the heating system, the
CHP system or similar. Once the value has to be determined for process engineering pur-
poses, the other time gas is traded via the measurement.

Practical Advice
The measurement of the mass flow according to Coriolis is mainly reserved for the pro-
cess, whereby it is the delivery of the CNG or LNG in the dispenser and on the other hand
the mass determination of the gas phase in the high and low pressure range for the purpose
of odorization. The system for the commercial sector must be calibratable. For technologi-
cal measurements, such as the adjustment of the gas mixture, calibrated equipment is not
mandatory.

7.3.2 Mass Flow by Means of Pressure Loss Measurement

The liquid, especially LNG, is pressed through an orifice plate in this measuring method.
The pressure upstream and downstream of the orifice is measured. The pressure loss gen-
erated in the orifice provides information about the volume flow. Taking into account the
density and the temperature, the mass can be calculated. Since the density is very depen-
dent on the boiling temperature of the liquid, this is compensated for by the temperature
measured in each case. The deviations amount to an error of approx. 5% in the range of
1–3 bar. If the tanker is approved for higher pressures, the error becomes larger. Therefore,
7.3 Mass Flow Meters 127

Fig. 7.5 Equipment cabinet (left) with display unit (right) for vehicles. (Source: Flow
Instruments GmbH)

temperature compensation is advantageous. This compensation can also be carried out by

determining the tank pressure by multiplying the delivered quantity by the density at the
prevailing tank pressure (Fig. 7.5).
The measuring section is permanently under LNG and therefore does not have to be
cold-started at start-up. The system is optimally equipped for rough operation. The deliv-
ered quantity is printed out on a strip for the customer after completion of the tanking
process and remains in the device as a data record.

Practical Advice
The measurement of the mass flow via the pressure loss is carried out via an orifice. The
pressure is measured before and after the orifice. The mass flow rate results from the pres-
sure loss. The measurement is carried out in the low pressure range and is mainly used at
the vehicle tank for LNG delivery into the local tank. The system is calibratable due to
temperature compensation for accurate determination of the LNG density.
Equipment of an LNG Plant
8

Abstract

LNG plants require additional equipment compared to plants for air gases. The equip-
ment as applicable for air gases and the additional equipment for LNG is described in
terms of design and function.

8.1 Valves in the Cryogenic Liquid Range and in the Gas Phase

Valves close off and release paths, they regulate pressure and flow. They are used to con-
trol the safety of any system. Safety valves also belong to this group.
According to the design and actuator, there are self-opening and -closing, pneumatic,
electrically driven and manually operated valves. In addition to the type of actuation, they
are differentiated according to their mode of operation, control valves, which are used to
adjust the flow, and shut-off valves, which release or block a path. They are identified by
the permissible pressure rating, the design, the nominal size, the medium and the tempera-
ture range; electrically actuated ones are divided into Ex-protected and non-­protected valves.
Valves in the cryogenic range (liquid phase) are usually equipped with bellows. The
heat flow into the medium is minimized and tightness is ensured at higher pressures.
Therefore, LNG plants in the liquid phase area are to be equipped with bellows valves. In
the gas phase, a wide variety of sealing systems can be found, provided they are suitable
for the medium and pressure. The explosion protection to be complied with must be
observed for electrically operated valves.

Note For installation, as for all components, the manufacturer’s specifications must be
observed. It is essential to always pay attention to the direction of flow (marked by an

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 129

GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2024
W. Hermeling, Compendium for the LNG and CNG Practitioner,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38258-2_8
130 8 Equipment of an LNG Plant

Fig. 8.1 Position-independent

valve “Frees” for cryogenic
liquids, also for LNG with
connection for vacuum
insulation. (Source: Stöhr
Armaturen, Königsbrunn)

arrow) during installation. The inlet is always on the side of higher pressure, the outlet is
always on the side of lower or equal pressure.

If the connection sides are mixed up, malfunctions may occur. For example, solenoid
valves or pneumatically actuated valves cannot open or are forced open if the direction of
flow is not observed. In the case of manually operated valves, depending on the design,
there is a possibility that the valve plug may become separated from the valve stem.
A normal shut-off valve is mistakenly installed to regulate the flow. Such valves can be
damaged by cavitation during long-term use. The setting is inaccurate and can change
without actuation. Control valves, with their appropriately designed plug and the fine
thread of the valve stem, are the better and should be the only solution. Each valve is held
in place by a valve retainer or a mounting provided by design (screw holes in the body for
mounting). Small, lightweight valves are sometimes held in place only by the piping. In
the cryogenic range, the fixing of the valves must be thermally decoupled from the fixing
point (underlaying an insulation, plastic plate or decoupling fixings).
Valves are installed in the cryogenic liquid phase, sealed with bellows, with an inclined
position of max. 30° (vertical would be optimal). The position is intended to prevent the
liquid from entering the bellows and evaporating there continuously. The upright position
creates a gas cushion in the bellows. The liquid is displaced downwards out of the bellows
and thus cannot evaporate. The heat flow into the medium is greatly restricted. Special
valves are available (e.g. Fig. 8.1) which can be mounted in any position. Their stem drive
is hermetically separated from the product section. No liquid can enter this section.
The bellows, made from a stainless steel tube by rolling successive shafts, is subject to
severe stress. The material tends to fatigue due to the constant movement of the valve stem.

Note Due to the bellows, the service life of a valve is limited. The manufacturer provides
the corresponding information on the service life/load cycles. The service life can be
increased by an extended bellows, because the individual shafts of the bellows are sub-
jected to less stress for the same travel of the valve actuator. Valves with electric actuators
must generally be explosion-proof in an LNG plant (min. Ex 1, Ex 0 if the electrical parts
come into contact with the medium).
8.2 Check Valve 131

Summary
A basic distinction is made between valves for the liquid and gas phase. Valves for the gas
phase must not be installed in the area of the liquid phase, as they would immediately ice
up and thus their function is no longer given. Except for Frees valves, valves in the liquid
phase must be installed vertically; an inclination of max. 30° is permissible. The indicated
flow direction must be strictly observed.

8.2 Check Valve

A check valve is designed to prevent gas or liquid from flowing back. For this purpose, a
cone, a plate or a ball, held by a return spring, lies in the valve housing. For low pressures,
a magnetically operating non-return valve has been offered for some time by the company
Stöhr Armaturen. There the spring has been replaced by a magnet. The magnet keeps the
valve closed. With the flow pressure and the applied pressure difference in the valve, it is
pressed open when the opening pressure is reached. As soon as the pressure difference,
whether flow pressure or static pressure difference, across the valve is less than the restor-
ing forces, the valve closes.
Mostly it should be avoided that product flows back from the high pressure part into the
low pressure part. If, contrary to expectations, this should occur or be expected, it must be
guaranteed that the blow-off capacity of the medium flowing back can be safely discharged
by an appropriate safety valve in the low-pressure part (e.g. SV of the tank).

Note The safety valve of the tank is normally only designed for the gas development that
is to be expected due to heat input via the tank wall or pipe. The blow-off capacity of the
medium flowing back is not taken into account, so that it must be checked whether this
safety valve can cope with the possible additional blow-off capacity.

Check valves are particularly susceptible to dirt in the line. This dirt may settle in the
seat of the valve, so that the valve no longer closes properly. It is therefore advisable to
install dirt filters in the line before check valves. There are no regulations for the place-
ment of a check valve. The process must be analysed to see if product could flow back
unintentionally. Check valves should be placed at such sections. If possible, a check valve
should always be installed vertically, even if operating instructions do not explicitly state
this. This will always force the valve to close, even if the spring no longer operates accord-
ing to the data sheet for the check valve.

Note It is convenient if the valve plug or ball falls on the seat by its own weight. If the
spring should break, the valve would no longer close. The latter can be avoided by vertical
installation.

In the high pressure range, the closing cone and the ball have become established, the
plate is mainly used as overpressure protection for low pressures. A closing cone has the
advantage that it can be fixed in the vertical axis, the ball cannot be defined in position, as
132 8 Equipment of an LNG Plant

it can rotate in a floating position. If the spring is replaced by a permanent magnet, the
magnetic force acts as the closing force. This is constant, so that an exact opening pressure
is set very reliably. However, this valve can only be used in the gas phase, as the magnetic
forces change at low temperatures.
A check valve is not controlled externally, but by the impulse of the flow. The spring
force tolerates within a certain range. The tolerance must be taken into account in the
design. Deviations in the series are possible and can be taken from the manufacturer’s data
sheet. – Due to its robustness, a seal made of an elastomer material has proven itself as the
valve seat. For oxygen, only oxygen-certified sealing materials are permissible. This is
countered by metallic sealing systems.

Note The check valve always develops a pressure loss, the opening pressure, which must
be observed in case of low pressure reserves. If the opening pressure is too low, the check
valve does not open. If the opening pressure is not reached, it closes immediately.

It should be noted that a check valve must be cleaned at regular intervals, especially to
prevent leaks. If a ball is used, it is very likely that it must be replaced, as the surface can
easily be damaged by dirt and no longer closes reliably.

Summary
The non-return valve prevents the backflow of a medium. It should be installed in such a
way that the closing component can always fall into the seat by itself. The pressure loss of
the valve must be observed in critical pressure ranges. Slight contamination of the medium
can interfere with the function of the non-return valve. Therefore, filters and regular clean-
ing are recommended.

8.3 Gas Pressure Regulator

Pressure regulators are installed according to the system type

• to ensure a constant pressure,

• for smoothing pressure peaks in the gas flow,
• for holding a defined output or input pressure.

This means that the pressure regulator has been designed for a permissible pressure and
for the desired volume flow. The volume flow to be controlled must be in combination with
a gas flow measurement and an automated control of the pressure regulator, which influ-
ences the valve position depending on the gas flow.

LNG Tank
Here the pressure regulator is installed in connection with the pressure booster evaporator.
The pressure regulator ensures the set tank pressure. In practice, however, it has been
shown that this regulator is closed in the case of the pump tank, since the cryogenic
8.3 Gas Pressure Regulator 133

high-­pressure pump works optimally if it is supplied with the lowest possible gas pressure
but a high geodetic pressure. Cold gasifiers supply a burner or a gas engine. These require
a constant inlet pressure, which is set via the gas pressure regulator on the pressure booster.
Further downstream, the gas engine may require a very limited inlet pressure. A further
pressure regulator must be connected upstream of the motor, possibly with an additional
safety valve, so that this prescribed pressure is not exceeded under any circumstances.

LNG Refrigeration Tank

Since liquid phase must be withdrawn, the pressure booster has the task of generating a
required high pressure. The exact pressure to supply is set with the pressure regulator,
which is always installed at the outlet of the evaporator.

LNG Cold Carburetor

It is used for gas burners, gas engines or turbines. The LNG is pressed into the air vapor-
izer with the gas pressure developed by the natural heat input and regasified there. If this
pressure is not sufficient, a pressure booster vaporizer with gas pressure regulator is abso-
lutely necessary.

Note Turbines or gas engines require a low inlet pressure in a narrow pressure range. A
pressure regulator is used to set the exact working pressure downstream of the air
evaporator.

Another application is to maintain a higher working pressure. This is achieved with an

additional evaporator and two regulators. One regulator is connected to the gas phase of
the tank, the other to the liquid phase. The gas phase regulator closes when a certain gas
pressure is reached. In this condition, the regulator for the pressure addition opens and
builds up the required gas pressure in the tank. The additional regulator for the liquid
phase opens and releases liquid product for evaporation in the evaporator. The required
withdrawal quantity could not previously be provided by the pressure additive evaporator
alone. The set pressures on each regulator must be different in magnitude, otherwise there
are complications as both regulators could open or close. There are pressure regulators that
combine these two functions, they are combined pressure regulators (see Sect. 8.3.2), so-­
called combination pressure regulators.

Installation
The location of the installation depends on the task of the regulator. If the tank has a pres-
sure booster evaporator, this should keep the tank pressure at a desired, constant level.

Note The pressure regulator must always be installed at the outlet of the pressure booster
evaporator. Never allow cryogenic liquid to enter the inlet of the gas pressure regulator.
This would lead to malfunction due to the cold or evaporation of the liquid. Therefore, the
regulator should always be installed on the “warm” side.
134 8 Equipment of an LNG Plant

When the regulator closes, the gas cushion blocks further inflow of the liquid, further
evaporation is excluded. The pressure cannot rise any further. If the task is to prevent the
pressure in the tank from rising above a certain value, a regulator is connected to the gas
withdrawal line. The regulator opens when the set pressure is exceeded and closes when it
has dropped to the desired pressure.

Note It is possible to extract gas exclusively from the gas phase when consumption is low.
It should be noted that adiabatic cooling starts in this case.

A spring-loaded gas pressure regulator is usually used (Fig. 8.2). is used. The dia-
phragm in the regulator housing is acted upon by a spring force and, depending on the set
point adjusted, the diaphragm moves up or down. The valve stem attached to the dia-
phragm opens or closes the valve. By opening or closing, the pressure is adjusted to the set
point. The set point is adjusted by turning the spring-loaded adjusting screw. If there is no
decrease, i.e. no flow, the regulator closes and the closing pressure (= inlet pressure) is
adjusted. An arrow indicates the flow direction of the regulator. It only functions in the
direction of flow.
Another possibility is the controlled gas pressure regulation. In this case, the pressure
is measured and a control valve is opened or closed according to the desired pressure.
However, this variant requires an additional control system and has not yet been widely
used in LNG plants. The gas pressure regulator cannot replace the shut-off valve; it is a
control element and not a shut-off element.

Operating Mode
A directly controlled gas pressure regulator operates in analogue mode and is always ready
for operation. It cannot be turned off or on unless a bypass is provided. This would be
unusual.

The actuated gas pressure regulator only works if corresponding signals can be provided
and processed. For this purpose, the pressure is recorded and fed to a control unit independent
of the pressure regulator. This regulates the desired pressure and volume flow via a control
valve. In the idle state, the control valve should always switch to the safe state. This state is
reached when the control valve opens or closes without current or control medium.

Maintenance and Control

Maintenance and inspection should be carried out in accordance with the manufacturer’s
specifications. This can be extended by operational specifications.

Summary
Pressure regulators are designed according to the operating pressure, medium, tempera-
ture, required gas volume flow and constant or variable inlet pressure and outlet pressure
and smooth pressure peaks. At the tank, the gas pressure regulator influences the gas
8.3 Gas Pressure Regulator 135

13 1

4
5

6
7

Rp 3/8*

Erneto
R 3/8* / 0 12

8
9

Pr Pr

10
12
11

1 Pressure adjustment screw 7 Connection breathing line

2 Spring plate 8 Pulse connection
3 Load spring 9 Compensating diaphragm
4 Pressure plate 10 Regulator valve seat
5 Diaphragm plate 11 Valve disc
6 Regulator main diaphragm 12 Cover
Fig. 8.2 Gas pressure regulator. (Source: Medenus GmbH product catalogue 2018/2019)
136 8 Equipment of an LNG Plant

pressure, the feed pressure into the line to the consumer and, as a combination regulator,
the withdrawal from the gas or liquid phase of the tank. A combination regulator can
replace the two separate regulators.
The installation of the pressure reducing valve depends largely on the requirements. It
must be avoided that cryogenic liquid enters the regulator. It should always be installed in
the gas flow on the “warm” side. The pressure regulator is usually designed as a spring-­
loaded component. It is a direct acting control device. A valve is opened or closed via the
spring. It is connected to the diaphragm. An adjusting screw is used to set the spring pres-
sure and thus the set point of the pressure. Special versions are available for each
application.

8.3.1 Gas Pressure Regulator, Simple

The gas pressure is kept at a set level with the gas pressure regulator. The prerequisite is
that sufficient gas can flow downstream of the regulator in the event of a pressure drop.
The gas pressure regulator must be suitable for the highest system pressure and the volume
flow rate of the respective system section and is a component subject to testing. The gas
pressure is adjusted by means of a set screw and, if necessary, the set screw is lead-sealed.

Practical Advice
The pressure regulator keeps the pressure at a set level. It is a component subject to
inspection.

Installation
The gas pressure regulator on the tank is installed in the LCNG plant (CNG is produced
from LNG) downstream of the pressure booster vaporizer, i.e. on the gas side and/or the
vaporizer outlet. The gas pressure regulator downstream of the vaporizer is used to set the
desired gas pressure for the supply. If pressures have to be maintained exactly, it has
proven successful that an upstream pressure regulator is installed first, followed by a fine
pressure regulator. The inlet pressure regulator is set to a higher value than the fine pres-
sure regulator.

Maintenance and Control

The controllers, some of which are installed in a controlled system, must be maintained in
accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications.

Practical Advice
The pressure regulator is installed on the tank after the pressure booster evaporator and
after the evaporator. It has proven successful that a pre-pressure regulator is connected
downstream of the evaporator and a fine pressure regulator is connected downstream of the
evaporator.
8.3 Gas Pressure Regulator 137

8.3.2 Dual Function Gas Pressure Regulator

The pressure regulator combines two devices: the pressure regulator for limiting the pres-
sure of the gas phase and the pressure regulator by opening the liquid phase. It switches to
the liquid phase when a minimum pressure is reached.
The company Herose, Bad Oldesloe writes about it, they call it Cryo pressure regulator,
also called combination regulator (Fig. 8.3), in their company publication: the function of
a combination regulator – also called a cryogenic pressure regulator by some manufactur-
ers – is described in the following text:

The Cryo pressure regulator combines three functions: pressure build-up, pressure reduction
and safety function. Fewer fittings and piping are required, which also saves costs. With the
Combi pressure regulator, technical gases such as nitrogen, oxygen or argon1 can be stored
economically in a stationary tank in cryogenic liquefied form under constant pressure. The
CombiPressure Regulator is available in DN20 and protects pressures up to 38 bar at operat-
ing temperatures from −196 °C to +200 °C. The pressure regulators are manufactured in
stainless steel. Manufactured in stainless steel, the pressure regulators are available with flow
rates of 1.2 m3/h and 3.2 m3/h. (Source: Herose, Bad Oldesloe, company brochure The gas
phase of the tank can be designed with non-return valve, which is supplied as an additional
component. This supports a reliable control of the tank pressure).

Materials DIN EN ASTM

1 Housing 1.4571 A 313 Grade 316Ti
2 Spindle 1.4571 A 313 Grade 316Ti
3 Gasket PTFE
4 Spring plate 1.4301 A 276 Grade 304
5 Union nut 1.4301 A 276 Grade 304
6 O-ring PTFE
7 Pressure spring 1.4571 A 313 Grade 316Ti
8 Snap ring - -
9 Guide disk 1.4571 A 313 Grade 316TI
10 Housing 1.4571 A 313 Grade 316Ti
11 Check ball PTFE
12 Snap ring - -
13 Union nut 1.4301 A 276 Grade 304
14 Circlip 1.4122 -
15 Spring compressor 1.4571 A 313 Grade 316Ti
16 Circlip 1.4435 -

Standard marking according to Pressure Equipment

Directive 2014/68/EU (PED).

Fig. 8.3 Pressure regulator with dual function, or combination pressure regulator. (Source: Herose,
GmbH Bad Oldesloe)

1
Note: according to company specification also approved for LNG.
138 8 Equipment of an LNG Plant

Installation
In this exceptional case, the combined pressure regulator is installed upstream of the evap-
orator and connected to the gas phase and the liquid phase of the tank at the inlet. The
outlet leads into the air evaporator.

Operating Mode
The regulator works analogue and continuous like all others. The output pressure is kept
constant within narrow limits by the manipulated variable for the pressure, which is set by
means of an adjusting screw. If the pressure in the gas space of the tank reaches the set
value, the stroke limitation is pushed down and the withdrawal of the liquid is blocked.

Summary
The dual function pressure regulator controls the gas pressure in the tank and keeps it
constant. It is installed at the tank outlet and connects the gas space of the tank and the
liquid phase. Depending on the gas pressure, the gas phase or the liquid phase is opened.
This means that three functions are combined in one regulator.

8.4 Air Evaporator

Function
In the air vaporizer, LNG is regasified, i.e. vaporized. The heat of vaporization and super-
heat is extracted from the air. If the gas must have a temperature above ambient tempera-
ture when leaving the vaporizer, it must be reheated with a gas heater.

The air evaporator tends to ice up during continuous operation. Icing is particularly
severe in summer, i.e. during periods of high humidity. Therefore, 2 evaporators can be
connected in parallel. In this way, it is possible for one evaporator to defrost or heat up and
the other to enable the evaporation process. This is controlled by an automatic switch.
Another possibility is to install only one evaporator, but to make it larger. After the evapo-
rator, the gas preheater must be installed, which heats the gas to the required minimum
temperature if necessary. It is controlled by downstream thermostats.

Summary
In the air vaporizer, the LNG is supplied with the evaporation and compression energy. It
obtains the energy from the surrounding air. The physical properties of the air (tempera-
ture, humidity) and thus its energy content are constantly changing. Therefore, these plant
components are designed according to empirical values.
8.4 Air Evaporator 139

Constructive Design
The air vaporizer is a tube system equipped with fins through which the energy exchange
between the medium, in this case LNG, and the environment takes place. Depending on
the design, the tubes are now usually connected in series (previously connected in paral-
lel). The pipes are located in a frame that is fixed to the floor and statically holds the entire
plant together.

Interpretation
An air evaporator is designed on the basis of empirical values, a calculation as with the
heat exchanger is not meaningful because of the constantly changing parameters of the air.
Furthermore, solar radiation, operating mode and installation site also play a not insignifi-
cant role. If the gas temperature at the evaporator outlet is too low, the evaporator surface
must first be increased.
If the volume flow at the outlet is too low, several evaporators are connected in parallel.
If the outlet temperature is not reached, further evaporators are connected in series. The
outlet temperature cannot exceed the ambient temperature, it will always be just below it.

Note If the air evaporator is located in the immediate vicinity of traffic areas, icing of the
surfaces must be expected if there is a risk of frost. This danger is particularly prevalent
when temperatures are close to freezing point. The cold mist coming from the air evapora-
tor falls onto the concrete surface, condenses there and forms a layer of ice that is not
expected by passing personnel or vehicles. Appropriate measures must be taken to prevent
accidents.

If the liquid withdrawal from a tank leads to a drop in tank pressure, the pressure is
generated by the pressure booster evaporator, an air evaporator of smaller design. If the
line limit is reached, the evaporator surface of the pressure booster must be expanded,
which means that another evaporator must be installed. It must be connected in parallel to
the existing pressure booster evaporator. Experience has shown that the feed line to the
pressure booster evaporator allows sufficient liquid product to flow so that a second evapo-
rator can also be connected. It should be noted that the additional evaporator, which is
usually located next to it, can only be charged with liquid up to the fill level of the tank. If
the evaporator cannot be flooded without restriction, this leads to reduced performance.

Summary
Air evaporators are designed according to empirical values. Installation location and mode
of operation influence the performance. A projected overdimensioning is more cost-­
effective than a retrofit or a subsequent tempering of the gas. Caution is advised when
installing near traffic areas. They can ice up very quickly. If the volume flow is increased,
several are connected in parallel; if the outlet temperature is too low, more are connected
in series.
140 8 Equipment of an LNG Plant

8.5 Gas Preheaters in Cogeneration Installations or

in Installations with Gas Burners

A gas preheater is used to heat gas to a desired process temperature. Generally, an attempt
should be made to operate a plant without a gas preheater. A gas preheater increases energy
consumption and additional costs. It should therefore only be used if the gas in the air
evaporator does not reach the desired temperature. One possibility would be to increase
the evaporator surface of the air evaporator.

Installation
The gas preheater is connected in the supply line directly upstream of the tapping point.
The heat exchanger is preferably installed in series connection in the line. Only if the pres-
sure loss in the heat exchanger is of particular importance should it be checked whether it
makes sense to connect it in parallel. The gas preheater should be able to be shut off with
only one valve, either at the inlet or at the outlet. The second valve, which could be used
to shut off the evaporator during servicing, must be blocked or a safety valve must be
installed. Blocking the inlet and outlet can cause an unacceptable pressure increase in the
event of incorrect operation, as liquid can be trapped, evaporate and the gas pressure
exceeds the permissible value.

Note If it is absolutely necessary to shut off the inlet and outlet with a valve, the line must
be protected by a safety valve.

Version
Heating can be electrical, with a liquid (water, oil, etc.) or with tempered gas. Preheaters
filled with water must always have antifreeze added. Natural gas preheaters that are elec-
trically heated must always have explosion protection. If the heating coil is immersed
directly in the gas, zone Ex = 0 is required. If the heating coil is double-walled or encap-
sulated in an aluminium block, i.e. does not come into contact with the medium, the design
will be Ex = 1. The gas preheater is a pressure device which must meet the corresponding
requirements of the Pressure Equipment Directive.

Operating Mode
The temperature controller is controlled via a temperature sensor installed at the output. It
controls the heat output. The controller runs continuously and switches the heating accord-
ing to demand.

Maintenance and Control

These should be carried out in accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications. Controls
can be extended by operational specifications. For secondary heated units, the level of the
liquid must be monitored continuously. Automated monitoring is recommended.
8.6 Odorization Systems and Odorization 141

Practical Advice
The gas preheater ensures a desired gas temperature with external energy. However, the
aim should be to avoid this by designing the air evaporator appropriately large. If valves
are set at the inlet and outlet, this section must be protected with safety valves.

8.6 Odorization Systems and Odorization

Natural gas is a flammable, odourless and colourless gas and, in the event of uncontrolled
leakage, poses a potential danger that should not be underestimated. It cannot be detected
by humans through smell or colour.
The Technical Rules – Worksheet DVGW 280–1(A) of July 2012 – therefore stipulate
that odorants be added to these gases so that an uncontrolled escape can be detected by the
odor of the odorant. The odour of the odorant is perceived as a warning so that appropriate
safety precautions can be taken. Odorization of large gas volume flows has been techni-
cally solved. No distinctive problems are known. Due to its own gas odour in different
odour variants, uncontrolled gas leakage can be detected even by non-experts. The odorant
is forced into the gas flow in liquid form by means of an odorization system (Fig. 8.4) and
evaporates there.
A trend is developing to provide smaller quantities of natural gas decentrally via
LNG. These quantities must be odorized as the hazard potential is the same. Odorizing
systems of previous performance add odorants of between 1 l/h and several 100 l/h,
depending on the gas volume flow. According to DVGW 280–1(A), the proportioning
pump adds the odorant in batches. In large-scale plants (500 Nm3/h and above), the odor-
ant is then evenly distributed in the gas flow. Low volume flows can no longer be homoge-
neously mixed with the agent using the powerful odorizing systems. For example,
Gasodor® S-free is added to gas at a rate of 8 ppm/Nm3.
In principle, a distinction must be made between two gas supply cases: gas supply from
the pipeline network and LNG supply from an LNG tank. The gas in the gas pipeline is
mixed with odorant at the transfer point from the medium-pressure network to the low-­
pressure network centrally in the gas or municipal utility; decentralised plants must take
care of this process themselves. Decentralized gas supply plants store LNG in a tank.
From the tank, the LNG flows, driven by the tank pressure, into the air vaporizer where it
is vaporized into CNG. These often very small quantities then have to be odorized.
It is not possible to add the odorant directly to the LNG. The agent would flocculate
immediately.
Since the gas volume varies depending on the demand, it must be determined with a
mass flow meter. This mass flow meter communicates with the odorization system. The
measurement result of the mass flow is evaluated in the odorization system so that the lat-
ter adds odorant accordingly. The Coriolis flow rate method has generally proved success-
ful for determining the mass flow rate.
142 8 Equipment of an LNG Plant

Fig. 8.4 Gas odorization plant

for large gas quantities – over
500 Nm3/h. (Source: Lewa
GmbH Leonberg)

For example, when a passenger car is refuelled, approximately 20 kg is removed in

several minutes. This quantity is regasified before flowing into the vehicle tank and flows
into the vehicle with an uninterrupted but fluctuating volume flow. A suitable odorization
unit has been developed in Wernigerode (Hofmann & Hoppestock) for such small, volatile
volumes. Such a unit is shown in Fig. 8.5; in the foreground is the mass flow meter which
is integrated into the high-pressure line. Behind it is the odorization unit with odorant stor-
age installed in the housing. The odorization unit communicates with a Coriolis mass flow
meter (either installed in the dispenser or separately). This means that even quantities of
1 Nm3/h can be odorized homogeneously.
The odorant quantity delivered must be verified. Therefore, the weight of the with-
drawn quantity is continuously checked and compared with the gas flow.
The mass flow rate at a fuel dispenser is measured by a calibrated totalizer in the fuel
dispenser. If no fuel dispenser is available (e.g. at a CHP plant), the odorization system is
equipped with its own Coriolis mass flow meter.
The pressure downstream of the air vaporizer will be between 3 and 16 bar in low pres-
sure systems (heating systems or CHP circuits) and between 220 and 320 bar for high
pressure systems (natural gas filling stations). Regardless of the pressure, the gas is always
odorized after the vaporizer or high-pressure gas storage.
8.6 Odorization Systems and Odorization 143

Fig. 8.5 Odorizing system for

small quantities. (Source:
Hoffmann & Hoppestock
GmbH, Wernigerode)

Summary
The odourless natural gas must be odorized so that it can be perceived by humans in the
event of uncontrolled leakage. Odorization is performed with odorizing systems that are
adapted to the respective mass flow. The odorant is added in LNG plants after the air
vaporizer. Line gas from the low-pressure network is usually odorized.
Safety Devices
9

Abstract

Every pressure vessel must be protected against overpressure. Furthermore, in the case of
cryogenic liquefied gases, there is the special feature that their volume increases with
increasing boiling pressure due to the decreasing density. The overfill protection excludes
overfilling and discharges the product which is produced above the permissible filling level.

9.1 Safety Valves

9.1.1 Safety Valves (SV) in the System

Pipelines, containers and components must be secured against overpressure. This is done
with safety valves or bursting discs. The valve must open automatically when the permis-
sible pressure is reached and close immediately below a threshold. As with all other valves,
the vented gas must be led into the exhaust gas vent.

Rupture Disc
It can be installed very space-saving, but can only be used once. After response (bursting)
it must always be replaced by a new one. Before its use, the secondary hazard development
(blow-off of large quantities of natural gas is possible) and, especially for high pressures,
the economic efficiency must be checked. Their use in LNG/CNG plants is only possible
to a limited extent. If the rupture disc is activated, it must be ensured that the vented gas is
discharged into the vent, because, in contrast to the safety valve, the gas flows out until the
protected section is completely empty. The rupture disc is unsuitable for LNG/CNG plants
and is not considered further in this book.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 145

GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2024
W. Hermeling, Compendium for the LNG and CNG Practitioner,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38258-2_9
146 9 Safety Devices

Safety Valve
Depending on the medium, it must be designed according to the permissible operating
pressure, the operating temperature and the blow-off volume. If the permissible pressure –
as is the rule – is specified, the medium temperature and blow-off volume must be deter-
mined precisely. For this purpose, it must be checked whether the gas phase of the tank or
gas phase from the downstream components (after the evaporator) must be relieved. For
the protection of the gas phase of the tank, the boiling temperature of the natural gas is
decisive for the permissible operating temperature; downstream of the air evaporator, the
ambient temperature is important.

Next, the maximum possible blow-off volume must be determined, which always refers
to the standard state (expanded to atmospheric pressure) of the gas. Recently, the blow-off
volume has been used as the basis for determining the cross-section in the event of a fire.
In the event of a fire, the tank becomes warmer than average and an extremely large amount
of gas is formed which must be discharged. The medium must be able to flow off
unhindered.
If the pressure is protected after the evaporator, the evaporator capacity must be taken
into account in the design. This value must also correspond to the capacity values in the
data sheet of the evaporator. It can be assumed that the evaporator was selected according
to the pump capacity.
The free cross-section of the connecting pipeline to the safety valve must not be smaller
than that of the safety valve. The pipeline must be checked for possible pressure loss. It
must not fall below 3% of the blow-off pressure. If a larger pressure drop occurs, a larger
cross-section of the pipeline must be selected.
The opening pressure must correspond to the permissible pressure and must be carried
out according to the specifications of the respective valve manufacturer. The closing pres-
sure is approx. 3% below the set pressure and therefore closes below the permissible
pressure.

Note Oversizing of the safety relief valve should be avoided, as this will cause the valve
to open and close again at short intervals in the event of a response. This stresses the valve
seat and can lead to leaks, especially with metal-seated seats.

Any impurities can work their way into the seat through pulsating pressure surges.
After the pressure has been released, the valve will then no longer close tightly.
If possible, the safety valve must be positioned in the gas phase, i.e. downstream of the
air evaporator or on the tank on the gas phase. The downstream assemblies must be
approved for the set pressure of the safety valve, they must not fall below it. This elimi-
nates the need for additional safety valves in the system downstream of the evaporator.
If there is liquid in the line, the valve must be connected in such a way that it is forced
out of the line with the resulting gas (see Fig. 9.1). The valve must be suitable for the liquid
medium (LNG). The exhaust pipe ends in the exhaust vent so that there is no danger from
splashing LNG. If the line connects to the top of the pipe, gas will vent and the liquid will
9.1 Safety Valves 147

Pipeline

Content LNG
Discharge line
SV

Connect the SV connection line

to the bottom of the pipe.

Fig. 9.1 Connection of a safety valve in the pipeline

vaporize in the line. Again, the SV must be approved for liquid phase. In the valve seat, the
gas expands to atmospheric pressure due to the throttling effect, allowing it to reach boil-
ing temperature. It cools down so that liquid droplets can form when it is blown out.

Note When the SV line is connected, the pressure in the line to be depressurized will
drop. The evaporation will decrease, the valve will close, the surfaces will ice up. The
process of gas formation may repeat cyclically and continue for a long time.

In any case, it should be noted that the gas in the valve seat cools down to boiling tem-
perature (Joule Thomson) due to the expansion. The liquid fraction is blown out irregu-
larly mixed with gas fractions. This scenario is considered unfavorable.
For the design of the safety valves, the possible pressure increase due to:

• too long storage time in the tank and inevitable pressure increase,
• sudden vacuum rupture or decreasing vacuum of the tank insulation,
• Recoil and pressure peaks from the system (should be excluded by check valves),
• too high pump pressure during refuelling possible. A sense of proportion must be main-
tained here. Even if a vacuum rupture occurs, e.g. due to damage to the outer shell of
the tank, only a slow pressure rise is to be expected. If a sudden and strong pressure rise
(fire hazard) must be expected, it must be assumed that a considerably larger valve
cross-section must be taken into account. The SV will be larger. For this rare scenario,
a rupture disc would seem to be the better choice because it is the less expensive solu-
tion. This cannot be followed: In the event of a fire, natural gas would escape from the
rupture disc opening at a relatively high pressure, and the gas flow cannot be stopped
because no valve may be installed in the line to the rupture disc.

Note The better solution is the process relief valve (see Sect. 9.2). This valve is used to
discharge the normal overpressure. If this valve should fail, the SV would immediately
release the pressure.
148 9 Safety Devices

Practical Advice
Safety against overpressure must be provided by safety valves or bursting discs. They open
or burst when the response pressure is reached – potential danger! A bursting disc releases
the entire pressure in the event of a response. The safety valve closes when the pressure falls
below the set pressure. In the case of natural gas, the gas phase must be discharged into the
vent. Oversizing must be avoided. The safety valve must be designed according to pressure,
temperature and maximum blow-off volume. The gas must be able to flow off unhindered.
The safety valve on the vacuum-insulated tank is designed according to the possible pres-
sure increase due to heat penetration, i.e. the projected pressure increase according to the
data sheet, and recently also for the pressure increase in the event of fire. The safety valve
downstream of the evaporator is determined according to the evaporator capacity men-
tioned. Pipelines which can be shut off and which may have liquid residues should be
blown off in such a way that the liquid is first pressed out of the pipe section or container.

Versions
There are many different types of safety valves.

For LNG/CNG as a combustible gas, only a non-ventilatable SV is permissible. In natu-

ral gas systems, no liftable valves may be used in general. Otherwise, safety valves do not
differ significantly in their design. A distinction is made between valves with an elastomer
seat and those with a metallic seal. The system designer decides which type is used. In most
cases, an angle valve is chosen, since this design has a pipe connection to which the blow-
off line can be connected. The gas is discharged in a controlled manner via this line.
In case of service or malfunction caused by the safety relief valve, the valve must be
taken out of service and replaced. With the safety retractable assembly (see following sec-
tion), a safety valve is always in use in case of service. This ensures the required safety.
Tampering with the SV is strictly prohibited. The SV must be sealed. If the seal is bro-
ken or damaged, the valve must be taken out of service.

Installation
The SV line of the tank is generally connected to the gas compartment so that gas is always
blown out. The SV blows out into the exhaust gas vent (see Fig. 9.2). The valve outlets for
SV and process relief valve can be combined in one pipe. This is possible in this applica-
tion, since only one of the two valves is always ready for operation. The pipe cross-­sections
of the valve outlets must not be tapered. Long SV discharge lines must be calculated with
regard to the pressure loss to be expected. The pressure loss in the supply line to the SV
must not exceed 3%.

The easiest way to prevent condensate from accumulating in front of the valve seat is
to install the pipe away from the valve with a downward slope (see Fig. 9.2). If it has to be
installed on an uphill slope (see Fig. 9.3), a downhill slope with a lower bend must be
installed upstream of the valve. The bend has a hole (approx. ½ pipe diameter) at the apex
9.1 Safety Valves 149

Discharge line always falling away from the valve

SV
Connection to flue gas chimney

Fig. 9.2 Design of the relief line of a safety valve

Discharge line
·
SV
Z. B. Connection to flue gas chimney
Drainage opening

Fig. 9.3 Design of the blow-off line with drainage of a safety valve

through which the condensate – or precipitation that has penetrated despite all due care –
can drain off.

Note The exhaust line must be laid in such a way that no moisture (formation of conden-
sate) can accumulate in front of the valve seat.

The pipe cross-section of the discharge line must at least correspond to the discharge
cross-section of the valve seat. Constrictions or narrowings are not permitted. When plan-
ning the installation, it must be ensured that the blow-out ends cannot be blocked by pre-
cipitation (snow, freezing rain), for example.
The tank is equipped with a safety valve combination. It is to be stably attached to a
specially designed structure. Attempts are always made to use the strength and stability of
the connected pipeline. This is dangerous, because the momentum of the escaping gas flow
is often underestimated.
The leakage of liquid at the safety relief valve is not necessarily to be interpreted as
overfilling, rather blow-off occurs when the permissible operating pressure is reached and
exceeded. The reason for the leakage of liquid is the throttling effect, which causes cool-
ing. In the valve seat of the safety relief valve, the gas cools down on the line of constant
enthalpy. The boiling temperature can be undercut and the gas condenses.
150 9 Safety Devices

Maintenance and Control

The safety valves must be strictly checked and maintained. When installing them, check
that the seals are undamaged and that the pressure indicated on the nameplate is identical
to that specified. Only then is installation to be carried out. The inspection cycles are to be
determined by the plant operator in accordance with the operating instructions or rules and
regulations. Adjustment and sealing may only be carried out by approved bodies. As a
rule, this is done by the manufacturer who has the corresponding approvals. The valve is
dismantled for inspection and the set pressure is periodically checked by an approved
body. If it complies with the specifications, the valve is resealed. If it does not, the required
value is set and the seal is affixed after the test has been successfully completed.

Note An unsealed valve must not be installed.

Summary
Safety valves must not be manipulated, the seal must be intact. Preferably an angle valve
is used because of the possible pipe connection. The SV must not be able to be vented.
The safety valve is installed on a shuttle valve fitting so that one valve always protects
the tank pressure. The set pressure should be 0.5 bar above the permissible tank pressure.
The blow-out line must be routed so that no moisture can reach the valve seat.
The pressure loss in the safety valve combination or in the 3-way valve must be taken
into account and must not be neglected in the calculation of the total pressure loss.
Escaping liquid at the safety valve of the tank is not an indication for the overfilling of the
tank, but indicates an expansion process of cold gas.

9.1.2 Safety Shuttle Valve of the Tank

The safety valve limits the tank pressure to the permissible level and prevents the tank
from bursting.
The safety shuttle valve consists of two commercially available safety valves with the
same predetermined set pressure mounted on a valve block, a safety shuttle fitting. Older
versions use the contour, whereby the valves are screwed onto a manifold. The safety
retractable assembly/distributor line is set so that only 1 SV is operational at any time. This
allows the other SV to be dismantled at any time, e.g. for testing, thus keeping the tank
safe. The tank remains fully operational, alternatively it would have to be emptied. The
valves are interlocked with the safety retractable assembly.

Summary
The safety shuttle valves are mandatory on every vacuum insulated tank. They enable the
safe replacement of the safety valves during full operation. To check the safety valves, the
prescribed seal must be broken and a new seal must be placed after successful testing.
9.1 Safety Valves 151

Fig. 9.4 Safety retractable

assembly. (Source: Herose,
Bad Oldesloe)

9.1.2.1 Safety Retractable Assembly

New installations are equipped with safety retractable valves (see Fig. 9.4). The valve
block/safety retractable assembly is a specially developed kit. The handwheel can only be
used to enable or disable the path for one valve. There is no closed safety retractable
assembly. Due to the design, it is not possible to take both valves out of service, otherwise
the tank would go into an unsafe condition. When replacing the valves, the spindle is
moved so that one outlet is blocked but the other is open and the safety valve is in opera-
tion. In the center position, both valves are operational. This is inappropriate.

Operating Mode
The safety retractable assembly is only actuated to change the respective safety valve. It
always opens the way to one or both safety valves. Figure 9.5 shows the connecting cham-
ber. The channels lead from it to the valve connections. In case of service, the handwheel
is turned as far as it will go so that the valve to be replaced no longer receives pressure and
can be dismantled.

In the past, safety retractable valves were manufactured with a mutually locking con-
tour. They were made of a solid sheet metal (old design) and are still in use today. They do
not need to be replaced. The contour uses a 3-way cock. This runs in the contour that
releases either one or the other valve.
Shuttle valve block or 3-way valve with contour must be sealed in their end position.
The seals are broken when the safety valves are changed and must be resealed after
processing.

Summary
The safety retractable assembly protects the tank, as one safety valve always remains
engaged. It is technically not possible to shut off both safety valves. After adjusting the
safety shuttle valve, it must be sealed again.
152 9 Safety Devices

Fig. 9.5 Sectional view of safety retractable assembly. (Source: Herose Bad, Oldesloe)

Fig. 9.6 Integrated safety

shut-off valve with gas
pressure regulator. (Source:
Medenus GmbH, Olpe)

9.1.3 Integrated Safety Shut-Off Valve in Gas Pressure Regulators

This valve (see Fig. 9.6) is preferably used upstream of gas engines, in natural gas supply
systems and in industrial plants. They are limited to a specified inlet pressure and the
downstream plant must be protected against overpressure or underpressure.
9.2 Process Relief Valve on the Tank 153

The fitting is also suitable for use in supply systems that supply a network with a few
mmWS. It would be fatal if the network is subjected to an increased gas pressure due to
damage to the valve or another fault.
The safety shut-off valve (SSV) triggers automatically under positive or negative pres-
sure at the set shut-off value and must be reset manually for safety reasons.

Summary
The safety shut-off valve with gas pressure regulator is installed when gas pressures must
not be exceeded or fallen short of under any circumstances. After being triggered, it must
be manually unlocked.

9.2 Process Relief Valve on the Tank

A process relief valve works like the safety valve. However, it is not a safety device and
therefore not prescribed. The blow-off pressure will be just below that of the safety valve
and just above the switching point of the safety shut-off valve (see Sect. 9.3). It is a pres-
sure relief valve or relief flow valve connected in parallel with the safety relief valve.
Unlike the SV, this may be isolated from the process with a shut-off valve.

Note The blow-off capacity should correspond to the pressure increase due to the
heat input.

The process pressure relief valve protects the prescribed safety valve, because its blow-
off capacity is tailored to the case of fire, if necessary, and is therefore completely overdi-
mensioned for normal cases. When responding, it would open and close in short, powerful
bursts. This would result in an unnecessary wear factor. The process relief valve thus also
supports the reliable function of the safety valves.

Installation
The valve is integrated into the SV line and positioned there parallel to the SV. It is posi-
tioned downstream of the SV and can be isolated from the process with a shut-off valve.
The blow-off line leads into the exhaust gas vent.

Version
The valve corresponds in principle to the SV, but this is neither sealed nor calibrated. It
should be set so that it opens immediately under the pressure of the SV. The SV will not
respond and is thus protected.

Operating Mode
The process relief valve, like the SV, should not respond. If it happens nevertheless, an
operating fault must be assumed. The cause must be found and eliminated immediately.
154 9 Safety Devices

Maintenance and Control

The process pressure relief valve should be serviced regularly to ensure that it opens reli-
ably at the set pressure. The control cycles are to be determined by the plant operator
according to the operating instructions. The valve is disassembled for inspection and the
set pressure is checked. If this does not meet the specifications, the valve is readjusted and
reinstalled.

Summary
The response pressure of the process relief valve is below that of the safety valve and
above that of the safety shut-off valve. The valve is not safety relevant and is therefore
designed to be shut off.

9.3 Safety Shut-Off Valve of the Tank

The safety shut-off valve (SAA), explained using the example of the MG 97 valve from
Herose, was developed and introduced years ago by the then Messer Griesheim company
(see Figs. 9.7 and 9.8). Its purpose is to prevent the tank from bursting. The development
was the result of the evaluation of a serious accident which occurred when a vacuum-­
insulated tank was overfilled. At the time, the safety valve responded and discharged the
rising gas pressure, but was overwhelmed to control the flow rate of the tanker’s centrifu-
gal pump. The pressure continued to rise until the tank burst. According to the regulations,
an SAA is now mandatory for every vacuum-insulated tank.
On the LNG tank, this fitting has another task: it is generally intended to prevent over-
filling of the tank, because the overfilled quantity cannot be discharged, as is the case with
air gases. Therefore, other measures must be taken to ensure safety. In the case of LNG,
the overfill prevention device (see Sect. 6.2) must not only prevent the tank from bursting
but must also prevent the tank from being overfilled. Without an overfill protection system,
the LNG rising above the permissible filling level would generate the necessary pressure
increase.

Relief lines in gas

compartment of the tank
Pneum. Control line from
Relief pipes in
gas compartment commend
SV exhaust gas chimney

Control head pneumatic, unlocks at

closing pressure Closing spring Solenoid valve ex 1

to the tank

Safety shut-off valve SAA Zero dead space coupling

Fig. 9.7 Installation of the SAA MG97

9.3 Safety Shut-Off Valve of the Tank 155

Fig. 9.8 Safety shut-off valve

MG 97. (Source: Herose, Bad
Oldesloe)

With the overfill protection, the switching pressure for the safety shut-off valve is gen-
erated by the gas formation. This closes abruptly when the pressure is reached, the filling
process is finished, overfilling is impossible. Like the safety valve, the safety shut-off
valve works autonomously, without auxiliary energy and independently of the system
control.

Installation
It is installed in the filling line of the tank directly behind the coupling and, viewed in the
direction of flow, is located upstream of the branch for upper and lower filling. The control
line of the SAA is connected to the gas space of the tank so that the pressure in the gas
space is applied to the SAA. When the pressure rises to closing pressure, the SAA closes.

Version
The SAA operates without current and completely independently of the other safety
valves. It is actuated by the gas pressure of the tank. When the gas pressure is reached –
this pressure is set beforehand – the lock of a spring is released.

Note The valve closes at the pressure point. It can only be unlocked with a special key.
This key must not be generally accessible. The SAA may only be unlocked by qualified
persons.
156 9 Safety Devices

The tank can only be refilled after it has been unlocked. A fault has preceded the trig-
gering of the SAA. This must be rectified. Therefore, the unlocking may only be carried
out by a certain group of persons.

Operating Mode
The trigger pressure for shutting off the inflow must be below the opening pressure of the
safety valve. If LNG has reached the permissible filling level and runs into the pipe con-
nection of the overfill protection, then vaporizes suddenly in the vaporizer and thus
increases the gas pressure in the tank to the trigger pressure, the SAA closes.

It was observed that the SAA trip pressure was set to be higher than the SV set pressure.
Consequently, the SAA does not trip, the SV blows off the pressure, and the pump contin-
ues to overfill. Fluid then leaks through the SV. If the delivery line of the pump is larger
than the possible blow-off volume of the SV, the pressure continues to rise.

Note The set pressure of the SAA must be below that of the process relief valve and
below the set pressure of the SV. The highest pressure point is that of the SV, below that of
the process relief valve and below that the SAA switches.

The following scenario is assumed: During filling of the tank, the gas pressure increases.
It reaches the release pressure and the SAA closes. There is an operating error. The pres-
sure should not reach the trigger pressure, because it is very likely that the tank was filled
with at least a partial flow from below. The SAA can also trip and thus close when the tank
pressure approaches the allowable operating pressure. This is possible due to the process,
as the closing pressure of the SAA must be below that of the process relief valve/SV. If the
closing pressure is reached, refuelling is not possible. The tank was demonstrably empty
and should be filled. The gas pressure must be released below the release pressure of the
SAA so that the SAA can be unlocked. During the subsequent refuelling from above, the
pressure is inevitably lowered.

Maintenance and Control

The SAA must be checked at regular intervals for function with regard to the set tripping
pressure point. The cycles are determined by the operator.

Summary
The safety shut-off valve, in conjunction with the overfill protection, prevents overfilling
of the tank. The closing of the safety shut-off valve is indicated on the valve. Unlocking
may only be carried out by qualified and specially trained persons. Unlocking must be
carried out before the tank is refilled.
Due to the process, it is possible to reach the closing pressure without filling. In this
case, before refuelling, the gas must be vented into the exhaust gas vent via the gas extrac-
tion line until the closing pressure of the SAA is not reached.
9.5 Overfill Protection 157

The response pressure of the safety shut-off valve must be lower than that of the process
relief valve. In case of danger, the SAA would not close.

9.4 Setting the Opening Pressures of the Safety Devices

on the Tank

The tolerance of the springs in the safety valves should be assumed to be 0.5 bar. Therefore,
the stages should be set at least 0.5 bar. The free cross-section of the valve should be cal-
culated by the manufacturer using the data for the tank.
The safety shuttle valve is set to the permissible tank pressure. At least 0.5 bar below
the safety shuttle valve is the switching point of the process pressure relief valve and
below this again approx. 0.5 bar is the switching point of the safety shut-off valve.
With the specified switching points, the process pressure relief valve always opens first,
thus protecting the pressure-calibrated safety valve of the tank. The safety shut-off valve
must respond before the process relief valve opens and must be unlocked for further opera-
tion. If this has not been installed, this statement applies to the SV. If, for example, a tank
has a permissible pressure of 18 bar, the SV should respond at 18.5 bar, the process pres-
sure relief valve at 18.0 bar and the safety shut-off valve at 17.5 bar. Observation of the
pressure behaviour of the tank helps to avoid closing of the safety shut-off valve. In the
case of the SAA MG97, the red flag under the hood indicates whether the valve is closed.
In addition, reaching the closing pressure of the safety shut-off valve can also be detected
by a pressure sensor and the expected closing indicated.

Note Before each refuelling check that the SAA is open.

Summary
The safety valve must be set to the highest permissible tank pressure. Below this, the process
pressure relief valve responds. The safety shut-off valve must close before the process pressure
relief valve. If this is not present, the closing pressure refers to the pressure of the safety valve.
A different pressure setting can lead to the tank bursting despite the presence of safety fittings.

9.5 Overfill Protection

The overfill protection in the form described below is not part of the regulations. With the
overfill protection system, the requirements of the regulations are met exactly and further
safety requirements are fulfilled. The installation is indispensable on the LNG tank, as can
be seen in the preceding Sect. 9.3.
The overfill protection, like the safety shut-off valve, must react independently of the
system of the plant. Like the SV line, it must not be capable of being shut off. It must be
ensured that it is effective in the event of a power failure or the failure of another auxiliary
power supply.
158 9 Safety Devices

Note Detection of overfilling must always be independent of filling and must react auton-
omously and close the SAA despite the failure of an auxiliary energy, e.g. power or control
pressure. The sounding pipe described in the regulations must not be used on LNG tanks,
as environmentally harmful and/or toxic gases are released through it. If it has been
installed, it must be blocked.

When the fill level is reached and exceeded, LNG flows into the vaporizer through the
overflow. Gas is generated instantaneously, which increases the gas pressure in the gas
space of the tank. This must be done before the permissible fill level is reached, as the fill-
ing pump has an overrun. The overflow line leading into the vaporizer is connected just
below the permissible fill level. The closing pressure must be reached very quickly so that
the SAA is triggered. The pump overruns and delivers during this overrun time. The pump
presses against a closed valve and switches off via the system’s own pressure switch. An
otherwise necessary draining is omitted.
Should an additional check of the filling level be necessary, where the described mea-
sures are not sufficient, the safety requirements for methane must be observed and fulfilled
in any case (e.g. Ex-class of an electrical sensor). Should it be necessary to blow off larger
quantities, only local combustion of the gas is possible. All possible variants of the release
of natural gas require coordination with and permission from the responsible authorities.
It was observed that an electrically operating temperature sensor should detect the over-
filling. When the temperature falls below a certain level, the SAA is closed. For this pur-
pose, at the maximum permissible level, the overflow line was installed. If the tank is
overfilled, LNG runs into the overflow line, at the end of which is a vessel whose tempera-
ture is monitored by a temperature sensor. Both solutions are not self-sufficient and there-
fore not effective. They do not comply with the specifications of the regulations for
self-sufficient safety devices.

Practical Advice
The LNG tank must have an overfill protection which autonomously closes the inlet in case
of overfilling. The pressure is triggered with the gas pressure that is developed in the vaporizer.
Other solutions require a pressure build-up through overfilling. This is meaningless for
air gases; in the case of LNG, unacceptable environmental pollution occurs.

9.6 Overfill Protection

9.6.1 Overfill Protection by Gas Pressure Build-Up

An overfill protection (Fig. 9.9) consists of:

• the overflow pipe, which is installed in the double jacket of the tank and leads
downwards;
9.6 Overfill Protection 159

95%

SV combination Relief valve

Sensor for switching off the refuelling pump

SAA-MG 97

Fig. 9.9 Overfill protection for vacuum insulated tanks

• a pipe routing without any shut-off or constricting internals;

• the overflow line, which is connected to the tank at the point of the max. filling level;
• the connected vaporizer, which is flooded with liquid in the event of an unacceptable
level and suddenly vaporizes LNG;
• the vaporizer, which opens in the gas compartment of the tank and builds up the required
switching pressure for the SAA when LNG enters.

The switching pressure is generated by a few liters of fluid. The overfilling does not occur.
The pipeline of the liquid phase should be connected immediately below the 95% mark so
that overfilling is excluded while observing the reaction time. At the same time the valve
closes. Optionally, the switching process can be supported by switching off the pump.
Unlike air gases, LNG cannot be allowed to overfill in any way. The same applies to
other hazardous gases (flammable, toxic, environmentally harmful). A special overfill pro-
tection system must be installed. The safety shut-off valve prevents further filling of the
tank, no product has to be drained.
The overfill protection fulfils another task. If product is not removed immediately after
refuelling, the inevitable heat penetration causes the density to decrease and the liquid to
descend. The permissible filling level is reached and exceeded. Until now, for lack of a
better solution, this has been countered by partially filling the tank, e.g. only 70%.
160 9 Safety Devices

Alternatively, the blowdown pressure of the SV or the process relief valve could be
reduced. This would make the tank more likely to blow off when the pressure rises. Both
are uneconomical, as unnecessary tank volume has been installed that cannot be used for
storage.

Installation
The overfill protection is part of the tank. The overflow line is installed at filling level and
ends under the tank in an air vaporizer. The outlet of the air vaporizer opens into the gas
space of the tank. If overfilling should occur, the gas rises in the gas return into the gas
space of the tank and increases the gas pressure there up to the closing pressure of the
safety shut-off valve. So that no additional gas pressure can be created by thermals in the
line, the gas return is introduced into the gas space from above. A siphon is to be provided
in the downward overflow line (in it any circulation due to condensate formation is inter-
rupted). This eliminates any possible pressure-increasing circulation.

Operating Mode
With the new type of overfill protection, the permissible filling level cannot be exceeded.
Exceeding it is impossible, because the overflowing product first closes the SAA. With
further expansion, the LNG continues to run into the evaporator, is evaporated and, when
the permissible pressure is reached, is blown off via the process relief valve. If this valve
has not been installed, this task is performed by the SV. The blow-off volume of the pro-
cess pressure relief valve corresponds to the pressure increase and the reduction in density
that occurs in the tank due to the natural heat supply (according to the data sheet). The
valves, whether process relief valve or SV, are not overloaded but operate within their
projected operating range.

9.6.2 Overfill Protection by Gas Pressure Build-Up as Retrofitting

If newer tanks are to be used for LNG, retrofitting in the double jacket is not economical.
Alternatively, a communicating, vacuum-insulated line running parallel to the tank is
installed. It connects the liquid phase with the gas phase outside the tank. Now, as with the
tank with integrated overflow protection, a T-piece is placed at the level of the 95% filling
level, to which the overflow line to the evaporator is connected. The outlet of the evapora-
tor is led with the gas phase of the tank. The connection can be made, for example, at the
line to the SV or process pressure relief valve. If overfilling now occurs, liquid runs into
the evaporator with an inadmissibly rising filling level, is evaporated just as abruptly and
increases the gas pressure of the tank (see Fig. 9.10).

Version
The overfill protection is a simple pipe system without any fittings. The air vaporizer gen-
erates the switching pressure in case of overfilling. The riser line up to the T-piece is
9.6 Overfill Protection 161

Connecon safety valve

SV Combinaon

max. filling Process over-

level pressure valve

Manual shut-off valve

Air Evaporator
Seng pressures:
Safety valve x bar
Process relief valve x - 0.5 bar
SAA x -1 bar

vacuum
insulated pipe
Liquid withdrawal- Refueling line
line Hose coupling
SAA MG 97

Fig. 9.10 Installation of the overfill protection as retrofit kit. (Hoffmann & Hoppestock GmbH,
Wernigerode)

vacuum insulated. The section of the system filled with gas remains uninsulated. The pipe
cross-sections are to be selected so that they quickly fill the air evaporator and should have
a free diameter of not less than 15 mm.

Operating Mode
The overfill protection is a safety device that supplements the safety shut-off valve. It only
comes into action when the tank starts to overfill.

Maintenance and Control

The maintenance and inspection refers to the simple regular visual inspection according to
the operational regulations. Special care must be taken to ensure that the evaporator sur-
faces are clean.

Summary
The overfill protection must work reliably/autonomously without any auxiliary energy. In
the design described, it permits filling to 95% of the geometric tank volume, provided all
safety precautions are observed. When the permissible filling level is reached, liquid runs
into the evaporator and evaporates there. The SAA closes. If the gas pressure in the system
increases due to heat input until the response pressure of the process relief valve is reached,
it blows off the pressure. A solution is described for retrofitting existing tanks.
162 9 Safety Devices

9.7 Exhaust Gas Routing

Escaping natural gas must be controlled and safely discharged. For this purpose, a vent is
installed which ends above the plant. The discharged gas can spread freely and with-
out danger.

Installation
The chimney is erected in the immediate vicinity of the plant. It must be secured against
tipping over. All blow-out lines, those of the safety valves, the process relief valve, the
relief lines and all other gas outlets end in it. To ensure that there is always a stack effect
in the pipe, there are openings at the bottom through which air can enter and rise in the
vent. The sun shining on the vent heats it and the air in the upper part. The resulting buoy-
ancy moves the air through the vent. If natural gas enters, it is captured by this air flow and
safely discharged upwards.

Version
The chimney is a smooth pipe leading upwards, which has a drainage at the lower end next
to the openings for the draught. The upper outlet must be provided with a weather protec-
tion. The cross-section must be at least as large as the sum of the pipe cross-sections
supplied.

Openings shall be provided at the bottom which are expected to provide a good draught.
The discharge height shall ensure that a natural gas cloud does not cause a hazard in
nearby areas. A hazard analysis shall be prepared to demonstrate that the selected dis-
charge height will not allow an ignitable gas-air mixture to move into an area where an
ignition spark is possible.

Operating Mode
The vent only comes into action in the event of an accident or as part of a controlled gas
discharge.

Maintenance and Control

Maintenance and inspection must be ensured by operational specifications. Care must be
taken to ensure that the chimney does not become blocked (e.g. bird nests).

Summary
The exhaust gas chimney discharges escaping natural gas in a controlled and safe manner.
The cross-section must be at least as large as the sum of the supplied pipe cross-sections.
The possible gas cloud must not reach any area where an ignition spark could be expected.
9.9 Sounding Pipes on the LNG Tank 163

9.8 Gas Warning Systems

Pipe connections, transitions and connecting pieces to fittings of a natural gas filling sta-
tion are to be welded if possible. This excludes the possibility of gas escaping. Nevertheless,
certain connections are only available with thread or must be screwed for other reasons.
These screwed connections, even if they have an NPT thread and are thus described as
technically gas-tight, must be monitored for leaks. For this purpose, a hood is placed over
the relevant components in which methane vapours can become trapped. A methane sen-
sor is installed in the hood. The sensor already indicates concentrations of less than 1%. At
this moment, a warning signal is to be triggered.
Leaks in the liquid area are obvious. A layer of ice forms at these points.

Practical Advice
Screwed connections must be monitored for tightness. A hood with sensor is to be pro-
vided above the screwed connections. Monitoring is carried out with methane sensors.

9.9 Sounding Pipes on the LNG Tank

A dip tube is a fixed level control and ends in each case at the level that is to be verified,
which is usually 95% of the geometric volume. This means that the tank is considered to
be 100% full. This only applies to air gases; the sounding pipe is not permitted for
LNG tanks.

Note A sounding pipe may be installed on old tanks, but may not be used in regular ser-
vice for LNG.

The level indicator always refers only to a certain condition of the product. This does
not correspond to practice and should only serve as a rough guide: Namely, in the event
that all other possibilities are not functional.
The respective air gas is blown off via the dip tube. If the filling level has not been
reached, it is gas phase; if it has been reached or overfilled, liquid phase is blown off.
Extreme caution is required, as splashes should not hit the skin or clothing.
Air gases are heavier than air at boiling temperature and spreads out at the bottom.
Slowly it is heated at the bottom and rises. When cold, it can flow into openings such as
ducts and cellars – this is certainly to be avoided. A sounding pipe on LNG tanks can only
be used if the escaping gas is burnt or collected.

Installation
The dip tube is laid in the double jacket of the tank. It ends at the top of the gas space at
the level of the desired filling level of the tank, the other end is led to the outside at the
bottom and closed there with a valve.
164 9 Safety Devices

Maintenance and Control

The sounding pipe – if it is still part of the tank – is blocked according to the operational
regulations and thus cannot be operated.

Summary
A sounding pipe must not be used on the LNG tank or care must be taken to ensure that
the escaping gas/liquid does not escape into the atmosphere as unburned gas. The possible
blow-out area must be kept free of obstructions and must not be obstructed by objects.
Constructive Description of the Hose
Couplings for Tank Filling 10

Abstract

The connection of the tanks with the vehicle tank has an outstanding importance, espe-
cially for the safety and for the quality of the product. The connection is made with a
hose. At the interface between the hose and the tank is the coupling. This coupling must
be used to reliably exclude the ingress of air. Natural gas contaminated with air can
cause operating faults and restrict mixed condensation. This cannot be prevented with
open refuelling systems.

The connection of the tanks with the vehicle tank has an outstanding importance, espe-
cially for the safety and for the quality of the product. The connection is made with a hose.
At the interface between the hose and the tank is the coupling. With this coupling, the
ingress of air must be reliably excluded in the case of LNG. Natural gas contaminated with
air can cause operational problems and restrict mixed condensation. This cannot be pre-
vented with open refuelling systems.

Note LNG tanks may only be refuelled with closed refuelling systems. Avoiding air
pockets requires a dead space free coupling.

If air enters the tank compartment, an explosive gas mixture will form there. If the
safety valve blows off an ignitable mixture at an unfavourable moment, this gas cloud
could be ignited. We should not speculate further. Accidents usually occur when unex-
pected conditions coincide. Therefore, extreme caution is advised.
There are closed refueling systems that trap air in the coupling. So far, this is due to the
design. Air always transports moisture because it is a component of the air. Moisture

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 165

GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2024
W. Hermeling, Compendium for the LNG and CNG Practitioner,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38258-2_10
166 10 Constructive Description of the Hose Couplings for Tank Filling

crystallizes in the tank and settles or floats in the product. The process is repeated very
often. A large number of ice crystals are formed. They are carried into the pump or pres-
sure lock and further into the pipe system. In the pump or pressure lock, an ice crystal can
hinder the function of the valves. In the piping system, it cannot be ruled out that opera-
tional malfunctions occur due to condensation of the moisture.
The more air there is in the gas space of the tank, the lower the possibility that the tank
pressure can be lowered by mixed condensation. The air cannot be condensed by cooling
because its boiling point is lower than that of the LNG. It should be noted that the boiling
point increases as the partial pressure decreases.

Note Air in the tank can only be removed by extracting the gas phase. If no gas extraction
is possible due to the process (e.g. Liqui-Flow process or cryogenic pump), the conse-
quences described above are to be expected.

Summary
The tanks are connected by means of a hose line. The design of this connection has an
influence on safety, quality and process control. No air may enter the system during the
transfer.

10.1 Coupling of Open Systems

Open systems are simple hose connections between the vehicle tank and the local cus-
tomer tank (see Sect. 3.4.1). Open systems do not meet the safety requirements for LNG,
including those of the one-man workplace. Due to the necessary flushing, the ecological
conditions (keyword BImSchG) are not met.

Note Open hose systems are not permitted for LNG.

Summary
Open coupling systems are not suitable for LNG. If they are used, special safety precau-
tions must be taken to exclude the formation of an explosive gas-air mixture and contami-
nation of the product. They are ecologically disadvantageous.

10.2 Coupling of Closed Systems

LNG shall be transferred from tank trucks to the local LNG tank with a closed hose sys-
tem. In closed coupling systems (see Sect. 3.4.2) the hose remains connected to the vehicle
tank and on each side the coupling piece remains closed. The interface is a dead space free
coupling (see Sect. 10.2.2). The respective coupling part is not opened until the hose has
10.2 Coupling of Closed Systems 167

been connected to the tank. For lack of a better solution, coupling systems with dead space
are still used at present.
The previous designs use the ball valve, piston or flap systems for closing.
If the SAA terminates the defuelling process, i.e. the tank has been overfilled and the
valve has been closed, there is fluid between the coupling. If the pressure is not released
immediately, an unacceptably high pressure will build up there. Therefore there must be a
possibility to release the pressure, as described in Sect. 9.3 and sketched on Fig. 9.7. The
automatically switching solenoid valve opens at the end of the refuelling process. It closes
automatically when refuelling begins.
Viewed in the direction of flow, the manual shut-off valves for the upper and lower fill-
ing are installed after the SAA. Should the valves be closed in the event of overfilling of
the tank, an impermissible pressure can arise here. Therefore, this section, like the one
before the SAA, must always be provided with a relief line into the gas compartment of
the tank. The relief line is located at the lowest point of the section. In the case of horizon-
tal pipelines, this is the lower apex of the pipe. This is where the line is to be positioned. If
the pipeline rises, the relief line must be integrated at the lower end of the pipeline. As
pressure develops, the resulting gas will force the liquid out of the section. This will mini-
mize the formation of gas. It is important that the gas phase displaces the liquid phase.
Tank pressure builds up in the pipe sections. The existing gas pressure prevents air from
entering the system through a leak at the coupling.
If the line section is protected with one SV each, it always blows off the gas into the
exhaust gas vent. A residual pressure remains in the line.

Practical Advice
In the case of a closed coupling system, the section between the upper and lower filling
must be secured against overpressure. The section between coupling and SAA as well as
between SAA and the following valves shall be secured by one relief valve each into the
gas compartment of the tank or by a SV.
For LNG only closed dead space free coupling systems should be used. After discon-
nection, the coupling halves remain on the hose or tank and do not allow air to enter. The
connection lines remain under the gas pressure of the tank, the hose under the pressure of
the vehicle tank.

10.2.1 Couplings with Dead Space

It is assumed for the application of these couplings that the small cavities in the coupling
system due to the design do not allow an ignitable mixture to form in the gas space of the
tank. Unfortunately, this is not the case. With a large number of adaptations, the air volume
cumulates.
168 10 Constructive Description of the Hose Couplings for Tank Filling

Note During the project planning of the system, it must be checked after how many refu-
ellings what quantity of air is in the gas space of the tank. Stratifications may occur which
have a higher concentration than the average concentration to be expected by calculation.
It must not be assumed that air – which is heavier than methane – is evenly distributed in
the gas space.

It is possible that if the dead space is extremely small, no further measures need to be
taken. However, if dangerous concentrations are predicted to be reached, the gas compart-
ment must be purged cyclically. In gas heating systems or CHP circuits, gas can be with-
drawn from the gas space while minimizing the air concentration so that the hazardous
area is left with absolute safety. In pumps or Liqui-Flow systems, the gas must be removed
in another way, e.g. by combustion.

Summary
For closed systems with dead space, there is the possibility of explosive gas-air mixtures
forming in the gas space of the tank due to a large number of refuelling operations. The
lower boiling air cannot be condensed with the higher boiling methane. Therefore, the air
concentration in the tank increases with each refuelling process. This circumstance must
be taken into account during project planning and any safety measures must be prescribed.

10.2.2 Couplings Without Dead Space

The FUHEKA® coupling (see Fig. 10.1) is an example of a coupling without dead space.
It will be used to demonstrate the possibilities and requirements, but it must be emphasised
that other solutions can be just as effective.
A dead space free coupling excludes the possibility of air entering the system during
refuelling and gas or LNG escaping. Only natural gas can flow into the tank as a liquid or
gas phase. No explosive air-natural gas mixture can form in the gas compartment of the
tank. If the hose is disconnected from the local tank after completion of refuelling, the gas
pressure of the tanker vehicle is established in it.
The operation of the coupling is shown in Figs. 10.2, 10.3 and 10.4. In the disconnected
state (Fig. 10.2) both ends are closed. The hose side is firmly connected to the hose, the
other half is a fixed part of the tank. In the next picture (Fig. 10.3) both halves are moved
together, the coupling is closed. The connecting claw holds the coupling together. Both
surfaces are flush with each other without gaps, air pockets are not possible. In Fig. 10.4
the coupling is open on the inside. The cone of the tank part pushes open the cone of the
hose part and the product flow has a free path. The sketched gap corresponds to the cross-­
sectional area of the pipe connection on the tank side. The cones are locked in such a way
that they cannot be opened until the coupling with the connecting claw is closed. This is
achieved by a mechanical interlock. Sensors are integrated in the sealing surfaces that
meet. The local tank to be detected is programmed into the hose side of the coupling at the
filling point. Thus, it is not possible that a tank is inadvertently served which is not intended
for delivery. The sensor must detect the manually fed coupling counterpart, the hose part.
10.2 Coupling of Closed Systems 169

Fig. 10.1 FUHEKA coupling with control unit. (Source: Hoffmann & Hoppestock GmbH,
Wernigerode)

Clutch housing Tank Coupling housing Hose

Pipeline Hose line

Valve plug Tank

Valve cone
connection Connecting claw
Hose connection

Fig. 10.2 The coupling is separated, both ends are tightly sealed

Only if the corresponding counterpart fits, the connection closes automatically. Then the
coupling can be opened following a signal (keystroke). Before that, it would not react. The
cone of the tank side pushes the cone of the hose side inwards so that a gap corresponding
to the pipe cross-section of the tank connection is released.
Not shown is the siphon of the coupling installed on the tank side. At the end of refuel-
ling, LNG remains in the pipeline. To prevent the product from flowing back to the cou-
pling after refuelling, a siphon is provided in front of the coupling in which a gas cushion
is formed. It prevents the cold liquid from reaching the coupling mechanism. The coupling
warms up again more quickly to ambient temperature. This minimizes the formation of
condensate on the coupling surfaces. The coupling operates fully automatically. Its control
170 10 Constructive Description of the Hose Couplings for Tank Filling

Gap only present in sketch

Clutch home tank Coupling home hose

Pipeline Hose line

Connecting claw
Valve cone Tank Valve cone Hose
connection connection

Fig. 10.3 The clutch is collapsed, but still closed

Gap only present in sketch

Clutch home tank Coupling home hose

Pipeline Hose line

Valve cone
Connecting claw

Valve plug
Tank connection Hose connection

Fig. 10.4 The coupling releases the product flow

is integrated into the system control of the filling station or the natural gas supply system.
The control box for the coupling is positioned close to it.
In the overview in Table 10.1 the costs, from investment to daily use, are considered in
a complex way. This is contrasted with an open coupling system. This is a very cost-­
effective equipment and it can be assumed that it represents the more economical variant
of the two.
10.2 Coupling of Closed Systems 171

Table 10.1 Cost overview FUHEKA coupling

FUHEKA coupling
Cost of tank coupling half € 15,000 1
15,000 €
Cost of truck coupling half € 5000
Tanks to be refilled daily 1 3 5
Cost of truck coupling half € 5000 € 5000 € 5000
Costs for coupling equipment € 20,000 € 50,000 € 80,000
Cap. service for coupling equipment 2472 € 6180 € 9888 €
Cap. service for 10 years, 4%
Handling time in min. 0.17 0.51 0.85
Connect 5 s + disconnect 5 s = 10 s
Cost per hour the tanker is stationary € 60
Cost per day in € € 0.17 € 0.51 € 0.85
Days per year 360
Annual costs 61 € 184 € 306 €
Total annual cost 2533 € 6364 € 10,194 €

The FUHEKA coupling engages or disengages in max. 10 s. It can be seen that the
handling times shrink to a minimum. The costs are determined solely by the capital service
for the investment. It is assumed that 1, 3 or 5 tanks are approached daily.
You can tell:

• In Table 10.2 the investment costs are insignificant.

• Personnel costs are much higher for simple and inexpensive open couplings and are the
decisive factor for profitability.

The decisive factor is security, because for the open system a second person is necessary
to secure the process. This was not taken into account with regard to the costs. The closed
system meets the highest safety requirements. It is a typical one-man workstation, a sec-
ond person does not have to be available. The coupling also meets the ecological
requirements.

Practical Advice
A closed dead space-free coupling excludes operating errors due to semi-automated pro-
cesses. Neither product can escape nor air can enter the system. A FUHEKA coupling, for
example, can only be opened if the coupling halves face each other in a closed position and
are firmly connected. Despite higher investment costs, it is more economical in the com-
plex consideration, since it fulfils the conditions for a one-man workplace.
172 10 Constructive Description of the Hose Couplings for Tank Filling

Table 10.2 Cost overview for any open system

Coupling for open system
Cost of truck coupling half (assumption) 400 1
400
Cost of tank coupling half (assumption) 400
Tanks to be refilled daily 1 3 5
Costs for tank coupling halves 400 1200 2000
Costs for coupling equipment 800 1600 2400
Cap. service for coupling equipment 98.88 197.76 296.64
Cap. service for 10 years, 4%
Handling time in min. 20 60 100
Connecting 5 min + loosening 15 min
Cost per hour the tanker is stationary 60 €
Cost per day in € € 20.00 € 60.00 € 100.00
Days per year 360
Costs handling time per year € 7200.00 € 21,600.00 € 36,000.00
Total annual cost € 7298.88 € 21,797.76 € 36,296.64

Installation
The coupling is firmly connected to the tanker hose and the latter to the vehicle tank. The
pressure of the tank truck tank prevails in it. During the journey, the hose lies in a holder.
The coupling itself is fixed in a fixture. The fixed anchorage can be checked from the
driver’s cab even while driving. For refuelling, the coupling is taken out of the locking
device and guided to the tank. There it is brought up to the counterpart, recognized and the
system is closed automatically.

Version
The coupling is available in nominal sizes from 18 to 40 and for a pressure up to 40 bar,
the maximum possible pump pressure. Due to the selected materials (austenitic stainless
steel) it can be used up to −196 °C. Sensors detect the coupling and only close when the
coupling halves are brought together. The coupling half on the tank side is equipped with
the motors for connecting the halves and for opening the coupling internally. They are
locked against each other.

Cold leading parts are protected by cold insulation. The coupling acts as a shut-off
valve, nevertheless an automatic shut-off valve after the coupling is recommended. It
opens when the coupling is open inside and gas or LNG is flowing. The section between
the SAA and the automatic valve must be protected against overpressure by a relief line
with an automatic valve.
10.2 Coupling of Closed Systems 173

Operating Mode
The clutch operates semi-automatically. Spraying with a separating agent, which prevents
icing, is not necessary. The coupling closes before and opens after each refuelling in max.
5 s each. The counterpart is brought up to the coupling, the coupling process starts. Once
the coupling is closed, the pump can go into operation. After the automatic cold run pro-
cess, the pump delivers the liquid. If the tanker is connected to the level gauge, the process
runs automatically until the programmed fill level is reached. When the fill level is reached,
the pump switches off, this is signalled. The refuelling process can also be terminated
manually by switching off the pump. The coupling is disconnected by pressing the corre-
sponding button on the control box. The coupling is placed in the lock with the hose. The
process is finished.

Since the hose side can only be opened with the tank side, unintentional opening is not
possible. The partially automated process allows the installation of a one-man worksta-
tion. As a possible accident risk remains that the coupling can fall on the feet of the person-
nel. However, they are protected by appropriate protective work shoes. The process is
designed for remote monitoring.

Maintenance and Control

Maintenance is limited to keeping the sealing surfaces of the coupling clean. This is sup-
ported by protecting the coupling on the tank with a dust cap after refuelling. The locking
device on the vehicle must be tightly sealed and, if necessary, heated to ambient tempera-
ture to prevent the formation of condensation. The clutch, like any other pressure compo-
nent, must be checked at regular intervals.

Practical Advice
The closed coupling without dead space allows a quick adaptation to the local tank. For
transport, the hose is fixed to the tanker without having to be separated from the tank.
Semi-automated operation is possible.
Insulations
11

Abstract

There is no such thing as absolute insulation. Different insulation materials and insula-
tion methods are described and special features are pointed out.

There is no such thing as absolute insulation. Insulation reduces thermal conduction, ther-
mal radiation and convection. All insulation methods prevent the transport of energy
either through

(a) Vacuum;
(b) still air, enclosed in the smallest cells – convective heat transfer is impossible there;
(c) Thermal conductivity of the material;
(d) a combination of the above.

Accordingly, a distinction is made between two fundamentally different insulation sys-

tems, vacuum insulation and solid insulation. Insulations are applied or executed with
corresponding processes. The insulation is a combination of insulating material and insu-
lating method. The cryogenic area of a system must always be insulated. It must be
checked whether this is also necessary for the gas phase, in particular for the gas return.
The decisive factor here is whether the heat content of the mass of the returning gas is
significant or whether this proportion is negligible.
Older insulation methods using glass wool or mineral fibres are no longer used in cryo-
genics and are therefore not discussed below.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 175

GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2024
W. Hermeling, Compendium for the LNG and CNG Practitioner,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38258-2_11
176 11 Insulations

Summary
There is no such thing as absolute insulation. Insulation reduces heat transfer, heat radia-
tion and convection. A distinction is made between vacuum and solid insulation.

11.1 Solid Insulation

Insulation materials based on glass fibres and similar materials are only found in very few
cases and should therefore be disregarded.
Cryogenic isolations are called

• Mat with a wide variety of insulating materials,

• Foam in the form of rubber,
• PIR (polyisocyanurate) or glass as a prefabricated insulating body,
• panels (flat or curved).

All solid insulation has one thing in common: cavities between the individual elements
must be avoided at all costs. In them, warm air with the moisture it contains would be
drawn in during cold driving due to the negative pressure created. This air allows convec-
tive heat transfer to start in the cavity or gap. The moisture freezes out, ice forms and
deteriorates the insulating effect. This is also undesirable.

Summary
Solid insulations are supplied in a wide variety of configurations. Cavities between the
insulating elements must be avoided at all costs. They suck in air, the moisture of which
freezes out and worsens the insulating effect.

11.1.1 Vacuum Panels

Vacuum panels are known from the construction industry. For them, other films are used
for packaging than in cryogenics. The construction panels are only suitable for tempera-
tures down to approx. −40 °C. The temperatures in the cryogenic range, on the other hand,
are much lower. This is because panels for cryogenics have been developed for the range
from below −100 °C to −196 °C. They have impressive insulation values. Provided that
they are correctly assembled and installed, they meet most insulation requirements and
can compete with vacuum insulation.
Blowholes and gaps must be avoided at all costs. These are counterproductive, build up
negative pressure and draw air into the chambers through the smallest openings. Ice forms
there, which can destroy the insulation in the event of multiple load changes. This cannot
be countered even by clean bonding with adhesive foil. Experience shows that the bonds
are not absolutely tight over a long period of time (several years).
11.1 Solid Insulation 177

The installation must generally be carried out in several layers and staggered. If cavities
are unavoidable, they must be completely filled with mineral wool or other freely formable
insulating materials to prevent convection. Insulating foam suitable for cryogenic applica-
tions would be best (not available in small containers, however). An alternative could be a
2-component adhesive that fully fills the cavity. Bonding to the board is possible, as the
foil has some elasticity that can absorb any tension that may occur.
If a system is to be run cold and warm again in alternation, lamination should generally
be considered. For short-term use, adhesive film will meet expectations if it is processed
cleanly. For a permanent design, a laminate, which protects the panels and makes any dif-
fusion impossible, is the better solution.
During assembly and bonding of the panels, it should be noted that they shrink slightly
due to cooling. If the panels are lined up, the difference can be several millimetres.
Vacuum panels (see Fig. 11.1) are available in various thicknesses and different prefab-
ricated sizes. They consist of a porous core, usually compressed silica powder. Before
evacuation, the core is dried and residual moisture is expelled by heating. The higher the
bake-out temperature, the better the water molecules are released from their bond. The
core is wrapped in a multi-layer foil made of aluminium combined with special plastic
foils (mostly PE types). The porous core heated in this way is packed with the gas- and
vapour-tight foil after a precise folding process in a vacuum, evacuated and finally welded.
The surfaces of the film are used for welding (currently mostly with infrared welding
equipment).
During assembly, great care must be taken to ensure that the foils are not damaged. If,
for example, the foil of a panel is punctured, the vacuum is broken and the panel must be
discarded. If only one of many installed panels is installed unnoticed with a broken vac-
uum, it may be assumed that the remaining insulation value due to the filling material of
the core still keeps the heat inflow sufficiently.
It has proven effective to protect the entire construction with a laminate layer. However,
caution is advised if a conventional sheet metal jacket is to be placed around it and this is
secured with screws like a sheet metal jacket insulation. This is because there is a risk that
the foil will be punctured and the vacuum broken, rendering it ineffective.

Fig. 11.1 Insulating panel for

cryogenic applications.
(Source: Vitec GmbH,
Ilsenburg)
178 11 Insulations

Fig. 11.2 Insulating panel for

cryogenic applications with
GRP coating. (Source: Vitec
GmbH, Ilsenburg)

Fig. 11.3 Insulating panel for

cryogenic applications for
pipes. (Source: Vitec GmbH,
Ilsenburg)

In order to exclude damage, an extremely robust panel coated on one or both sides with
GRP was developed. It also has a decorative effect. The applied GRP layer resists loads,
can be designed in different colours and is smooth on the surface due to the production
process (see Fig. 11.2).
Panels can only be manufactured flat or with a very small radius. They are therefore
particularly suitable for insulating flat surfaces. Curved bodies may only have a very small
radius; the exact radius that a panel can withstand should be requested from the
manufacturer.
Thin, longitudinally seam-folded plates (see Fig. 11.3) are offered for pipes. They can
adapt to the radius. They are a very good alternative in many applications, but the ther-
mally conductive web must be taken into account when calculating the insulation thick-
ness. Thermal bridges can be minimised by overlaps.

Summary
Vacuum panels are panels filled with insulating material in various sizes that support a
vacuum. They are laid in a staggered manner and bonded or laminated to each other in a
vapour-tight manner. The panels themselves are surrounded by a film that must not be
damaged under any circumstances, otherwise the vacuum will break and the insulating
effect will be minimised.
11.1 Solid Insulation 179

Fig. 11.4 Cryogel Z mat, supplied in rolls. (Source: Insulcon GmbH, Neuss)

Fig. 11.5 Blanks for complicated geometries. (Source: Insulcon GmbH, Neuss)

11.1.2 Mats with Fibrous Structure

Insulation mats are known from space technology. Today, these insulations are manufac-
tured with special fibre structures made of silicate solids (see Fig. 11.4). They are com-
pleted with steam resistors (e.g. Cryogel Z). The material is available in different
thicknesses and is supplied in rolls.
The function is based on the poor thermal conductivity of the material itself, as well as
the poor thermal conductivity of the air at rest in it. The dense structure of the mat allows
no or only very limited convection in the inner, tiny cavities. These are highly water-­
repellent mats which are wound in several layers, mainly on pipes, containers or also
around fittings. It should be noted that small cavities can form during cooling. They could
draw air. The mats must be joined together in a water-vapour-tight manner, using an adhe-
sive film recommended by the manufacturer. The effect of thermal bridges should be mini-
mized by staggering the installation. Adhesive tape should be used to seal the ends or
joints. Enclosing laminates are longer lasting and therefore strongly recommended. Water
vapour barriers are built into the mat itself.
The material is cut to size (Fig. 11.5) and adapted to the structure to be insulated.
Cutting is carried out on site or in the manufacturer’s workshop using, among other things,
water jet cutting equipment – the processing requires special tools for cutting.
Advantageously, complicated geometries can be insulated by cutting out unwindings.
180 11 Insulations

Fig. 11.6 Cryogel Z mat, processed. (Source: Insulcon GmbH, Neuss)

During processing, it is essential to comply with the parameters specified by the manu-
facturer. Pipes are wrapped with the mats, lying tightly. An adhesive foil must be provided
at each end in addition to the lamination to prevent any diffusion. The foil and offset of the
mats can be seen in Fig. 11.6. Vapour resistances will only keep out any moisture that may
penetrate to a limited extent, so the laminate will provide gas and water vapour tight
protection.

Summary
Insulating mats are multi-layer mats wound on rolls. They are used to insulate apparatus,
pipes and fittings. The insulating effect occurs due to suppressed convection and low ther-
mal conductivity of the material. Cutting is usually done on site or in a workshop with
water jet cutting equipment. The material is water-repellent.

11.1.3 Mats of Rubber Compounds

In recent years, a foam (foamed rubber compound) has been developed especially for cold
applications down to −196 °C, which complements the previous insulating materials.
Quality assembly requires exact compliance with the prescribed air parameters (tempera-
ture, humidity as specified by the manufacturer). Applications set up in compliance with
the processing guidelines were successful.
The material is supplied in mats or hoses. Hoses can be slid over thin pipes to insulate
them and glued together. This includes the adhesives specified by the manufacturer and the
vapour barrier films. Vapour barrier films are multi-layer aluminium films combined with
plastic films, or plastic films vapourised with aluminium, both of which are usually sup-
plied in a self-adhesive version. The shiny aluminium layer serves to reflect the heat, the
self-adhesive reverse side must be glued to the surface without folds or gaps. Since bond-
ing an absolutely smooth surface to soft foam material is very complicated or requires a
11.1 Solid Insulation 181

lot of manual practice, the aluminium foil, which acts as a vapour barrier, should be
bonded in several layers. This closes any channels that may have formed during bonding.
If cavities have been created by too complicated a cut, they should be tightly filled with
insulating wool; under no circumstances should they allow convective flow. The cold
causes the air to contract. This leads to a negative pressure, which is broken by air drawn
in. Air humidity crystallises and the ice thaws again the next time it warms up. The insulat-
ing effect then decreases significantly. This must be prevented at all costs. It cannot be
assumed that the moisture will evaporate again by itself. This is possible with heat conduc-
tion, but physically impossible with cold conduction.
On the outside, the surface must be provided with UV protection. This can be a sheet
metal jacket, a protective coating supplied by the manufacturer or a laminate, as for the
fibre mats (see Sect. 11.2). This surface protection is essential as the product will crumble
under UV radiation. The sheet metal sheathing should only be used if no influence of the
weather is to be expected (closed rooms). Despite all this, it must be assumed that dew
point undershoots are possible on the inner side of the sheet metal jacket. The cause of this
is not the cold product, but the night cold and high absolute humidity during the day. The
resulting condensation water must be able to drain off freely. Small holes are made at
points on the underside of the sheathing. In general, manufacturers describe the proper
installation in great detail.

Practical Advice
A mat works mainly through the insulating effect of the materials. The material has small
air pockets, which are so small that they do not allow any convention. The application
requires a very precise work and compliance with the assembly technology. From experi-
ence it is very labour intensive. The mats must be protected on the outside with a laminate,
paint or sheet metal jacket.

®
11.1.4 Foamglas Insulation

In recent years, cryogenic plants, especially when there is a uniform thermal load (large
atmospheric tanks, gas liquefaction plants, etc.), have been insulated with Foamglas®, a
specially foamed glass material. The insulating effect is based on the poor thermal conduc-
tivity of the material. Small gas spaces in the material structure exclude convective heat
exchange, so that the material has an insulating effect.
The insulation is supplied prefabricated (see Fig. 11.7). Foamglas® can be machined
and adjusted on site if necessary. It should be noted that the material is very brittle:
although it allows easy machining, it can also break very easily. The installation is stag-
gered and is protected on the outside with a laminate. Underneath each other, the work-
pieces are fixed with a special adhesive. For temperatures when dealing with LNG, two
layers are prescribed, three layers improve the result. It is laid with additional vapour
retarders and/or expansion joints.
182 11 Insulations

Fig. 11.7 Foamglas insulation

Calottes, elbows, tees and similar complicated geometries are supplied cut to size for
the respective component by most manufacturers. For pipes, ready-made pipe shells are
offered which only have to be laid on top of each other. As with all other solid insulation,
voids must be excluded. If expansion compensation is required, appropriate spaces for
expansion or shrinkage must be provided. These must be designed so that no convective
flow can form in them (e.g. stuffing with mat or mineral wool).

Summary
Foamglas is adapted to the geometry, cavities must be avoided. The parts of the insulation
are connected by a special adhesive. A laminate is applied for external protection.

11.1.5 Insulations of Polyisocyanurate (PIR)

PIR (polyisocyanurate compound) is an ideal foam for complicated constructions. The

foaming is done on site. Later repairs become very costly due to the firm and well adhering
foam. For simple geometries, the parts are prefabricated and applied to the components to
be insulated. Expansion joints and possible contraction of a component must be taken into
account. For applications with temperatures below −190 °C a special low temperature
foam has been developed.

Note There are special low temperature foams. Other foams do not offer an alternative for
this temperature range. Such foams would crumble at the low temperatures and therefore
do not provide the desired insulation values.

Complicated geometries are foamed on site. They require a fixed mould (sheet metal
box or sheet metal shell). Holes for the mixing gun are made in this mould. The aqueous
liquid is injected in stages from bottom to top, for large and voluminous components, at
high pressure. The resulting reaction heat of the foam must be taken into account (up to
100 °C). Experience has shown that such work is carried out by industrial foamers. They
11.2 Vacuum Insulations 183

know the product and maintain the required air parameters (temperature, humidity). After
curing, a firm foam capable of withstanding mechanical stress has formed. It will not form
if the humidity is too high when foaming outdoors, especially before the onset of rain.
Alternatively, the foams can be used to produce mouldings which are applied to the sur-
faces to be insulated and bonded together with special PIR adhesives.
The manufacturers provide precise information on processing. The processing guide-
lines are described by them in detail. Since the foam itself is flammable, it is essential to
pay attention to the added flame retardant for LNG systems.

Summary
PIR insulation is supplied as a component or foamed on site. For on-site foam, it is essen-
tial to ensure that the foam is suitable for −196 °C. Furthermore, for on-site foaming, the
climatic conditions according to the manufacturer’s specifications must be strictly adhered
to. Deviations from this will result in shrinkage and unstructured foam. For LNG plants,
attention must be paid to the addition of the flame retardant.

11.2 Vacuum Insulations

11.2.1 Vacuum Insulation for Containers and Pipes

For vacuum insulation, a fixed intermediate space is formed by means of an inner and an
enclosing part. Vacuum insulation is the most effective in and of itself and has the smallest
wall thickness/insulation thickness due to its good insulating effect [1, 2].
In this, the vacuum is drawn by pumping down. Built-in reflective foils or perlite fill-
ings reduce radiation, convection and heat conduction. A perlite filling – a perlite rock
flour with very low density (35–55 kg/m3) and low thermal conductivity (approx. 0.02 W/
mK), expanded at approx. 1000 °C – reduces, supported by the vacuum, the convection,
the share of radiation and the thermal conduction to an absolute minimum. The radiation
component is rendered insignificant by perlite fillings, while the convective component is
greatly reduced, so that heat exchange is only possible through the thermal conduction of
the perlite itself. This material is characterized precisely by poor heat conduction. A
vacuum-­insulated tank is described by the pressure rise in the intermediate jacket or by the
evaporation rate in the tank. The data are based on time units. This information expresses
the quality of the tank and can be found in the data sheet of the tank. The data sheet is used
to calculate, among other things, the tank size and refuelling cycles.
The vacuum is created by heating the component to up to 200 °C. This is done even
with large tanks that are brought to this temperature in a special furnace. At this tempera-
ture, molecular water dissolves from the surfaces and can be extracted. Suction is actually
a misleading term, because in the effective vacuum range there is no flow by suction, the
chaotic free path of the molecules is used. A turbo pump randomly intercepts the
184 11 Insulations

molecules and conveys them out of the space to be evacuated. Therefore, the evacuation
process takes a long time, for large containers it is several days.
The vacuum reduces the air density. When approx. 1 × 10−3 mbar is reached and this
value is kept constant for a correspondingly long time, the evacuation process can be ter-
minated. Due to the now starting cooling down from approx. 200 °C to ambient tempera-
ture, the vacuum decreases further.
Filling the interstitial space with perlite must be done very carefully. If possible, a slight
vacuum should suck in the heated perlite and ensure uniform filling. In addition, the com-
ponent is vibrated and tapped during and after filling. Any cavities that may have occurred
disappear as a result, and uniform filling is achieved. Afterwards, pumping down to the
desired final vacuum is carried out with further heating.

MLI Insulation
(see: [3]) With this method, the insulating mass can be reduced. The extremely thin foils
are heated by heat, thus water molecules detach from the surface of the foils and the inner
tank surface. They are cleaned by the applied vacuum and a stable negative pressure is
generated. Since the free path lengths between the foils can be formed better and faster, the
evacuation process is shorter. However, the application of the foils with the required spac-
ers is more complicated.

Triax Pipe
It represents a special type of insulation. Triax tubes use further insulation effects. The
basic idea is based on the consideration of cooling the inner, product-carrying pipe with
the gas or liquid phase of the product itself. This gas or its liquid has a temperature close
to the boiling point. The product is conducted in a second, enclosing pipe against the direc-
tion of flow. The vacuum insulation is built around this pipe (see Fig. 11.8). The cooling
medium is the product itself. The gas component in the counterflow is discharged into the
gas space of the tank. Thus, in the innermost tube, the product remains below the critical
point on the boiling line or even in the supercooled state. In continuous operation, the
enveloping tube is also filled with liquid and the vaporized LNG bubbles through the liq-
uid into the gas space.

Summary
Vacuum insulation is the most effective insulation. The effect of the vacuum is enhanced
by perlite or reflective foils. In the evacuation process, the water molecules are dissolved
by heating from the inner walls and the foil surface and expelled from the perlite. The
reported pressure rise is a measure of the quality of a tank or pipeline. The triax pipe con-
sists of an inner pipe and a pipe enclosing it. LNG is transported in the inner pipe. In the
enclosing pipe, the gas produced is returned to the tank in counterflow. The outer pipe is
insulated with vacuum.
11.2 Vacuum Insulations 185

on
la
su
in
um
e
ar

cu
h
ss

Va
ga
+
G
LN
re
ha
ss
Ga

Fig. 11.8 Schematic of a triax pipe in installation position

11.2.2 Vacuum Insulation for Fittings

Valves must be vacuum insulated in the vacuum insulated pipe string, just like the pipe.
Otherwise, it can happen that the pipe is well insulated, but too much heat can be trans-
ferred to the valve. This heat input does not influence the entire process sequence in a
manner appropriate to the process. The valves must be prepared accordingly (see Fig. 8.1),
i.e. like the pipes, they must be manufactured with a double jacket in which there is a
vacuum. The transition from the valve to the pipe requires special vacuum-insulated tran-
sition pieces. Each manufacturer has its own solution for this.

Summary
Fittings, like the piping, must be vacuum insulated so that the process is not negatively
affected by a heat load.

11.2.3 Vacuum Insulated Hoses

There are flexible, vacuum-insulated lines in hose-like construction. They are character-
ised by a high degree of flexibility, but are limited to a maximum operating pressure of 5
bar. LNG plants operate with pressures from 5 bar. Therefore, they are of secondary
importance for LNG plants.
186 11 Insulations

11.2.4 Maintenance and Inspection

Maintenance in the actual sense does not take place. The periodic tank inspection of vac-
uum insulated tanks is limited to an external visual inspection (currently every 10 years
according to the regulations). An attempt can be made to improve the vacuum after a few
years of operation by evacuating the tank again. However, this is very difficult with a per-
lite insulation and requires very extensive experience.
Damage to the outer skin leads to vacuum rupture. If capillary cracks have occurred, the
insulation around the leak will slowly weaken in the jacket. Capillary cracks can be
detected by the local temperature drop, i.e. by condensation of the air humidity. This
becomes visible under appropriate light conditions and at high absolute humidity (sum-
mer). Older tank trailers frequently exhibit fogging at the uppermost edge of the tank. The
perlite filling has slipped together there and is no longer as tight as at other points. The
cold penetrates to the outside and the surface fogs up. For this reason, Multilayer Insulation
(MLI) was developed for the tanker, derived from the experience gained in space travel.
This type of insulation was later adopted for other components such as tanks and pipes
(see Sect. 11.2.1).
Small pipe sections are also relatively easy to vacuum repeatedly. However, time and,
if possible, reheating of the component are the decisive factors for the success of
the vacuum.

Summary
The vacuum fractures can be recognized by the fogging of the outer jacket. Repair proves
to be very difficult. A recurring inspection of the container is limited to the external visual
inspection.

References

1. http://www.vakuum-­isolierung.de
2. http://www.kryo-­safe.de
3. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilayer_Insulation
Electrical Grounding
12

Abstract

Earthing provides equipotential bonding between the component and earth so that no
sparks or flashovers are possible. It is a protective measure for persons and equipment.

Earthing provides electrical equipotential bonding between the system and earth. It is
installed to protect people. Generally, an earthing consists of the earthing electrode, to
which the protective conductor is connected, and the lightning conductor. If a voltage is
applied to the installation, it is discharged via the earth and thus protects the person who is
in contact with the installation at that moment. The following types of earthing are known:

• Protective grounding – as just described;

• Functional earthing – it dissipates all currents and ensures safe operation of the system;
• Lightning protection earthing – it safely diverts a possible lightning strike. This protec-
tion depends on the local location of the system.

The following requirements for the earthing system must be met:

• Personal Security.
• The material must be corrosion resistant and have the appropriate stability and strength.
• The highest possible fault current and its thermal effects must not lead to the destruc-
tion of the conductor.
• The nature of the soil must be known and taken into account in the design.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 187

GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2024
W. Hermeling, Compendium for the LNG and CNG Practitioner,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38258-2_12
188 12 Electrical Grounding

Summary
Earthing provides equipotential bonding and must be present on every system. It protects
people who come into contact with the system. The grounding conducts lightning and thus
protects the system. Legally prescribed requirements are placed on the earthing.

12.1 Protective Earthing of the Installation

The system must be grounded in accordance with the VDE directive. For this purpose, the
individual components are electrically connected and firmly screwed to an earthing elec-
trode. The earthing must not be disconnected.
Particular attention should be paid to the pipe connections if they are flanged. The gas-
ket is an ideal electrical insulation. The components must be connected with an earthing
bridge. The protective earthing is subject to acceptance and must have an appropriate
earthing resistance.

Summary
The earthing must comply with the VDE directive and is a section of the overall system
subject to acceptance. The system is protected with the discharge of overcurrents.

12.2 Grounding for Filling

During refuelling of the local tank or the vehicle at the LNG source, electrical potential
differences may occur between the vehicle and the system. They must be compensated for
by the electrical connection (earthing cable) between the vehicle and the system. The
grounding cable must be connected by a grounding clamp to a bare metal part on the tank
or a pipeline to the tank (whose connections must be welded).

Summary
For filling with the tank truck, equipotential bonding must be carried out. For this purpose,
the tank system and the tank truck are firmly screwed together and connected with an
earthing cable.
12.3 Functional Earthing During Operation 189

12.3 Functional Earthing During Operation

This type of grounding conducts all potential differences in a controlled manner via the
grounding electrode. Potential differences can be the cause of operating faults, for exam-
ple if the system control fails. Protective grounding can be used as functional grounding.

Summary
Earthing is subject to acceptance. Every installation must be earthed. Electrical potentials
are balanced with the earth. They serve to protect people and prevent operational faults.
The lightning protection system dissipates the lightning. The necessity depends on the
local situation.
Marked Process Disturbances
13

Abstract

Typical faults and their consequences in the handling of cryogenic liquefied gases, in
particular LNG and CNG, are described and advice is given on how to rectify plant faults.

13.1 Air in the Hose

The technology of air gas refuelling is still being adopted for LNG refuelling. Up to now,
the practice with air gases has been that the hose lies more or less protected in the hose box
on the vehicle during the journey. Air is inevitably in the hose. At the unloading point, the
hose is used to connect the vehicle tank and the customer tank. In order to remove the pol-
luting air, the driver flushes the hose for refuelling according to the regulations. This is
done with the gas from the gas phase of the tank. The purge gas escapes into the air. For
O2, N2, Ar, H2, it is possible without problems, because they are not harmful to the environ-
ment. Natural gas must not be purged into the environment. Therefore, this technology is
not applicable to LNG.

Note The refuelling technology for air gases must not be transferred to that for LNG. This
is not permissible.

When filling of the local tank by means of an open hose system begins, the pump starts
and liquid is pumped through the hose. Due to the previously inflowing cold, the water
particles condense and settle as ice crystals on the inner hose wall. The ice crystals, includ-
ing those deposited upstream of the globe valve (cf. Fig. 3.4), are flushed into the tank. In
the tank, these particles move uncontrollably. It is assumed that they stick together to form

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 191

GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2024
W. Hermeling, Compendium for the LNG and CNG Practitioner,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38258-2_13
192 13 Marked Process Disturbances

larger crystals. If the concentration of ice crystals is high enough, they are entrained into
the system when the feed line is opened. The crystals settle in the system in places of qui-
escent flow, usually places from which they are difficult to remove. If the hose is not
purged with gas, air from the hose will enter the gas compartment of the tank. The air will
collect, forming a natural gas-air mixture that is explosive at the proper concentration
(4.4–14% methane in air). Where this mixture collects and how is not clear. However, it
must be assumed that it is possible.
At the end of refuelling, the tank’s pipes heat up. The crystals thaw. To start the process
again, the water is cooled back to ice by cold gas flowing through. The volume of a water
droplet increases by approx. 1/3 when ice forms and can clog lines, especially the thin
measuring lines, or contaminate sensitive valve seats. Malfunctions at the valve and incor-
rect measured values are the result. They can call into question the course of the process.
For natural gas and other environmentally harmful or hazardous gases, purging into the
environment is prohibited. These gases must not escape into the air. If natural gas, even in
small quantities, enters the atmosphere, the BIMSCH permit may be refused due to severe
ozone damage. Therefore, LNG refuelling with conventional technology is not possible.

Danger Notice Purging the lines into the atmosphere is not permitted with LNG because
it is dangerous and harmful to the environment.

Summary
It must be ruled out with absolute certainty that air is trapped during the refuelling process
with LNG and enters the tank. This is not possible with open hose systems. Only closed
systems may be used.

13.2 Gas Bubbles in the Liquid Line

LNG is on the boiling line at various stages of the process. Gas bubble formation is present
and the density decreases. If the evaporation is too intensive, it can lead to obstruction of
the trailing liquid, especially in vertically rising lines, so that the liquid flow is interrupted
for a short time. This reduces the volume of liquid to be pumped. Due to the constant heat
input, liquid evaporation must always be expected. The ascending direction of the gas
bubbles in the line must be determined by design measures.
If gas is fed into the interior of the tank, the pressure rises there and the tank gets out of
thermodynamic equilibrium. The withdrawal from the gas phase can be increased. In
many cases, however, this is not possible because the gas returns through the liquid into
the gas space of the tank. This is true for the Liqui-Flow process or the piston pump. This
is unfavourable, because for the maximum pumping capacity there should always be a
liquid with the vapour fraction x = 0.
If the gas goes back through the tank, a part is condensed. The heat of condensation is
transferred to the liquid. The liquid in the tank heats up and the tank pressure increases.
13.4 Product Does Not Flow into the Pump or into the Pressure Lock of a Liqui-Flow… 193

The pipe cross-sections must allow the gas to flow back unhindered against the direction
of flow of the liquid. Inadequate inlet cross-sections are a hindrance and a common instal-
lation failure. Good insulation and high flow velocity reduce gas generation. It is advanta-
geous to lay the pipes at an angle so that the gas can be guided at the upper apex of
the pipe.

Summary
Gas in the pipeline must be discharged. Unhindered discharge must be ensured by appro-
priately large pipe cross-sections. If gas goes directly into the gas space, the pressure rises
rapidly. If it rises through the liquid, this process of pressure increase proceeds more
slowly with a simultaneous increase in boiling temperature. Insulation reduces the gas
evolution. If possible, the lines should be laid rising or falling.

13.3 Icing

Icing is a sign that the plant is in operation, but can also be a sign of faults. If, for example,
a vacuum-insulated pipeline section ices up, it is certain that the vacuum is broken or at
least no longer meets the requirements. System malfunctions are then to be expected. Icing
on valves suggests that they are leaking to the outside. Local fogging of a tank suggests,
as already explained, a capillary crack, which would be very difficult to repair.

Practical Advice
Icing is normal, but can also indicate leaks in the system. These must be investigated
immediately!

13.4 Product Does Not Flow into the Pump or into the Pressure
Lock of a Liqui-Flow System

In this case, evaporation already occurs in the supply line, i.e. the insulation is too weak.
It is to be expected that gas will rise in the pipe and partially block the path of the liquid
flowing downstream. The pump can no longer deliver properly, it becomes warm due to
the friction of the piston alone and thus the consequences of the error increase. With the
Liqui-Flow process, the process comes to a standstill because too little control medium
can be provided.
It is also possible that the cross-section of the supply line and that of the gas return line
was dimensioned too tightly. In this case, the gas cannot escape quickly enough into the
gas space of the tank. The downstream liquid is obstructed, the process runs too slowly or
even comes to a standstill.
194 13 Marked Process Disturbances

Note Gas generation in the inlet line and too small cross-sections of the inlet and gas
return are the cause of low performance or process failure.

13.5 Cryogenic Pump Does Not Deliver

It is a recurring problem that a pump does not deliver again after a longer standstill (i.e. the
pump is warm). In many cases this is caused by ice crystals. Due to unclean refuelling (see
Sect. 13.1), they are flushed out of the hose into the tank. They are transported by the liq-
uid into the pump. If by chance a small ice crystal gets stuck in the inlet valve, it melts
when the pump stops, i.e. when it heats up. The drop now lies in the valve between the
plug and the seat. When the pump starts up, a cold gas stream first flows into the pump
head, causing the water droplet to freeze abruptly. The valve plug freezes on the seat and
no longer opens. Pumping is now impossible.
There is only one way to stop the malfunction, the head must be disassembled and the
seat and the displacement must be cleaned. To do this, the head must be disconnected from
the gearbox. The head must be warmed above room temperature, opened and disassem-
bled. – If the head were cold, the entire surface would fog up. – Opened, any moisture
must be blown away, preferably with a warm nitrogen jet. The head is then reassembled
while warm. Moisture cannot condense on a warm surface. Condensation and subsequent
ice formation is impossible. Absolute cleanliness must be ensured during the work.

Practical Advice
After the pump is turned off, it will warm up. Any ice crystals deposited in the tank will
melt. If these crystals are in the valve seat, they will freeze when the pump is started up
again, the valve cannot open and the pump head must be cleaned.
System Planning
14

Abstract

It is not only the selected technology that determines the success or failure of an invest-
ment but also the correct design. For this purpose, assistance is provided and informa-
tion on the approval procedure is given. The literature mentioned will be the basis for
the approval procedure.

14.1 Natural Gas Supply System

The task of a natural gas supply system (Sect. 5.1) must be clearly defined. Further deci-
sions are largely dependent on this. As explained below, there are various supply modules,
which are identified as modules 1–3. Each of them has its own specific applications and
therefore requirements.
In any case, the supply system is subject to approval by the trade supervisory authority,
which is designated differently from region to region [1]. After selecting the location and
weighing up the definition of the requirements, it is recommended to consult the respon-
sible authority (consumer protection, trade supervisory authority or equivalent bodies)
and, if necessary, the municipality in advance. In doing so, the authority/municipality is
made aware of the idea. It is examined and discussed which conditions and requirements
are to be expected. Subsequently, they are to be included in the planning. In this way, each
of the participants learns about the expectations of the respective partner. They will be
included in this part of the planning and save costs later on. The operator of the plant
should already be determined at the beginning of the work. For the planning of a supply
system, it is necessary to define, among other things:

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 195

GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2024
W. Hermeling, Compendium for the LNG and CNG Practitioner,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38258-2_14
196 14 System Planning

(a) Who is to be supplied and what security of supply is required?

(b) How is the facility accessible for the tanker?
(c) What is the supply cycle?
(d) What quantities are handled?
(e) How large may the storage capacity be?
(f) Is the tank height limited?
(g) Can the tank be used for other purposes, e.g. as advertising space, or be covered up in
a conversion?
(h) Which load profile should be driven?
(i) What personnel requirements can be expected?
(j) Which running and fixed costs occur in which time periods?
(k) What are the requirements of the responsible fire department?

This is only an excerpt of the possible questions. An intensive and critical preparation of
the planning saves time and money. The opinion of those who may be affected should be
taken into account. Those affected must be aware that their concerns will be resolved as far
as possible.
The trade licensing authority obtains the technical judgment of the notified body, TÜV,
DEKRA or another assessing and approving body. They are bound to secrecy and should
be made fully acquainted with the process, the component or the object to be assessed. The
municipality should approve the project so that it can be presented to the local committees.
Respect for and compliance with the applicable rules and regulations are a matter of
course. The notified bodies and approving authorities should be perceived as safety advi-
sors, auditors and certifiers, some of whom also offer appropriate training.

Note It should be noted that the designer and operator of the installation is always solely
responsible for safety, not the approvers.

Summary
Every natural gas supply system is subject to approval. The testing and approving organi-
zation does not provide any safety-related guarantee. The planner and operator of the
system is solely responsible for safety. He monitors compliance with the regulations. The
institutions are available to advise and monitor and in some cases provide training on spe-
cific topics. The planner and operator of the plant is always responsible for plant safety.

14.2 Natural Gas Filling Stations

Natural gas filling stations are subject to approval. There are various regulations for this,
which do not differ significantly in terms of content. They serve the construction of natural
gas filling stations and their safe and secure operation [2–5].
14.2 Natural Gas Filling Stations 197

The construction of a natural gas filling station requires extensive investigations into
the choice of location (cf. [4]). Among other things, the first question to be asked is:

(a) Which vehicles (bus, truck, van, car and bundle) are to be refuelled?
(b) Which technical requirements have to be fulfilled (turning circle, distances between
petrol pumps, tank nozzles, etc.)?
(c) How many vehicles are to be refuelled daily?
(d) What are the refuelling intervals?
(e) Are there any specifications for the refuelling time?
(f) How is the local environment assessed?
(g) Are there environmental and animal welfare concerns?
(h) Should the filling station function autonomously or be integrated into an existing one?
(i) What is the maximum height of the tank?
(j) How is the account settled?
(k) What are the requirements of the responsible fire department?

After the site has been considered and selected as feasible, it must be coordinated with the
responsible regulatory authority, which goes by different names in the individual federal
states (in Saxony-Anhalt, e.g. the State Office for Consumer Protection). Approval must
be obtained with a project description. It has proven advantageous to involve the authority
in the decision-making process at the start of the project. In this way, the planner of the
facility learns about the other special features of the site and can include them in the con-
siderations from the beginning and take them into account accordingly. The authority
approving the trade law obtains the technical opinion of the notified body (TÜV, DEKRA
or other assessing and approving organization). It goes without saying that compliance
with the applicable rules and regulations must be ensured, and the notified bodies and
approving authorities should be perceived as safety advisors, inspectors and certifiers,
some of whom also offer appropriate training courses.
For the safe operation of the plant, the responsibility always remains with the planner
and the future operator of the plant. This responsibility cannot be delegated. The licensing
authorities require a tabular safety analysis in which all possible hazard scenarios are to be
mentally run through the following:

• Possible dangers.
• The triggering factors and their impact.
• Specifying the necessary security measures.

The Employer’s Liability Insurance Association describes the rules and regulations to be
observed in [5].

Note The specifications do not release the planner from reviewing all currently known
safety precautions and considering the resulting possibilities or necessities.
198 14 System Planning

Summary
Every CNG filling station and natural gas satellite system is subject to approval. The
inspecting and approving body does not issue any safety-related guarantee. The planner
and operator of the facility is solely responsible for safety. The notified bodies/institutions
are available to advise and monitor and in some cases provide training on specific topics.
Rules and regulations describe minimum safety standards which must be observed. Other
potential hazards must be identified and measures taken to prevent them.

14.2.1 Assembly, Erection and Maintenance

Natural gas plants are suitable for prefabrication with appropriate planning and large
quantities, especially plants using the very compact and space-saving Liqui-Flow process.
Natural gas supply systems consist of the main assemblies natural gas tank with addi-
tional pressure control, air vaporizer with pressure control station, odorization, flue gas
pipe and transfer unit to the consumer. Supply systems can be built very compactly. They
are mounted on prefabricated concrete surfaces which, however, must satisfy a static cal-
culation. If it is necessary to divide the plant into modules, this is easily possible.
Monitoring can be more complicated. These systems will not be discussed further.
Natural gas filling stations are more extensively equipped [6, 7]. One plant has:

• A tank with pressure additive, overfill protection and dead space-free coupling with
safety shut-off valve for refuelling the local tank.
• Pressure increase with compressor or high-pressure pump or Liqui-Flow method and
with air evaporator.
• Storage units.
• Odorization.
• Control cabinet [6, 7].
• Gas pump,
• The exhaust pipe [6, 7].
• If necessary, the collision protection.

The filling station modules have the main groups [8]:

• Tank with the associated components: filling coupling, safety shut-off valve, pressure
relief lines in the inlet, additional pressure control and the connections for liquid inlet,
gas return (2×) and the blow-out line or the relief lines of the valves,
• Pressure increase by pressure lock (Liqui-Flow system) with the connections installed
therein liquid inlet, gas return, cooling jacket at Liqui-Flow, connection relief lines and
high-pressure connections.
• Gas separator on the high-pressure part and in the cooling jacket.
• Air evaporator with safety valve, connected valve terminal for the Howch pressure
accumulator and odorizing system.
14.3 Execution of Pipe Connections and Valve Connections 199

• High-pressure accumulator, fuel pump.

• System control with data communication (separate installation due to explosion protec-
tion measures).
• Exhaust chimney, possibly with attachment points for camera monitoring.
• Lighting and fencing.

A filling station with cryogenic pump has the same equipment, except that the pressure
lock is replaced by the pump. This type of system will not be discussed because of the
problems that have only been solved to a limited extent.
A Liqui-Flow filling station is erected on a prefabricated concrete surface with recessed
holes for screws and anchors. It is delivered by the manufacturer (Hoffmann & Hoppestock)
in modules that are quickly and safely assembled on site. The individually tested and
pressure-tested assemblies are delivered to the site and joined together on site. After
assembly, the gas pressure test is carried out. If necessary, the weld seams are subjected to
an X-ray test according to the specifications of the inspection authority. Due to the high
degree of prefabrication, short assembly times are possible [8].
The system is designed for remote maintenance. All activities at the filling station, all
sensors and fittings supply data to the central computer, which logs online, displays faults
and automatically shuts down the system in the event of danger.
In case of malfunctions, it may be assumed that only fittings or sensors fail. These are
all equipped with an internal, machine-readable code in addition to the fabrication num-
ber. In addition to identifying the component, this code is used to record the location of the
fault, to indicate when the part should be replaced and when it should be replaced. In the
event of damage or malfunction, it will not be possible to continue operating the system or
restart it without replacing a part intended for replacement.

14.3 Execution of Pipe Connections and Valve Connections

Pipe connections and valve connections should be welded if possible. The orbital welding
process is suitable for series. A high repeatability of the pipe diameters with the same pipe
wall thicknesses can be expected. The orbital welding machine is adjusted to the pipe
dimensions and the connections can be made quickly and with high quality.
The connection of the measuring devices is mostly only possible with thread. Only an
NPT thread should be used. Cylindrical threads require a secure sealing; in the cryogenic
range, the fluctuating temperatures have to be considered in the choice of the seal-
ing system.
Any material will expand or shrink when exposed to temperature changes. The extent
of expansion/shrinkage depends on the material and the degree of temperature change.
Different levels of expansion/shrinkage can lead to leakage or even fractures in bolted
flanges, welds or similar connections. The material characteristics shown refer to the
200 14 System Planning

prevailing temperature in each case. It is essential to ensure that the material used is suit-
able for the low temperature range (−196 °C) [8].

Note As a rule of thumb, black steel is prohibited as it would immediately become brittle
in the cryogenic range. For cryogenic liquefied gases, an austenitic steel or copper with its
alloys must be used. Among the austenitic steels, attention must be paid to the correct
material group.

Pure copper is also suitable, but the material properties of copper require massive wall
thicknesses. These can be avoided by using stainless steel.

Practical Advice
The materials must be approved for cryogenic use, i.e. for −196 °C.

14.4 Decision Support for the Selection of the Plant Size

of a Liqui-Flow Filling Station

The desired duration of availability is decisive for the selection of the tank. The availabil-
ity duration is characterized by the pressure rise of the tank. If we assume that a 60 m3 tank
at the filling station has an average pressure rise of max. 0.3 bar per day and that the pres-
sure after the last filling was 10 bar, this will amount to approx. 16 bar after approx.
20 days. Since the tank is 18 bar, there is still a pressure reserve until the permissible
operating pressure of 2 bar or approx. 7 days is reached. For this consideration it is assumed
that a daily withdrawal takes place. Table 14.1 shows a possible scenario taking into
account various tank sizes. The table shows that for a daily withdrawal of 2340 kg or
5506 l from a 20 m3 tank, the tanker would have to bring product again every 3 days. It
should be noted that in this case the tanker, which is likely to be a 40 tonne vehicle, can
only be emptied 1/3 of the time. This is inconvenient. Despite baffles inside the tank, there

Table 14.1 Calculation of tank cycles for different tank sizes. (A spreadsheet with stored formulas
can be downloaded at https://www.springer.com/de/book/9783658285500)
Calculation of the tank size
Buses Transporter Passenger car Total LNG in l
Vehicle tank volume in kg 100 54 20
Daily refueling 10 10 40
Throughput Tapping quantity/day in kg 1000 540 800 2340 5506
Local tank in m³ (geo. volume) 20 40 60
Usable volume 95% 19 38 57
Content in kg 8550 17,100 25,650
Possible cycles 365 731 1096
Pressure increase, average in bar 2 4 6
Tanker content in kg with 40t payload 22300 22300 22300
Deliveries 0.38 0.77 1.15
14.5 Cost of an Installation 201

is a lot of sloshing in the tank at this level. This carries energy into the liquid, which leads
to an increase in pressure in the vehicle tank. Therefore, the nearest delivery point should
be in close proximity or a smaller tanker would have to be selected. A 60 m3 tank would
be recommended for the requirements shown.

Note The full transport quantity should always be delivered, and the tanker is empty and
thus optimally used. A reserve remains in a larger tank. The permissible operating pressure
is usually not reached when the tanker is empty.

The expected pressure increase is minimal, as it can be assumed that the boiling pres-
sure after refuelling will be 5 bar. The permissible tank pressure is 18 bar. Thus, the pres-
sure increase is insignificant for these tank cycles. In the latter case, the system should also
fill bundles. Increased LNG transshipment goes into the specific cost of CNG. A high
transshipment reduces the specific fixed cost of CNG.

Note The local LNG tank must never be completely emptied; otherwise refuelling may
only take place under the supervision of a competent person. If this condition occurs, it
must be assumed that the tank has heated up. It must be cooled before refuelling. This is
done with nitrogen and is time-consuming.

Practical Advice
The tank size depends on the expected demand. The pressure rise is decisive for the length
of the tank cycles. The tank size is determined by the average pressure rise and the delivery
quantity of the tank truck. The tank should never be totally emptied. A large LNG envelope
reduces the specific cost of the CNG.

14.5 Cost of an Installation

14.5.1 General Information

At this point, it can only be a simplified representation. Therefore, tax aspects, price fluc-
tuations for auxiliary and operating materials, wages and costs of the operating allocation
as well as interest rate development, etc. should not be taken into account. However, these
parameters can have a significant influence on the decision. This aspect alone would have
to be presented in a separate work, which would again have to look for simplifications for
the practitioner.

Note The entirety of the decision to be taken must be made by technicians, businessmen
and financial experts, taking into account the possible costs.

No matter how innovative and elegantly solved the technical challenge may be, if it
cannot be presented economically, it is only of limited value. In order to make a decision,
the investment costs and the follow-up costs must be estimated. The investment costs can
202 14 System Planning

be determined on the basis of quotations. If available, they should be compared with

empirical values. The follow-up costs will be caused by the number of planned workers
and the resulting personnel costs, the energy and transport costs, costs of operating and
auxiliary materials, the operating and maintenance costs and not to forget the costs of
general administration or also called operating allocation or overhead costs. The calcula-
tion, no matter how accurate, will only be an estimate, the result of which may or may not
occur. The manufacturer of the Liqui-­Flow natural gas filling stations (Hoffmann &
Hoppestock GmbH) offers therefore to the customer instead of purchase a rent variant,
which contain all costs of the enterprise, the maintenance and the possible repair. In the
case of purchase of the plants, these costs can be controlled by a service contract, which
also includes all costs as with the rental contract.

14.5.2 Investment or Fixed Costs

The investment or fixed costs are part of the total costs and are included in the profitability
calculation. They are incurred regardless of the use of the investment. The costs for the
investment are available on the basis of the previously mentioned possibilities (offers and/
or empirical values) and must now be weighted for the annual burden. If it is planned to
pay for the investment out of the cash flow, an annual charge is a theoretical parameter. It
must be included in the overall calculation in order to make a serious assessment. If debt
financing is planned, the investment amount must be determined in its entirety. This is to
be evaluated by means of a repayment plan or with the annuity loan.
The annuity is determined as follows (see [9]):
annual fixed costs  investment costs  annuity factor
A uniform repayment period, usually 10 years, is assumed for the annuity regardless of the
type of financing. If it is already known in the planning phase that the useful life is shorter,
the repayment must be made according to the expected period of use. This means that the
annuity factor takes this into account accordingly. In the annuity table, the factor with
which the investment is to be multiplied is read off on the basis of the interest rate and the
term. The result shows the sum of annual interest and repayment. The repayment schedule
is variable and is agreed with the financier.
For the estimation of profitability, regardless of whether cash flow or debt financing, the
consideration of the annuity is a good tool. If the object is rented or leased, the annual
rental or leasing costs are to be applied. This item also includes the cost of spare parts, but
not their replacement. Replacement does not have to become necessary but is an option.
The investment includes:

• The direct costs of the plant from its construction to its commissioning.
• The gas connection costs in the case of gas pipeline connection (pipeline, transfer
station).
14.5 Cost of an Installation 203

• Permits and approvals.

• Training and all other preparatory work.
• Connection costs for energy supply for pumps and compressors.

Summary
An investment measure is evaluated on the basis of the expected annual costs and is made
up of fixed costs and variable costs. The fixed costs also include the spare parts to be pur-
chased immediately. The investment costs are weighted with the annuity or the repayment
schedule. The variable costs are a planning variable and take into account all costs that are
required to operate the plant.

14.5.3 Variable Costs

The variable costs are, in addition to the expected wage and personnel costs, the costs of
general administration – in some cases they are taken into account with a percentage on
the wage and personnel costs – the energy consumption, transport and handling costs, the
use of materials, ancillary costs and, above all, the repair and maintenance costs with the
costs for spare and replacement parts. Estimating repair and maintenance costs is very dif-
ficult. It is not known when which repair will occur, unless cycles are prescribed for cer-
tain components. It has proven useful to calculate these costs with an empirical value,
related to the total investment.
Of course, every seller will present his product as absolutely cheap. A discount, how-
ever well negotiated, will boomerang if the seller’s statement was false or the subsequent
service is not satisfactory or does not work. Consequently, it is very difficult to know these
true costs. A point that should not be underestimated is the quality of the service and the
provision of spare parts, which must be clarified without fail.

Note A firm commitment to spare parts delivery or service calls in the supply contract can
be very helpful in the event of a malfunction.

Even if a valve cost only a few hundred euros to purchase, its failure can shut down an
entire plant. Enormous damage can be the result. A favourable cost price then loses its
significance. Making this decision is very complicated and often emotionally charged.

14.5.4 Operating Costs

The operating costs are much more complicated to determine. It is therefore advantageous
to work with experience and average values. They usually give a clear tendency, because
who knows how, for example, the gas consumption of the customer will develop or how
204 14 System Planning

the tap volume at the gas station will be in 5 years. Whether one or the other component
will fail can only be judged on the basis of experience.

Note Averages are assumed over 10 years and are intended to reflect costs over that time.

If the value is in the limit range, more precise work must be carried out. The following
values have proven themselves in practice.
Repair and maintenance costs of compressor units:

• 10% of the investment value for systems with 250–270 bar

• For maintenance cycles every 750 h (small) or 1500 h (large).

Repair and maintenance costs cryopump systems:

• Annually 20% of the investment value for 320 bar plants.

• (caused mainly by leakage at the piston rod and contamination of the product)

Repair and maintenance costs Liqui-Flow plant:

• Approx. 5% of the capital expenditure for maintenance cycles every 10,000 operating
hours (projected value, as these systems are not yet on the market).

Repair and maintenance costs for natural gas supply systems

• 2% of the investment value (due to failure of the pressure regulator, odorization and
automatic control)
• The decisive factor is the annual operating hours. Minimum operating hours and con-
tinuous operation of the systems reduce the specific costs.

The energy requirement and the energy costs derived from it lie for one:

• Compressor system 250–270 bar at 0.3–0.4 KWh/kg, strongly dependent on the size of
the system, small systems require specifically more, larger ones less electricity.
• Cryogenic pump system 320 bar at approx. 0.03–0.04 KWh/kg.
• Liqui-Flow system – has no demand for electrical energy except for system control.
• Natural gas supply system – has no need for electrical power other than system control.

The total annual costs of the system are made up of for a first estimative calculation:

• Investment costs, represented by the annuity or repayment schedule.

• Maintenance and repair costs.
• Operating costs such as electricity and other utilities.
References 205

• Transport and other ancillary costs.

• Personnel costs.
• Repeat tests and acceptances.

These listed costs are to be divided by the produced medium, expressed in volume or mass
units, e.g. CNG (€/kg or €/Nm3). From this, in the next step, the costs of production are
derived, which include the other costs, such as the operating levy, etc. On this basis, an
initial price can be calculated, which must be measured against the market. If the cost of
production is higher than the market price, then there is a call for the technician to make
the process more effective. Alternatively, the consideration fails because the costs are
too high.

Summary
The cost of production is calculated from the total annual cost. If these costs are higher
than the market price, the project would have failed in terms of price. New more effective
ways have to be found.

References

1. DVGW Arbeitsblatt G215 Flüssigerdgas-Satellitenanlagen.

2. Arbeitsblatt G 651 Erdgastankstellen.
3. Richtlinie VdTÜV 510.
4. www.dvgw.de/medien/dvgw/leistungen/publikationen/genehmigungsleitfaden-­l ng-­l cng-­
tankstellen-­dvgw.pdf
5. TRBS 3151 Vermeidung von Brand-, Explosions- und Druckgefährdung an Tankstellen und
Gasfüllanlagen zur Befüllung von Landfahrzeugen.
6. Weiss, Sicherheit bei Gasversorgungsanlagen, Gesetze – Verordnungen – technische Regeln –
Unfallverhütungsvorschriften – Alarm- und Einsatzpläne, expert-Verlag, 1997.
7. DVGW G 5634 (P), technische Prüfgrundlagen, Juni 2013.
8. DIN EN ISO 16903 Erdöl- und Erdgasindustrie, Eigenschaften von Flüssigerdgas mit Einfluss
auf die Auslegung und die Materialauswahl.
9. www.uniturm.de/hochschulen/hochschule-­anhalt/finanzierunginvestition-­5594/download/
annuitaetentabelle
Commissioning and Decommissioning
of an LNG Plant 15

Abstract

The cycles of initial commissioning, commissioning after a longer period of interrup-

tion and decommissioning of the plant are explained.

15.1 Preparatory Measures for Commissioning

Check Existing Operating Permit

The commissioning of an LNG plant requires that the plant has been approved in writing
for commissioning by the trade supervisory authority, consumer protection or adequate
authority.

Gas Pressure Test

Confirms that the system is technically gas-tight.

Staff Training
It must be checked whether the operating personnel have been trained/instructed on the
system and meet the requirements for operating the system.

Operating Instructions
It must be checked again for plausibility. The individual specifications and processes are
to be checked.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 207

GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2024
W. Hermeling, Compendium for the LNG and CNG Practitioner,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38258-2_15
208 15 Commissioning and Decommissioning of an LNG Plant

Plant Safety
The proper condition of the safety valves (check the seals) must be confirmed, the valves
must be checked for their pressure rating, the earthing of the system and the projected
safety distances as well as other safety-relevant conditions must be checked for compli-
ance and fulfilment.

Staff
Care must be taken to ensure that only personnel with approved access, acquired through
thorough training, are present at the installation.

Safety Distances
It must be checked that no objects are located in the area of the safety clearances. Free
access for refuelling the system and for emergencies must be guaranteed.

Controls
Prior to the first filling, a checklist and a sequence plan for the start-up must be drawn up
on the basis of the operating instructions, the acting persons are determined and their tasks
clearly defined and the controls regulated.

Summary
The prerequisite for the commissioning of the system is the trade licence. This includes all
tests and certifications. Uninstructed personnel must not be in the vicinity of the system.
The personnel must be clearly informed about the rights and duties of the system, and the
procedures must be practiced beforehand.

15.2 Filling and Starting Up the System

Flushing the System

The plant is to be started up. Initially, the system is flushed with warm nitrogen (above
20 °C or ambient temperature). Any moisture is thus absorbed by the nitrogen and flushed
out of the system. This process can be checked by measuring the humidity of the escaping
nitrogen. It is useful to measure the water content in the nitrogen stream during the start-up
phase and to record its evolution during purging. For moisture measurement, the gas flow
is reduced to an absolute minimum. Only when no more moisture is detected there can the
drying process be terminated.

Cold Driving
The system section tank-pressure lock-cooling jacket or tank-high pressure pump with the
connecting pipelines must be cold-run with cold nitrogen gas phase (boiling temperature),
in no case with liquid nitrogen. To ensure that this section can be flushed evenly, the valves
15.2 Filling and Starting Up the System 209

(liquid inlet, gas return, cooling jacket and pressure lock inlet and outlet valves) and the
relief valve after the air evaporator are opened. The gas exits downstream of the evaporator.

All valves of the draw frames remain open during purging. The components of the
system cool down slowly and shrink depending on the temperature. As the gas at the outlet
gets colder, the gas flow rate is reduced. The pipeline temperature immediately upstream
of the air evaporator is measured cyclically. If this has fallen below −140 °C, the cold run
process can be terminated. The gas supply is terminated. The system is relieved to ambient
pressure via the relief valve downstream of the air evaporator.

Note If the system is immediately pressurized with liquid phase, pressure surges will
occur. The safety valves open and may not be able to discharge the resulting gas, the
­system may burst. The reason for this is that the safety valves have been designed for the
pressure increase due to heat input and not for a faulty cold run process.

Flushing with Natural Gas

The LNG tanker is connected to the tank via the hose. The coupling still remains closed.
The tanker pump is cooled. Once this has reached liquid temperature, the coupling of the
hose is opened. The tank’s inlet valve is slowly opened to full stroke. A small flow of gas
slowly flows from the gas compartment of the tank truck into the tank from above, displac-
ing the cold nitrogen through the downstream components. The gas flow is adjusted with
the relief valve behind the evaporator. After a few minutes, a sensor measures the methane
concentration at the relief valve. If the concentration has risen above 80%, the system can
be switched to the liquid phase.

Refuelling with LNG

When the truck pump is switched on, LNG is pumped into the tank. Refuelling takes place
from above. The fill level can be monitored on the level gauge. The pressure rises for a
short time and is caused by the evaporation of the liquid in the tank and the downstream
assemblies. After a short time the tank pressure drops to boiling temperature/boiling pres-
sure. Thermodynamic equilibrium prevails in the tank as a result of the mixed condensa-
tion that sets in. The valves are still open from purging with gas. The product flows not
only into the tank, but also into the downstream components. If these have not yet reached
boiling temperature, gas develops. The downstream accumulators are filled with gas. If the
pressure in the accumulators has almost reached the permissible operating pressure of the
tank due to the evaporation that is still taking place, the accumulators are closed. The truck
pump continues to push into the system, and the pressure can rise to the permissible oper-
ating pressure in this situation. Refuelling must be interrupted. The tank pressure is devel-
oped by evaporation in the downstream components. The level at the tank could be half
full (assumption) and is not in thermodynamic equilibrium.
210 15 Commissioning and Decommissioning of an LNG Plant

The pressure is lowered below the permissible level for further refuelling, and refuel-
ling is continued to 100% for filling. If an overfill protection is present, filling is always
allowed to 100%, i.e. 95%. For Liqui-Flow filling stations, the process of pressure build-
­up in the control accumulator can be started. When the desired pressure is reached in the
control accumulator, the process is stopped. The filling station is ready for operation.

Summary
The plant is internally dried with nitrogen and cooled for LNG refuelling. The condition is
checked by measuring the temperature upstream of the air evaporator. When the operating
temperature is reached, the plant is relieved to atmospheric pressure and refuelled with
methane gas and LNG. During this process, the filling level at the tank is checked.

15.3 Decommissioning of an LNG Facility

A distinction must be made between short-term and permanent decommissioning.

Decommissioning means that the plant will not operate for a longer period of time. Short-­
term shutdowns can be caused by revisions or repairs.
After a brief shutdown, the system is scheduled to be started up again or in the foresee-
able future. For this purpose, the plant is shut down, the pressure builds up in the tank and
the gas is vented via the process pressure relief valve. If repairs are to be carried out, a
pressure relief must be carried out for the respective plant section and this must be marked
accordingly. It must be impossible for pressure to build up again due to incorrect operation.
In liquid-bearing areas, gas formation occurs in the course of a discharge (the thermo-
dynamic state of equilibrium is aimed for). The liquid evaporates. In the case of larger
quantities, the gas must be fed to a combustion process. Compression of the escaping gas
will hardly be possible, as the appropriate technological equipment would have to be avail-
able for this. The liquid has evaporated, the gas has flowed down to a low residual pres-
sure, the plant can be shut down and the control system switched off. There is no more
product in the plant, it is slowly getting warm. A new filling requires the cold run.

Note The prevailing residual pressure must not be released. It ensures that no air can enter
the system.

Repair Work on the Plant

If the system is to be shut down for repair purposes, the corresponding section must be
relieved as described above and marked in accordance with the occupational health and
safety regulations.

Note There is a risk of gas flowing from the section before or after into the section being
repaired due to a leaking or not exactly closed valve. This represents an extreme danger.
15.3 Decommissioning of an LNG Facility 211

In particular, it should be noted that explosive mixtures are already present at 4.4% meth-
ane in the air. These must be avoided at all costs by technically reliable measures (see
following section).

In order to exclude any potential danger, the section upstream and downstream must
also be relieved. These sections must be purged with nitrogen, a slight positive pressure
must be created and the valves must be closed for the duration of the repair. This will
ensure that there is no flammable gas in the line before and after the section. The repair
section itself shall be purged with nitrogen prior to repair. This procedure shall be described
in detail in a repair instruction. It describes the process to be followed.

Permanent Decommissioning of the Plant

If the system is to be shut down permanently, the same procedure must be followed. Only
in this case, the entire system is purged with nitrogen and then closed under a slight nitro-
gen overpressure by closing the valves. The safe condition is thus established. The slight
overpressure must be checked cyclically and prevents air from entering the system.

Practical Advice
For a temporary shutdown of the system, the pressure is relieved down to a residual pres-
sure. Shutdown for repair requires depressurization of the section where the repair is to be
carried out and inerting with nitrogen of the repair section, as well as before and after it.
Permanent shutdown requires purging the entire system with nitrogen. The system remains
under a slight overpressure.
Training Recommendation
16

Abstract

Product training serves first and foremost to protect the health of employees and to
preserve, maintain and care for the objects, apparatus and devices entrusted to them.

Product training serves first and foremost to protect the health of employees and to pre-
serve, maintain and care for the objects, apparatus and devices entrusted to them. The
employee should understand why and how certain processes run so that he can react pro-
fessionally in the event of a malfunction.

Note The training must be carried out before commissioning the system. It must be
adapted to the group of persons to be trained, constantly revised, regularly repeated and,
above all, pointed out in a clear manner to hazards, their effects and avoidance. The train-
ing on the product and the plant does not replace the recurring occupational health and
safety instruction, but is at best a part of it.

A training course does not claim to be up to date, but is to be constantly completed by

new knowledge and current legal requirements.
For the purpose of constructing systems, the attention of the persons carrying out the
work or the group of persons must be drawn to the applicable rules and regulations. The
planner is obliged to inform himself about the rules and regulations and to include them in
his considerations for the execution/planning of the system.

Note A planner must constantly ask himself whether all possible hazards are excluded or
avoided with the planned design. Residual risks must be excluded by protective measures.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 213

GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2024
W. Hermeling, Compendium for the LNG and CNG Practitioner,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38258-2_16
214 16 Training Recommendation

For the operation of facilities, people or the group of people are to be made aware of
potential hazards. The health of people shall be protected, the facility shall be maintained,
and reference shall be made to how the facilities are operated and maintained in a proper
condition.

Note Safe handling of cryogenic liquefied natural gas is only possible if the specific prop-
erties of this gas are known. The same applies to gases under pressure.

Employees are familiarized with the specifics of a system in order to be able to operate
the systems in accordance with the operating instructions and to recognize, avoid or pre-
vent possible hazards. It must be possible to exclude the occurrence of the hazardous situ-
ation. In the event of danger, an employee must know how to react in which situations. The
procedures must be practiced, especially certain procedures such as reporting the location
of the damage, the time, the damage itself and the scenarios that have occurred. The safety
instructions conveyed in this process do not replace the binding safety regulations, but are
to be understood as their supplement. They are subordinate to the safety regulations
described in the rules and regulations.
Should be trained:

• the plant operator,

• the operating personnel on site,
• the service company to carry out repairs, maintenance and servicing of the equipment.

Practical Advice
The product training must be carried out before the start of the commissioning of a system
or the planning. It refers exclusively to LNG and CNG. It serves to protect the health and
safety of the employees and the protection of the systems as well as the safe handling of
them. Product training does not replace occupational health and safety instruction. Product
training is a prerequisite for safe operation of the equipment. They must be tailored to the
target group. Imparting knowledge that is not relevant to the task area is counterproductive
and must therefore be avoided at all costs.

16.1 Recommendation for Training Topics for the Plant Operator

The operator of the plant is informed about the product according to the product training
and in addition to the topics specified in the training plan.
Training focus:

• Plant operation, process, plant control, rough overview [1–7];

• LNG, what is that:
16.3 Recommendation of Topics for Training of On-Site Operational Staff 215

–– Occurrence.
–– Meaning.
–– Transport.
–– Features.
• Occupational safety in general.
• Occupational safety especially in the handling of gases (cryogenic liquefied, pressur-
ized gases, identifying potential hazards, developing hazard scenarios and how to avert
them, protective measures, etc.)
• Refuelling of the tank with LNG, importance of the closed hose system.
• Federal Immission Control Act (BImSchG).
• Major Accidents Ordinance.

Practical Advice
The plant operator must be made aware of the product he is placing on the market and the
equipment he is using. He is responsible for the safety of the personnel and the equipment
and knows the possibilities for their implementation.

16.2 Topic Recommendation for Personal Protection

of the Customer at the Petrol Station

At the filling station, the customer cannot be trained specifically on how to handle CNG or
LNG. Clear, short texts and generally known and understandable symbols must be used to
point out the danger. They must be clearly visible and ideally accompany the process by
means of instructions on a display (written or visual). The refuelling process should be
automated to such an extent that incorrect operation is ruled out.

Practical Advice
The customer is to be informed of the correct operation of the tank system and how to
handle it by means of clear and concise information boards.

16.3 Recommendation of Topics for Training of On-Site

Operational Staff

The operator of the system ensures that the operating personnel are informed about the
product according to the product training, and also about the topics specified in the train-
ing plan. The product training refers exclusively to the product. The training plan includes
an explanation of the environment and other topics.
216 16 Training Recommendation

Note Prior to commissioning, the operator has ensured that his operating personnel have
been appropriately trained, which means that on completion of the training, the operator
can demonstrate that his personnel have appropriate knowledge.

Training focus:

• System operation, system control, rough overview.

• LNG, what is that?
–– Occurrence.
–– Meaning.
–– Transport.
• Plant management, simplified.
• Occupational safety in general.
• Especially the handling of gases (cryogenic liquefied, pressurized gases, identification
of potential dangers, development of danger scenarios and their prevention, protective
measures, etc.).
• Major Accidents Ordinance, in extracts.
• Alarm plan, detailed and train.

Practical Advice
Operating personnel must be familiar with the product and the hazards it presents, how to
prevent them, and be aware of how to alert and contain them in the event of a hazard.

16.4 Recommendation for Training Topics for Service

and Repair Personnel

Before commissioning, the repair personnel must be familiarized with the conditions of
the plant, the environment and also possible sources of interference and danger. Existing
qualifications must be built upon and it must be precisely defined which tasks may be
performed by which person. The training for carrying out repair and maintenance work
must be repeated and consolidated at regular intervals. The focus must be on the correct
handling of pressure equipment.
Training focus:

• Plant operation, process, plant control, rough overview [1–7];

• LNG, what is that?
–– Occurrence.
–– Meaning.
–– Transport.
–– Features.
16.5 One-Man Workstation 217

• Occupational safety in detail; in particular fire protection, leak test, plant acceptance,
periodic inspections, logging of repairs, replacement of spare parts, approved tools.
• Procedure for lowering the pressure to ambient pressure for repair purposes.
• Dealing with gases (cryogenic liquefied, pressurised gases, identifying potential haz-
ards, developing hazard scenarios and how to avert them, protective measures, etc.)
• Inerting the repair section.
• Level measurement in the tank, principle, function and function control.
• Coupling tank truck/tank, principle, function and function check.
• Pressure Equipment Directive.
• Explosion protection directive (ATEX 95, 137).
• Operation of plants with LNG.
• Alarm plan.

Practical Advice
The service personnel must have knowledge in handling pressure equipment. They must
be familiar with the handling of the product, know its hazards and how to avert them, and
have mastered the repair instructions.

16.5 One-Man Workstation

The workplace for refuelling the customer’s tank with LNG should be declared as a one-­
man workplace.
It is part of our working world today that work is carried out alone, without a second
person, for which there is a small residual risk. This is possible and permissible without
further ado. However, this does not apply to work with cryogenic liquefied gases. However,
there are requirements in this area that a person can work without supervision. Therefore,
every effort must be made to reduce any potential hazard to a minimum. If, contrary to
expectations, a hazard is nevertheless perceived, the person must have the possibility of
indicating this hazard and averting it. Alternatively, there must be an automatic alarm.
It can be assumed that the equipment and devices comply with the occupational health
and safety guidelines. Nevertheless, a residual risk remains. This must be analysed. The
prerequisite is that the workplace has been certified and is designed to be safe. To this end,
the following precautions have been taken, in addition to the mandatory dead space-free
coupling:
218 16 Training Recommendation

Evaluation of
Potential danger Security the measure
Secure tanker against Securing wheels with a brake shoe No
rolling remaining
danger
Making the hose Dead space free FUHEKA – coupling, electronic No
connection recognition of the coupling, automatic closing remaining
(coupling halves) are pulled together, coupling seals danger
100%, no product leakage possible, manual triggering
of the automatically controlled refuelling process
Cold burn at the coupling Cold areas of the coupling are protected with insulating No
plastic remaining
danger
Clutch slips and falls to Protective work shoes with protective cap No
the feet remaining
danger
Separation of the Coupling closes internally and releases hose side of No
coupling from the coupling, coupling is automatically closed, no product remaining
customer tank, separation leakage possible, cold surfaces are closed with danger
process is triggered protective cap
manually
Inserting the coupling Contact detects manual interlocking carried out in No
with hose into the accordance with regulations, otherwise warning signal remaining
vehicle bracket is triggered danger
General supervision of Refuelling station is illuminated, video-monitored and No
the person carrying out equipped with emergency call button at various points remaining
the work danger

Practical Advice
The handling of cryogenic liquefied gases, which also includes LNG, must be designed
accordingly as a one-man workplace. The person must be protected and secured against
possible dangers by appropriate measures. If a hazardous situation nevertheless occurs, an
alarm must be triggered automatically.

References

1. Gasfachliche Norm DIN EN ISO 16923 Erdgastankstellen – CNG-Tankstellen zur Betankung

von Fahrzeugen (ISO 16923:2016).
2. DIN EN ISO 16924 Erdgastankstellen – Tankstellen für verflüssigtes Erdgas (LNG) zur Betankung
von Fahrzeugen (ISO 16924:2016).
3. TRBS 3151.
4. G97 Erdgas (CNG)-Betankungsanlagen (Österreich).
5. Betriebssicherheitsverordnung 2015.
6. Explosionsschutz in der Gasversorgung.
7. Der DVGW-Merkblatt G 442 “Explosionsgefährdete Bereiche an Ausblaseöffnungen von
Leitungen zur Atmosphäre an Gasanlagen” (erschienen als Ausgabe 07/2015. Das DVGW G 442
wird unter Punkt 5.14 in die EX-RL-Beispielsammlung der DGUV aufgenommen.)
Special Instructions and Precautions
17

Abstract

If the safety regulations are observed, the products LNG and CNG can be traded safely.
For this purpose, the relevant regulations are explained and special reference is made to
specific protective measures. Damage scenarios are described.

17.1 Protective Clothing

Worn consistently, personal protective equipment protects against contact with cryogenic
gases, liquids or plant components. Damage to health is practically excluded (see: [1, 2]).
Clothing should be clean, dry and made of natural fibers. It should not be tight-fitting,
so that it can be easily and quickly removed, wetting with the cryogenic gas or LNG
should take place. Arms and legs should be fully covered. Open pockets, folded trouser
legs or sleeves should be avoided.
Well-insulating gloves made of dry, low-embrittlement materials should be worn when
cold system parts (coupling during refuelling) are touched and splashes are to be expected.
The gloves should also fit loosely so that they can be slipped off quickly if cryogenic liquid
has entered. Gauntlets or cuffs should prevent the cryogenic gas from entering the glove.
Face protection must be worn when handling LNG, e.g. when connecting or disconnecting
hoses or handling cryogenic liquid. When handling liquid natural gas (LNG), safety shoes
with conductive (so-called antistatic) soles must be worn. If boots are used, the trousers
should extend over the boots.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 219

GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2024
W. Hermeling, Compendium for the LNG and CNG Practitioner,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38258-2_17
220 17 Special Instructions and Precautions

Summary
The employee must wear protective work clothing appropriate for the product. LNG
causes cold burn on unprotected skin and is equivalent to a burn.

17.2 Contact and Skin Contact with Liquid-Carrying Lines

Uninsulated fluid-carrying lines must never come into direct contact with the skin. The
skin’s own moisture would freeze immediately, causing them to stick firmly to the object
by forming ice. The same is true of gas lines conveying cold gas. Removal, of hands frozen
by ice is painful. If possible, the pipe must be warmed up so that the ice melts between the
skin and the cold surface.

Note Cables and components in the cryogenic area must always be protected against
contact.

If the skin of the employees is hit by such drops or even a jet of liquid, an injury occurs.
It corresponds to a burn, the cold burn.

Note If a gas jet penetrates the clothing, the gas is stored there and can also burn at a later
time if ignited.

Therefore, non-flammable protective clothing is mandatory and the wearing of damp

clothing must be avoided at all costs. Face and hands must be protected. The same applies
to the immersion of objects at ambient temperature in cryogenic liquefied gases. The occu-
pational health and safety regulations for handling cryogenic liquefied gases, i.e. also for
LNG, must be observed very strictly.

Note If work is carried out on the systems, they must be depressurised and have reached
ambient temperature.

Summary
The possible skin contact must be excluded by appropriate protective measures. Splashes
must be excluded by further protective measures. Work on the equipment requires prior
heating.

17.3 Extinguishing a Natural Gas Flame

The scenario must be discussed in advance with the responsible fire department before the
system is set up [3–5].
17.4 Damage Scenarios 221

Note In the event of a natural gas fire, decide whether to extinguish the fire or burn the
gas. Natural gas burns with a very hot flame, with a temperature of approximately 1970
°C. LNG does not burn, it is the vaporized gas that is flammable.
If it is decided not to extinguish the flame, the gas flow must be stopped by closing the
valves. At and around the point of origin of the flame, the plant, nearby objects and build-
ings must be cooled with water. The process must be carried out at least until the gas flame
is extinguished and the gas has stopped escaping.
If it is decided to extinguish the flame, the gas will continue to escape. The gas must be
vented so that it can escape freely and there is no source of ignition nearby. An ignitable
mixture of 4.4–14% gas in the air can easily form. Estimating this can be a challenge. The
risk of a gas explosion cannot be ruled out. The consequential damage could be much
greater and more unpredictable than the direct damage caused by the gas flame.
Natural gas is extinguished with foam. The foam prevents the further entry of air, the
flame is smothered. If a water curtain is used to extinguish the fire, the water removes the
heat of vaporisation from the gas. The ignition temperature is no longer reached and the
gas can no longer burn.

Summary
The fire brigade must be consulted about any natural gas fires prior to commissioning the
system. A decision must be made as to whether burning natural gas should be extinguished
or not. The fire is stopped by interrupting the gas supply or burning all the gas. Extinguished
and subsequently leaking natural gas can result in a gas explosion. The plant itself and the
surrounding area must be cooled with water.

17.4 Damage Scenarios

Under atmospheric pressure, LNG is usually boiling. During the refuelling process, it is
only possible for splashes to be entrained with the vaporised gas in open systems when the
hose is released and coupled. In closed hose systems with dead space, liquid residues can
be entrained. Face and hands as well as clothing must be protected. In case of skin contact,
injuries equivalent to burns will occur. The gas must not be deposited in clothing. There is
a risk of fire. It is essential to wear flame-retardant work clothing.

Summary
LNG splashes during refuelling are possible, especially if dead space free coupling sys-
tems are not used.
222 17 Special Instructions and Precautions

17.5 Leaking LNG or Gas

One litre of leaking cryogenic liquefied gas produces considerable quantities of gas
(approx. 0.6 m3). It is necessary to have intensive ventilation in places where LNG could
leak. Adequate ventilation should prevent the oxygen content of the air from being signifi-
cantly altered. The same applies to the gas phase. When LNG mixes with air, mists may
form as the humidity condenses due to the cold natural gas.

Note Outside the fog cloud, a significant change in air composition must be expected. In
the event of a major spill of LNG, the fog may make orientation difficult due to visibility
obstructions. This is a major hazard.

Exposure to supercooled air caused by cryogenic gases may cause hypothermia of the
body. Breathing in the supercooled air may cause a disturbance of the lung activity caused
by the cryogenic gas.

Note Vaporized LNG can penetrate deeper rooms, ducts, etc. because it is heavier than air
when cold.

In such areas, there would therefore be a particular risk of suffocation or fire under
certain circumstances, and in the case of LNG, a risk of fire or explosion. This possibility
must be excluded by baffles or by closing the openings.

Summary
LNG vaporizes when it escapes into the atmosphere. At atmospheric pressure, the gas
takes up 600 times the volume of a litre of liquid. It mixes with air and can form an explo-
sive mixture there already between 4.4% and 14% by volume. Cold gas is heavier than air
and can flow into shafts and other recesses, where it can reduce the oxygen content or form
an explosive mixture.

17.6 Influencing the Environment

Leaking LNG does not cause contamination of the soil, as LNG evaporates quickly and
thus does not penetrate the soil. Temporary local ground freezing does not leave any per-
manent damage to the soil.
If CNG escapes, it immediately rises and dilutes with the air. This creates an explosive
gas mixture of between 4.4% and 14% methane in the air. This must be avoided. Under no
circumstances must an ignition source be available.
The escape of LNG or the gaseous phase should generally be avoided, as methane is
extremely harmful to the ozone layer of our earth.
References 223

Summary
LNG does not cause any environmental damage in the ground. The rising gas is extremely
harmful to the environment.

17.7 Included LNG

If cryogenic liquefied gases, e.g. LNG, are trapped between two valves, pressure relief
devices with a sufficiently large free cross-section are required by the regulations. Even
with the best insulation, these liquids will vaporize. The resulting gas must be discharged
in a controlled manner through the pressure relief devices in order to prevent the pipeline
from bursting, etc.

Summary
LNG splashes trapped in a vessel or pipe vaporize and build up the highest pressures and
must be relieved via pressure relief devices.

References

1. http://www.linde-­gas.at/de/images/Sicherheitshinweis_01_AT_V110_nq_tcm550-­101553.pdf
Umgang mit tiefkalt verflüssigten Gasen.
2. www.industriegaseverband.de/system/files/downloads/5d425676b9fc9eaa0d076b0eaec31653/
umgang-­mit-­tiefkalt-­verfluessigten-­gasen01-­14.pdf Umgang mit tiefkalt verflüssigten Gasen.
3. Schutz von Gasversorgungsanlagen (Löschen).
4. https://www.bundesfeuerwehrverband.at/wp-­content/uploads/2017/08/E07_Erdgas.pd
5. www.gvp-­netz.de/fileadmin/Dateien/Dokumente/Erdgasinformationen_für_die_Feuerwehr.pdf