CONTENT TABLE

Sr No Topics Page No

1 Electric charges and fields 02 - 18

2 Electrostatic potential and capacitance 19 - 39

3 Current electricity 40 - 56

4 Moving charges and magnetism 57 - 92

5 Magnetism and matter 93 - 128

6 Electromagnetic induction 129 - 141

7 Alternating current 142 - 162

8 Electromagnetic waves 163 - 180

9 Ray optics and optical instruments 181 - 194

10 Wave optics 195 - 219

11 Dual nature of radiation and matter 220 - 242

12 Atoms 243 - 267

13 Nuclei 268 - 287

14 Semiconductor electronics: materials, devices and simple circuits 288 - 312

 Chapter 1 Electric Charges and Fields
Introduction

The study of static charges is called electrostatics and this complete electrostatic will be discussed in two chapters. In this chapter,
we begin with a discussion of electric charge, some properties of charged bodies, and the fundamental electric force between two
charged bodies.

What is Electric Charge

Electric Charge is a fundamental property of a matter which is responsible for electric forces between the bodies. Two electrons
placed at a small separation are found to repeal each other, this repulsive force (Electric force) is only because of the electric
charge on electrons.

When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the rod acquires one kind of charge, and the silk acquires the second kind of charge. This is
true for any pair of objects that are rubbed to be electrified. Now if the electrified glass rod is brought in contact with silk, with
which it was rubbed, they no longer attract each other.

Types of Electric Charge

There are two types of changes that exist in our nature.
• Positive Charge
• Negative Charge
If any object loses its electrons, then they get a positive charge. It is denoted by (+q) sign. If any object gains electrons from another
object, then it gets a negative charge. It is denoted by (-q) sign. The charges were named as positive and negative by the American
scientist Benjamin Franklin. If an object possesses an electric charge, it is said to be electrified or charged. When it has no charge,
it is said to be neutral.

Basic Properties of Electric Charge

The important properties and characteristics of electric charge are given below.
• Attraction and Repulsion: - Like charges repel each other while unlike charges attract each other.
• Electric Induction: - When a charged object brings to contact with another uncharged, it gets the opposite charge of the
charged object. It is called charging by induction.
• Charge is Quantized: - An object that is electrically charged has an excess or deficiency of some whole number of electrons.
Since electrons cannot be divided into fractions of electrons, it means that the charge of an object is a whole-number multiple
of the charge of an electron. For example, it cannot have a charge equal to the charge of 0.5 or 1000.5 electrons.
Mathematically q = ± ne, here n = 1, 2, 3 and e = 1.6 × 10−19 coulomb.
• Electric Charge is Conserved: - According to this property, "An electric charge neither can be created nor can be destroyed"
i.e., total net charge of an isolated system is always conserved. Thus, when a glass rod is rubbed with silk cloth, both glass
rod, and silk cloth acquire opposite charges in the same quantity. Thus, the total amount of charge remains the same before
rubbing as well as after rubbing.

Conductors and Insulators

Some substances easily allow the passage of electricity through them while others do not. Substances that allow electricity to
pass through them easily are called ‘conductors. They have electrons that are free to move inside the material. Metals, human and
animal bodies, earth, etc. are examples of conductors. Non-metals e.g., glass, plastic, and wood are ‘insulators’ because they do
not easily allow the passage of electricity through them.
Most substances are either conductors or insulators. There is a third category called ‘semiconductors’ which are intermediate
between conductors and insulators because they partially allow movement of charges through them.

Charging by Induction
Now as we know that two oppositely charged bodies attract each other. But it also has been our observation that a charged body
attracts a neutral body as well. This is explained on the basis of charging by induction. In the induction process, two bodies (at
least one body must be charged) are brought very close, but they never touch each other.

2
Let us examine how a charged body attracts an uncharged body. Imagine a conducting or partially conducting body (sphere here)
is kept on an insulating stand and a charged rod (positive, for example) is brought very close to it. It will attract electrons to its
side and the farther end of the sphere will become positively charged as it is deficient in electrons.

Coulomb’s Law
In 1785 Charles Coulomb (1736-1806) experimentally established the fundamental law of electric force between two stationary
charged particles. He observed that an electric force between two charged particles has the following properties:
• It is directed along a line joining the two particles and is inversely proportional to the square of the separation distance r,
between them.
• It is proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges, |q1| and |q2|, of the two particles.
• It is attractive if the charges are of the opposite sign and repulsive if the charges have the same sign.
• From these observations, Coulomb proposed the following mathematical form for the electric force between two charges.
The magnitude of the electric force F between charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r is given by.

|𝑞1 ||𝑞1 |
𝐹=𝑘
𝑟2

where k is a constant called the Coulomb constant. The proportionality constant k in Coulomb’s law is similar to G in Newton’s
law of gravitation. Instead of being a very small number like G (6.67 × 10–11), the electrical proportionality constant k is a very
large number. It is approximately.
k = 8.9875 × 109 N-m2 C–2
The constant k is often written in terms of another constant, ε0, called the permittivity of free space. It is related to k by.
1
𝑘=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜

1 |𝑞1 ||𝑞1 |
∴𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2

1
𝜀𝑜 = = 8.85 × 10−12 c 2 /Nm2
4𝜋𝑘

Electric Field
A charge produces something called an electric field in the space around it and this electric field exerts a force on any charge
(except the source charge itself) placed in it. The electric field has its own existence and is present even if there is no additional
charge to experience the force.

Intensity of Electric Field

The intensity of the electric field due to a charge configuration at a point is defined as the force acting on a unit positive charge at
this point. Hence if a charge q experiences an electric force F at a point, then the intensity of the electric field at this point is given
as

𝑬 = 𝑭/𝒒
It has S.I. units of newtons per coulomb (N/C).

3
Electric Field due to a Point Charge

To determine the direction of an electric field, consider a point charge q as a source charge. This charge creates an electric field
at all points in the space surrounding it. A test charge q 0 is placed at point P, a distance r from the source charge. According to
Coulomb’s law, the force exerted by q on the test charge is.
1 𝑞𝑞0
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

This force is directed away from the source charge q, since the electric field at P, the position of the test charge, is defined by.
𝐹
𝐸=
𝑞0

we find that at P, the electric field created by q is.

1 𝑞
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

Electric Field Lines

Electric field lines are a way of pictorially mapping the electric field around a configuration of charges. An electric field line is, in
general, a curve drawn in such a way that the tangent to it at each point is in the direction of the net field at that point. The field
lines follow some important general properties:
• The tangent to electric field lines at any point gives the direction of the electric field at that point.
• In free space, they are continuous curves that emerge from a positive charge and terminate at a negative charge
• They do not intersect each other. If they do so, then it would mean two directions of the electric field at the point of intersec-
tion, which is not possible.
• Electrostatic field lines do not form any closed loops. This follows from the conservative nature of the electric field

Electric Dipole
A configuration of two charges of the same magnitude q, but of opposite sign, separated by a small distance (say 2a) is called an
electric dipole.
The dipole moment for an electric dipole is a vector quantity directed from the negative charge to the positive charge and its
magnitude is p = q × 2a (charge × separation). The SI unit of dipole moment is C-m (coulombmeter).

4
Electric Field Strength due to Electric Dipole
1. At Axial Position
The net electric field at P
𝐸=𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + 𝐸
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 , where 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 are fields due to +𝑞 and −𝑞 respectively.

1 𝑞
𝐸1 = (1)
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎)2

1 −𝑞
𝐸2 = (2)
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2

𝐸 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2

From eq. (1) and (2)

𝑞 1 1
𝐸= [ − ]
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎)2 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2

𝑞 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2 − (𝑟 − 𝑎)2
𝐸= [ ]
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2

𝑞 4𝑎𝑟
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎2 )2
2

1 2(2𝑎𝑞)𝑟
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2

1 2𝑃𝑟
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎2 )2
2

For a short dipole, a is very small in comparison.

∴ 𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 ≈ 𝑟 2

1 2𝑃
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3

2. At Broad side on Position

5
Electric field vector due to +q is.

1 𝑞
𝐸1 =
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )

Electric field vector due to –q is.

1 𝑞
𝐸2 =
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )

Resultant field at P is,

𝐸 = 𝐸1 cos 𝜃 + 𝐸2 cos 𝜃

1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝐸= 2 2 cos 𝜃 + 2 cos 𝜃
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 +𝑎 ) 4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 + 𝑎2)

1 2𝑞
𝐸= 2 cos 𝜃
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 + 𝑎2)

1 2𝑞 𝑎
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 ) √𝑟 2 + 𝑎2

1 2𝑎𝑞
𝐸= 2
4𝜋𝜀0
(𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )3

1 𝑃
𝐸= 2
4𝜋𝜀0
(𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )3

For a short dipole

∴ 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 ≈ 𝑟 2

1 𝑃
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )3

Torque of Electric Dipole in uniform Electric Field

An electric dipole is placed in a uniform electric field E.

6
The force experienced by the dipole is.
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸
The two forces form a couple, and it tries to turn the dipole. The torque due to the couple is given by.
τ = either force × perpendicular distance between the forces
τ = qE × (2a sin θ)
τ = (2aq) E sin θ
τ = pE sin θ

τ=p×E

Electric Flux
The number of electric field lines that are passing perpendicularly through the unit surface of any plane is called electric flux.
Consider an electric field that is uniform in both magnitude and direction, as in the figure.

We can write this as N ∝ EA, which means that the number of field lines is proportional to the product of E and A. This is a meas-
ure of electric flux and is represented by the symbol φ. In the above case, φ = EA cosθ. The SI unit of electric flux is N-m2/C or V-
m(volt-meter).

Solid Angle
A solid angle is defined as an angle that is made at a point in place by an area. The SI unit of solid angle is steradian, and it is
expressed as 'sr'.
𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃
𝑠𝑟 =
𝑟2

Gauss’s Law
It states that the electric flux Φ through any closed surface is equal to (1/εo) times the net charged q enclosed by the surface. That
is
𝑞
𝜙 = ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 =
𝜀𝑜

Proof: Consider a point charge q surrounded by a spherical surface of radius r centered on the charge. The magnitude of the
electric field everywhere on the surface of the sphere is.
7
 1 𝑞
𝐸= … … . (1)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
The electric field is perpendicular to the spherical surface at all points on the surface. The electric flux through the surface is.
𝜙𝐸 = ∫ 𝐸𝐴cos 𝜃 … . (2)
Putting the value of E from eq. (1)
1 𝑞
𝜙𝐸 = ∫ 𝐴cos 𝜃
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝑞 𝐴cos 𝜃
𝜙𝐸 = ∫
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
𝑞
𝜙𝐸 = ∫ 𝑑𝜔
4𝜋𝜀0
𝑞
𝜙𝐸 = 4𝜋
4𝜋𝜀0
𝑞
𝜙𝐸 =
𝜀0
This result says that the electric flux through a sphere that surrounds a charge q is equal to the charge divided by the constant ε0.

Let us note some important points regarding this law:

• Gauss’s law is true for any closed surface, no matter what its shape or size.
• The term q on the right side of Gauss’s law includes the sum of all charges enclosed by the surface.
• Gauss’s law is often useful for a much easier calculation of the electrostatic field when the system has some symmetry.
• Gauss’s law is based on the inverse square dependence on distance contained in Coulomb’s law.

Application of Gauss’s Law

• It is used to calculate electric field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire.
• It is also used to calculate electric field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet.
• It is also used to calculate electric field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell.

Electric field strength due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire.
Let a charged wire of infinite length be + q charge and its linear charge density λ be. To calculate the electric field due to this wire,
let us assume a cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius r. Let the area of this Gaussian surface be dS 1, dS2, dS3.

Hence the total electric flux passing through the first surface dS1,
𝜙1 = ∮𝐸. 𝑑𝑆1 cos 𝜃
𝜙1 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆1 cos 90∘
𝜙1 = 0 … . (1)

Similarly, the total electric flux passing through the second surface dS2,
𝜙2 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆2 cos 𝜃

𝜙2 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆2 cos 0

𝜙2 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆2

𝜙2 = 𝐸∮ 𝑑𝑆2
8
𝜙2 = 𝐸(2𝜋𝑟𝑙) … . . (2)

Similarly, the total electric flux passing through the third surface dS3,
𝜙3 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆3 cos 90∘
𝜙3 = 0 … . (3)

Hence, the total electric flux passing through the Gaussian surface,
𝜙 = 𝜙1 + 𝜙2 + 𝜙3

𝜙 = 0 + 𝐸. 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 + 0

𝜙 = 𝐸. 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 … . . . (4)

𝑞
Putting 𝜙 = from Gauss's theorem,
𝜀0

𝑞
= 𝐸. 2𝜋𝑟𝑙
𝜀0

𝑞
𝐸= 𝑙
2𝜋𝑟𝜀0

𝜆
𝐸=
2𝜋𝑟𝜀0

Deduction of Coulomb’s law from Gauss' Law

Consider a charge + q in place at origin in a vacuum. We want to calculate the electric field due to this charge at a distance r from
the charge. Imagine that the charge is surrounded by an imaginary sphere of radius r as shown in the figure below. This sphere is
called the Gaussian sphere.

Consider a small area element dS on the Gaussian sphere. We can calculate the flux through this area element due to charge as
follows:

∮ 𝐸⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆 = 𝐸∫ 𝑑𝑆

∮ 𝐸⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆 = 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 )

Using this in Gauss theorem we get

𝑞
𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 ) =
𝜀0

1 𝑞
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

We know that,

𝐹 = 𝐸𝑞0

9
 1 𝑞𝑞0
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

This is the required Coulomb’s law obtained from the Gauss theorem.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. If an object is positively charged, theoretically the mass of the object ______
A. Increases slightly by a factor of 9.11×10-31 kg B. Decreases slightly by a factor of 9.11×10-31 kg
C. Remains the same D. May increase or decrease
Answer: B
Explanation:
If an object is positively charged it loses some of its electrons. The mass of an electron is 9.11×10 -31 kg. So, if a positively charged
body loses ‘n’ number of electrons, it mass decreases by the amount n×9.11E-31kg.

2. Why is gold used in the Gold-leaf electroscope?

A. Gold is easily available in nature B. Gold is malleable
C. Gold is conducting in nature D. Gold is cheap
Answer: B
Explanation:
Though gold is a costly metal it is used in electroscopes because of the property malleability. This means very thin and light sheets
can be formed from gold simply by hammering or rolling and hence the deflection of the light gold plates increases.

3. What happens to the plates of the apparatus if we measure alternating charge using a Gold-leaf oscilloscope?
A. It doesn’t diverge at all B. It diverges momentarily
C. The plates give a proper divergence D. The degree of divergence increases and decreases
repeatedly
Answer: C
Explanation:
The divergence of the plates of the Gold-leaf oscilloscope depends only on the presence of a charge, not on the quality of charge
i.e. positive or negative. So, if the charge changes from positive to negative and vice versa the degree of divergence of the plates
remains the same.

4. Which one of the following is the correct diagram of charge distribution in a hollow sphere?
A. B.

C. D.

Answer: A
Explanation:
The same charges repel each other. So, they try to maintain maximum distance from each other and hence they try to remain at
the outer surface of an object. If the charge remains on the inner surface or throughout the body, they will repel each other with
greater force.
10
5. Dr. Gilbert tried to hold a brass rod by hand and induce static electricity in it by friction. Why did he fail?
A. Static electricity is induced only on insulators B. The induced static charge flew through his hand
while brass is conducting and body to the ground
C. The static charge was not produced at all D. It is not possible to induce static electricity by fric-
tion
Answer: B
Explanation:
The human body is a good conductor and hence the charge produced by friction flew through his body to the ground. We can
tackle the problem simply by holding the brass rod with the help of some insulated holder.

6. Gold-leaf electroscope can be used _______

A. Only to detect the presence of charge B. To detect the presence of charge as well as its na-
ture (positive or negative)
C. To measure the surface charge density D. To measure current
Answer: B
Explanation:
If the apparatus is initially in contact with some positively charged body and then comes in contact with another charged body
and if the divergence increases we can deduce that the second body is also positively charged. If the divergence decreases then
the second body must be negatively charged.

8. When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, what kind of charge will be developed on glass?

A. B.

D. Cannot predict

C.
Answer: a
Explanation:
According to electrostatic series, glass is situated above silk. So, if the glass is rubbed with silk, the positive charge on glass and
negative charge on silk is produced. Similarly, we can predict what is the nature of charge if we rub two di-electric substances
together.

7. 1 Coulomb = ________ Electrostatic Unit.

A. 3×109 B. 3×108
C. 1.602×10-19 D. 2×109
Answer: A
Explanation:
1 Coulomb means 3×109 Electro Static Unit of charge. Coulomb and ESU are two different units of charge and their conversion
formula is necessary. Coulomb is the unit of charge in the SI system and esu is the unit of charge in the CGS system.

8. Number of electrons in 1 Coulomb charge is _________

A. 6.25×1021 B. 6.25×1020
C. 6.25×1025 D. 6.25×1023
Answer: A
Explanation:
1
Electron has the charge of 1.602×10-19 Coulomb. So, the number of electrons in 1 Coulomb of charge is = 6.25×1021.
1.602 × 10−19
This huge number of electrons can be accumulated to form 1C of charge. Thus, we can conclude that we need Avogadro’s number
of electrons (approximately) to get 100C charges.

9. Two equally charged spheres attract each other. Now if they touch each other then they will _____
11
 A. Attract each other with the same amount of force B. Repel each other
C. Attract each other with less amount of force D. Don’t attract or repel
Answer: D
Explanation:
The two spheres are oppositely charged by the same amount. So if they come in contact, both of their charges are neutralized. So
they become uncharged and don’t attract or repel each other.
10. Which among the following cannot be the charge of a charged body?
A. 4.8×10-14 Coulomb B. 6.4×10-15 Coulomb
C. 5×10 Coulomb
-14 D. 3.2×10-10 Coulomb
Answer: C
Explanation:
Charge of a body must be an integral multiple of charge of an electron. 5×10 -14 is not an integral multiple of (1.602×10-19 Coulomb)
which is equal to the charge of an electron. But we can see that 4.8, 6.4, 3.2 are integral multiples of 1.6.

11. Current carrier in conductors is ____

A. Electron B. Proton
C. Neutron D. Positron
Answer: A
Explanation:
Conductors have lots of free electrons that can carry electricity if the potential difference is applied across them. Protons are
positively charged particle and Neutron are electrically neutral. They don’t carry electricity in conductors.

12. Which group among the following is insulator?

A. Silver, copper, gold B. Paper, glass, cotton
C. The human body, wood, iron D. Glass, copper, paper
Answer: B
Explanation:
Glass, paper, and cotton are good quality insulators. The rest options contain one or more conducting materials. Silver is the best
conductor material available in nature. But it is costly, so it can’t be used in the electricity distribution system.

13. The band gap between the valence band and conduction band is the measure of______
A. The conductivity of the material B. The resistivity of the material
C. Charge density D. Ease of ionization
Answer: A
Explanation:
The more the band gap between the valence band and conduction band, the worse is the conductivity of the material. For con-
ductors, there are overlapping bands. So, conductors can carry electricity. But there is a huge energy gap in the case of insulators.
So, they don’t carry electricity at all.

14. The rubber used in the wheels of aero-plane is _________

A. Perfect insulator B. Slightly conducting
C. Can be an insulator or conducting D. Semiconductor
Answer: B
Explanation:
Due to high friction during takeoff, a huge amount of charge is produced on the rubber of the wheel of a plane. This charge must
be sent to the ground. So, the rubber used is slightly conducting, else the huge charge produced may produce a spark and can
cause an accident.

15. Insulation breakdown may occur at _______

A. High temperature B. Low temperature
C. At any temperature D. Depends on pressure
Answer: A
Explanation:
At high temperatures, electrons of insulators get excited and then the electrons can overcome the large energy band gaps between
valence and conduction bands. So a large number of electrons travel to the conduction band and they act as conductor i.e. insula-
tion breakdown occurs.

16. Superconductors have __________

A. Almost zero resistivity B. Very high resistivity
12
 C. Temperature-dependent resistivity D. Moderate value of resistivity
Answer: A
Explanation:
Semiconductors are those which carry current with almost zero resistivity at a very low temperature (example: Lead at -272-
degree centigrade). So, they have a very huge amount of current flow through them.

17. If a positively charged sphere is taken close to another uncharged sphere then which of the following statements is true?
A. Induction and attraction occur simultaneously B. Induction occurs before the attraction
C. Attraction occurs before induction D. Attraction or repulsion may occur
Answer: B
Explanation:
If two bodies are taken close to each other, a positively charged body induces a negative charge on another body and then they
attract each other. So, induction occurs before attraction. This phenomenon is also true for magnetic induction.

18. Induction occurs due to ______

A. Movement of electron B. Leakage of charge
C. Ionization of atoms D. Uniform charge distribution
Answer: A
Explanation:
When a positive or negative charged body comes close to another body, the electrons of the second body redistribute themselves.
Electrons of the second body are attracted by the positively charged body and repelled by the negatively charged body.

19. A charge is being induced to a sphere with the help of another charged sphere. The extent of induction increase if ____________
A. The distance between the sphere increases B. The distance between the sphere decreases
C. The two spheres are kept in contact with each D. Remains same irrespective of the distance be-
other tween the spheres
Answer: D
Explanation:
The extent of induction increases if both the spheres are kept close to each other because the more electrons in the uncharged
sphere are attracted or repelled by the charged sphere, so the extent of induction increases.

20. The amount of force exerted on a unit positive charge in an electric field is known as _____
A. Electric field intensity B. Electric flux
C. Electric potential D. Electric lines of force
Answer: A
Explanation:
The zone near a charge where its attraction or repulsion force works, is known as the electric field of that charge. Theoretically,
it is up to infinite but practically it has limitations. If a unit positive charge is kept in that field, it will undergo some force which
is known as electric field intensity at that point.

21. The direction of electric field created by a negative charge is ___________

A. Directed outwards B. Directed towards the charge
C. Maybe outwards or towards the charge D. Circular in shape
Answer: B
Explanation:
If a unit positive charge is kept near a negative charge, the unit positive charge will be attracted towards the negative charge. That
means the electric field is towards the negative charge. But in case of positive charge, the field is directed away from the charge.

22. Electric field inside a hollow conducting sphere ______

A. Increases with distance from the center of the B. Decreases with distance from the center of the
sphere sphere
C. Is zero D. May increase or decrease with distance from the
center
Answer: C
Explanation:
According to Gauss’s law, if there is no charge inside a closed surface, the field inside the closed surface will always be zero. We
know the charge is distributed on the outer surface of a conducting hollow sphere because the charges want to maintain maxi-
mum distance among them due to repulsion. So there is no charge inside the sphere and hence no electric field.

13
23. Electric field due to a uniformly charged hollow sphere at a distance of r (where r is greater than the radius of the sphere)
is __________
A. Proportional to r B. Inversely proportional to r
C. Proportional to 𝑟 2 D. Inversely proportional to 𝑟 2
Answer: D
Explanation:
𝑞
If the total charge of the sphere is 𝑞 then the electric field at a distance of 𝑟 is equal to 2
. Therefore the electric field is pro-
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
1
portional is (if 𝑟 > radius of the sphere). But if 𝑟 < radius of the sphere the electric field will be zero i.e. electric field inside a
𝑟2
hollow sphere is always zero.

24. Two point charges q1 and q2 are situated at a distance d. There is no such point in between them where the electric field is
zero. What can we deduce?
A. There is no such point B. The charges are of the same polarity
C. The charges are of opposite polarity D. The charges must be unequal
Answer: C
Explanation:
If both the charges are of the same polarity (maybe of unequal magnitude), there must be a point in between them where the
electric field intensities of the charges are of equal magnitude and in opposite direction. Hence they balance each other and the
net field intensity must be zero. But if the charges are of opposite polarities their field intensities aid each other and net field
intensity can never be zero.

25. Two-point charges of the same polarities are hung with the help of two threads and kept close. The angle between the
threads will be _________ if the system is taken to space.
A. 180 degree B. 90 degree
C. 45 degree D. 60 degree
Answer: A
Explanation:
There is gravitational field on earth, so if we hang the two same charges there will be an interaction of vertical gravitational field
and horizontal electric field. The system will achieve equilibrium by creating a certain angle between the threads and hence the
vertical and horizontal components of forces will balance. But in space, there is no gravity. So the charges will be at 180-degree
separation.

26. An electron of mass m is kept in a vertical electric field of magnitude E. What must be the value of E so that the electron
doesn’t fall due to gravity?
𝑒
A. 𝑚 × 𝑔 × 𝑒 B.
(𝑚×𝑔)
(𝑚×𝑔) 1
C. D.
𝑒 (𝑚×𝑔×𝑒)
Answer: C
Explanation:
Gravitational force on the electron is 𝑚 × 𝑔 (weight of the electron). Electrical force on the body is 𝑒 × 𝐸. If the electron doesn't
(𝑚×𝑔)
fall then these two forces balance each other, so 𝑚 × g = E × e. Therefore E = .
𝑒

27. Electric field is a _______

A. Scalar quantity B. Vector quantity
C. Tensor quantity D. Quantity that has properties of both scalar and
vector
Answer: B
Explanation:
A scalar quantity is a quantity with magnitude only but no direction. But a vector quantity possesses both magnitude and direc-
tion. An electric field has a very specific direction (away from a positive charge or towards a negative charge). Hence electric field
is a vector quantity. Moreover, we have to use a vector addition for adding two electric fields.

28. Two point charges + 4q and +q are kept at a distance of 30 cm from each other. At which point between them, the field
intensity will be equal to zero?
A. 15cm away from the + 4q charge B. 20cm away from the + 4q charge
C. 7.5cm away from the + q charge D. 5cm away from the + q charge
Answer: B
Explanation:
14
 𝑞
The electric field at a distance of 𝑟 from a charge 𝑞 is equal to . Let the electric field intensity will be zero at a distance of
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
4𝑞 𝑞
× cm from +4q charge, so the fields due to the two charges will balance each other at that point. Therefore = .
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑥 2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜(30−𝑥)2
Solving this we get ×= 20 cm. Therefore, the point will be 20 cm away from the + 4𝑞 charge.

29. What is the dimension of electric field intensity?

A. [M L−2 I −1 ] B. [M L T −3 I−1 ]
C. [M L T I ]
−2 −2
D. [M L T −3 I]
Answer: B
Explanation:
Electric field intensity is defined as the force on a unit positive charge kept in an electric field. Hence, we can simply consider its
the dimension of force
dimension as . The dimension of force is [MLT −2 ] and the dimension of charge is [IT]. Therefore, the dimension
the dimension of charge
of field intensity is [M L T −3 I−1 ].

30. V/m is the unit of ______.

A. Electric field intensity B. Electric flux
C. Electric potential D. Charge
Answer: A
Explanation:
𝑑𝑉
E=− where E is the field intensity, V is potential and x is distance. Therefore, unit of electric field intensity will be
𝑑𝑥
unit of potential 𝑉
= . Electric flux has unit V × m, V is the unit of electric potential whereas charge has a unit of Coulomb or esu.
unit of distance 𝑚

Question/Answer
Very Short
1. What is the value of the angle between the vectors P ⃗ and E
⃗ for which the potential energy of an electric dipole of dipole
⃗ ⃗
moment P, kept in an external electric field E, has maximum value.
Answer:
P.E. = -pEcos θ
P.E. is maximum when cos θ = - 1, i.e.
θ = 180°

2. Define electric field intensity at a point.

Answer: Electric field intensity at a point is defined as the force experienced by a unit test charge placed at that point. Mathemat-
ically
we have
𝐹
𝐸⃗ = Lim𝛿𝑞→0
𝛿𝑞

3. Two equal point charges separated by 1 m distance experience force of 8 N. What will be the force experienced by them, if
they are held in water, at the same distance? (Given: Kwater = 80)
Answer: The force in water is given by
𝐹air 8
𝐹𝑊 = = = 0.1𝑁
𝐾 80

4. A charge ‘q’ is placed at the centre of a cube of side l. What is the electric flux passing through each face of the cube?
Answer: Φ = 𝑞/6𝜀0

5. Why do the electric field lines not form closed loops?

Answer: It is due to the conservative nature of the electric field.

6. Two equal balls having equal positive charge ‘q’ coulomb are suspended by two insulating strings of equal length. What would
be the effect on the force when a plastic sheet is inserted between the two?
1
Answer: It decreases because force ∝ = and k > 1.
𝑘

7. What is the electric flux through a cube of side l cm which encloses an electric dipole?
15
Answer: Zero

8. Why are electric field lines perpendicular at a point on an equipotential surface of a conductor?
Answer: So that no net force acts on the charge at the equipotential surface, and it remains stationary.

9. What is the amount of work done in moving a point charge Q. around a circular arc of radius ‘r’ at the centre of which another
point charge ‘q’ is located?
Answer: Zero.

10. How does the electric flux due to a point charge enclosed by a spherical Gaussian surface get affected when its radius is
increased?
Answer: No change, as flux does not depend upon the size of the Gaussian surface.

Short Questions
1. (i) Electric field inside a conductor is zero. Explain.
(ii) The electric field due to a point charge at any point near it is given as,

what is the physical significance of this limit?

q
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = . Since there is no charge inside a conductor therefore in accordance with the above
⃗ ⋅ dS
Answer: (a) By Gauss theorem ϕE
ε0
equation the electric field inside the conductor is zero.
(b) It indicates that the test charge should be infinitesimally small so that it may not disturb the electric field of the source
charge.

2. Define the electric line of force and give its two important properties.
Answer: It is a line straight or curved, a tangent to which at any point gives the direction of the electric field at that point.
(a) No two field lines can cross, because at the point of intersection two tangents can be drawn giving two directions of the electric
field which is not possible.
(b) The field lines are always perpendicular to the surface of a charged conductor.

3. Draw electric field lines due to (i) two similar charges, (ii) two opposite charges, separated by a small distance.
Answer: (a) The diagram is as shown.

(b) The diagram is as shown.

4. An electric dipole is free to move in a uniform electric field. Explain what the force and torque is acting on it when it is placed.
(i) parallel to the field
(ii) perpendicular to the field
Answer:
(i) When an electric dipole is placed parallel to a uniform electric field, net force, as well as net torque acting on the dipole, is zero
and, thus, the dipole remains in equilibrium.
(ii) When the dipole is placed perpendicular to the field, two forces acting on the dipole form a couple, and hence a torque acts
on it which aligns its dipole along the direction of the electric field.

5. A small metal sphere carrying charge +Q. is located at the centre of a spherical cavity in a large uncharged metallic
spherical shell. Write the charges on the inner and outer surfaces of the shell. Write the expression for the electric field at the
point P1.
16
Answer:

Charge on inner surface −Q.

Charge on outer surface +Q.
Q
Electric field at point P = E = k
r21

6. Two-point charges q and -2q are kept ‘d’ distance apart. Find the location of the point relative to charge ‘q’ at which potential
due to this system of charges is zero.
Answer: Let the potential be zero at point P at a distance x from charge q as shown
Now potential at point P is,
kq k(−2q)
V= + =0
x d+x
Solving for x we have,
x=d

7. Two small identical electrical dipoles AB and CD, each of dipole moment ‘p’ are kept at an angle of 120° as shown in the figure.
What is the resultant dipole moment of this combination? If this system is subjected to the electric field (E ⃗ ) directed along
+X direction, what will be the magnitude and direction of the torque acting on this?
Answer: The resultant dipole moment of the combination is
PR = √p2 + p2 + 2p2 cos 120∘ = p
since cos 120∘ = −1/2
This will make an angle of 30∘ with the X-axis, therefore torque acting on it is τ = PEsin 30∘ = pE/2 (Along Z-direction)

8. A metallic spherical shell has an inner radius R1 and outer radius R2. A charge Q is placed at the centre of the spherical cavity.
What will be surface charge density on (i) the inner surface, and (ii) the outer surface?
Answer: The induction of charges is as shown.

Therefore, surface charge density on the inner and the outer shell is on the outer surface is,
−Q
σmete =
4πR21
+Q
σouter =
4πR22

Long Questions
1. (a) State Gauss theorem in electrostatics. Using it, prove that the electric field at a point due to a uniformly charged
infinite plane sheet is independent of the distance from it.
(b) How is the field directed if (i) the sheet is positively charged, (ii) negatively charged?
1
Answer: It states, "The net electric flux through any Gaussian surface is equal to times the net electric charge enclosed by the
ε0
surface.
qin
⃗ =
⃗ ⋅ dA
Mathematically, Φ = ϕE
ε0
Consider an infinite plane sheet of charge. Let a be the uniform surface charge density, i.e., the charge per unit surface area. From
symmetry, we find that the electric field must be perpendicular to the plane of the sheet and that the direction of E on one side of
the plane must be opposite to its direction on the other side as shown in the figure below. In such a case let us choose a Gaussian
17
surface in the form of a cylinder with its axis perpendicular to the sheet of charge, with ends of area A.
The charged sheet passes through the middle of the cylinder’s length so that the cylinder’s ends are equidistant from the sheet.
The electric field has a normal component at each end of the cylinder and no normal component along the curved surface of the
cylinder. As a result, the electric flux is linked with only the ends and not the curved surface.

Therefore, by the definition of electric flux, the flux Linked with the Gaussian surface is given by,
Φ = ∮ ⃗E ⋅ ⃗ΔA
A
Φ = EA + EA = 2EA
But by Gauss's Law
q σA
Φ= = [∵ q = σA]
ε0 ε0
From equations (1) and (2), we have
σA
2EA = … (3)
ε0
σ
E=
2ε0
(b)
(i) directed outwards
(ii) directed inwards.

2. ⃗ ) due to a straight uniformly charged infinite line of charge

Use Gauss’s law to derive the expression for the electric field (E
λ Cm-1.
Answer:

Consider an infinitely Long, thin wire charged positively and having uniform Linear charge density λ. The symmetry of the charge
distribution shows that must be perpendicular to the tine charge and directed outwards. As a result of this symmetry, we consider
a Gaussian surface in the form of a cylinder with arbitrary radius r and arbitrary Length L. with its ends perpendicular to the wire
as shown in the figure. Applying Gauss’s theorem to curved surface ΔA1 and circular surface ΔA2.
q λl q
DE ΔA1cos 0∘ + EΔA2cos 90∘ = = [∵ λ = ]
ε0 ε0 e
Or
λl 1 λ
E. 2πrl = ⇒E=
ε0 2πε0 r
This is the expression for the electric field due to an infinitely long thin wire.
The graph is as shown.

18
 Chapter – 2 Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance
Introduction

In the previous chapter, we learnt about "Electric Charges and Fields". In this chapter, we shall focus on Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance. The energy point of view can be used in electricity, and it is especially useful. Energy is also a tool in solving
Problems more easily in many cases than by using forces and electric fields.

Electric energy can be stored in a common device called a capacitor, which is found in nearly all electronic circuits. A capacitor is
used as a storehouse for energy. Capacitors store the energy in common photo flash units.

Electrostatic Potential

The electrostatic potential (V) at any point in a region with the electrostatic field is the work done in bringing a unit positive
charge (without acceleration) from infinity to that point. If 'W' is the work done in moving a charge ‘q’ from infinity to a point,
then the potential at that point is V = W / q.

Electric Potential Difference

Similar to electric potential, the electric potential difference is the work done by external force in bringing a unit positive charge
from point R to point P. i.e.,
𝑈𝑃 − 𝑈𝑅
𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑅 =
𝑞

Here VP and VR are the electrostatic potentials at P and R, respectively, and U P and UR are the potential energies of a charge q when
it is at P and at R respectively.

Unit for Electric Potential

The unit of measurement for electric potential is the volt, so the electric potential is often called voltage. A potential of 1 volt (V)
equals 1 joule (J) of energy per 1 coulomb (C) of charge.
𝐽
1𝑉 = 1
𝐶

Potential due to a Point Charge

Consider a point charge q placed at point O. Consider any point P in the field of the above charge. Let us calculate the potential at
point P due to the charge q kept at a point O. Since the work done is independent of the path, we choose a convenient path, along
the radial direction.

Let the distance OP = r.

The electric force at P, due to q will be directed along OP , given by
1 𝑞𝑞𝑜
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2

If the work done by moving this positive charge to dr distance is dW then,

𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹(−𝑑𝑟)
𝑑𝑊 = −∫ 𝐹 ⋅ 𝑑𝑟
𝑟
𝑑𝑊 = −∫∞ 𝐹 ⋅ 𝑑𝑟
Hence, the total work done in bringing this charge from (∞) to 'r' will be,
19
 𝑟1 𝑞𝑞𝑜
𝑊 = −∫∞ ⋅ 𝑑𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
𝑞𝑞𝑜 𝑟 1
𝑊=− ∫ ⋅ 𝑑𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 ∞ 𝑟 2
𝑟
𝑞𝑞𝑜 1
𝑊=− [− ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 ∞
1 𝑞𝑞𝑜
𝑊=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2

Hence, from V = W / qo, electric potential is,

1 𝑞
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

This equation is true for any sign of charge q. For q < 0, V < 0, i.e., work done by the external force per unit positive test charge to
bring it from infinity to the point is negative. Also, this equation is consistent with the choice that the potential at infinity be zero.

Potential Due to An Electric Dipole

Consider the dipole of length ‘2a’. Let P be a point at distance r1 from +q and r2 from -q. Let ‘r’ be the distance of P from the centre
‘O’ of the dipole. Let θ be an angle between dipole and line OP.

The potential due to +q,

1 +𝑞
𝑉+ =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟1

The potential due to -q,

1 −𝑞
𝑉− =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟2

Therefore, total potential,

1 +𝑞 1 −𝑞
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟1 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟2
𝑞 1 1
𝑉= ( − )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑞 𝑟2 − 𝑟1
𝑉= ( )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟1 𝑟2

From ∆ , we get (r2 – r1) = 2a cosθ

we can also take r2 = r1 = r (since ‘2a’ is very small) Substituting these values in equation (1), we get
𝑞 2𝑎 ⋅ cos⁡ 𝜃
𝑉= ( )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟2
1 𝑃 ⋅ cos⁡ 𝜃
𝑉= ( ) (∵ P = 2qa)
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟2

Case 1: If the point lies along the axial line of the dipole, then θ = 0°

20
 1 𝑃 ⋅ cos⁡ 0
𝑉= ( )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟2
1 𝑃
𝑉= ( )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑜 𝑟 2

Case 2: If the point lies along the equatorial line of the dipole, then θ = 90°
1 𝑃 ⋅ cos⁡ 90
𝑉= ( )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟2
V=0

Equipotential Surfaces

An equipotential surface is a surface with a constant value of the potential at all points on the surface. For a single charge q, the
potential is given by:
1 𝑞
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

This shows that V is a constant if r is constant. Thus, equipotential surfaces of a single point charge are concentric spherical
surfaces centered at the charge.

Example:
• Surface of a charged conductor.
• All points equidistant from a point charge.

Relation between Electric Field and Potential Gradient

As we know that,
−𝑊
△𝑉 =
𝑞𝑜
−𝑊
𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 = …………… (1)
𝑞𝑜
We know that,
𝑊 = −∫ 𝐹 ⋅ 𝑑𝑟 …………… (2)
From eq. (1) and (2)
−∫ 𝐹 ⋅ 𝑑𝑟
𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 =
𝑞𝑜
−∫ 𝑞𝑜 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝑟
𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 =
𝑞𝑜
𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 = −∫ 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝑟
The above result can also be expressed in differential form as,

𝑑𝑉
𝐸=−
𝑑𝑟

The negative sign in the expression signifies that as one moves in the direction of the electric field, potential decreases.

21
Potential Energy of a System of Charges

Potential Energy for A System of A Two-Point Charge: The potential energy of a system of two charges is defined as the work
done in assembling this system of charges at the given position from infinite separation.

Consider two charges q1 and q2 separated by distance r. Imagine q1 to be at A and q2 at infinity. The electric potential at B due to
charge q1 is given by

1 𝑞1
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

which is the work done in bringing unit positive charge from infinity to B. Therefore, the work done in bringing charge q2 from
infinity to B is:

W = potential difference × charge

𝑊 = 𝑉 × 𝑞2
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑊=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

This work done is stored as potential energy. Hence potential energy between the charges q1 and q2 is:
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑈=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

Potential Energy of a System of More Than Two Charges: Let us find the potential energy of a system of three charges
𝑞1 , 𝑞2 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑞3 at positions 𝑟12 𝑟23 , and r31 respectively. The electric potential energy of this system is the sum of the potential of
each pair. Hence, we can write:

𝑈 = 𝑈12 + 𝑈23 + 𝑈31

1 𝑞1 𝑞2 1 𝑞2 𝑞3 1 𝑞3 𝑞1
𝑈= + +
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟12 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟23 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟31

1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞3 𝑞1
𝑈= ( + + )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟12 𝑟23 𝑟31

22
Potential Energy of a Dipole in An External Field

Consider a dipole of dipole moment ‘P’ suspended in a uniform electric field of intensity ‘E’. Let θ be the angle between P and E.
Then we know torque τ = PE sinθ. Let the dipole be turned through an angle dθ then work done:
dW = 𝛕dθ
dW = PEsin⁡ θdθ

Total work done in rotating the dipole from θ1 to θ2

𝜃2
W = ∫𝜃 PEsin⁡ θ ⋅ dθ
1
W = PE(cos⁡ 𝜃1 − cos⁡ θ2 )

Electrostatics of Conductors

• Conductors contain mobile charge carriers. In metallic conductors, these charge carriers are electrons. In a metal, the outer
(valence) electrons part away from their atoms and are free to move. These electrons are free within the metal but not free
to leave the metal.
• Whenever a conductor is placed in an external electric field, the free electrons in it experience a force due to it and start
moving opposite to the field. This movement makes one side of the conductor positively charged and the other negatively
charged. This creates an electric field in the conductor in a direction opposite to the external electric field (called induced
field)

Important Points about Electrostatics of Conductors

Inside a conductor, an electrostatic field is zero: In the previous chapter, we have already discussed that “when there is no
electric current inside or on the surface of a conductor, the electric field inside the conductor is everywhere zero”.

At the surface of a charged conductor, the electrostatic field must be normal to the surface at every point: If the field E is
not normal to the surface, it will have a nonzero component along the surface. Hence the free charge on the surface will move due
to electrostatic force on it. But free charge on the surface in electrostatics remains at rest. So the electrostatic field at the surface
of a charged conductor must be normal to the surface.

The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge in the static situation: In the previous chapter, we have already dis-
cussed it.

Electrostatic Shielding: In an electrostatic situation, if a conductor contains a cavity and if no charge is present inside the cavity,
then there can be no net charge anywhere on the surface of the cavity. This means that if you are inside a charged conducting box,
you can safely touch any point on the inside walls of the box without being electrocuted. This is known as electrostatic shielding.

Dielectrics and Polarisation

Dielectrics are non-conducting substances: In contrast to conductors, they have no (or negligible number of) charge carriers.
23
When a conductor is placed in an external electric field, the free charge carriers move and charge distribution in the conductor
adjusts itself in such a way that the electric field due to induced charges opposes the external field within the conductor. This
happens until, in the static situation, the two fields cancel each other and the net electrostatic field in the conductor is zero.

• When a dielectric material is kept in an electric field, the external field induces a dipole moment by stretching or re-orienting
molecules of the dielectric. This results in the development of net charges on the surface of the dielectric which produces a
field that opposes the external field.

• In general, the dielectric can be classified into Polar and Non-polar dielectrics. In a non-polar molecule, the centers of positive
and negative charges coincide. The molecule thus has no permanent dipole moment. Examples of non-polar molecules are
oxygen (O2) and hydrogen (H2) molecules which, because of their symmetry, have no dipole moment. On the other hand, a
polar molecule is one in which the centers of positive and negative charges are separated (even when there is no external
field). Such molecules have a permanent dipole moment. An ionic molecule such as HCl or a molecule of water (H 2O) are
examples of polar molecules.

The behavior of a non–polar dielectric: In an external electric field, the positive and negative charges of a nonpolar molecule
are displaced in opposite directions. The displacement stops when the external force on the constituent charges of the molecule
is balanced by the restoring force. The non-polar molecule thus develops an induced dipole moment. The dielectric is said to be
polarized by the external field.

24
The behavior of a polar dielectric: A dielectric with polar molecules also develops a net dipole moment in an external field, but
for a different reason. In the absence of an external field, the different permanent dipoles are oriented randomly due to thermal
agitation; so, the total dipole moment is zero. When an external field is applied, the individual dipole moments tend to align with
the field.

Capacitors and Capacitance

A capacitor is a system of two conductors separated by an insulator. If two conductors have a potential difference between them
then, as any potential difference is able to accelerate charges, the system effectively stores energy. Such a device that can maintain
a potential difference, storing energy by storing charge is called a capacitor. When charges +Q and –Q are given to two plates, a
potential difference is developed between the plates. The capacitance of the arrangement is defined as:
C=Q/V

Definition of Capacitance: Capacitance is defined as the amount of charge required to raise the potential of a conductor by one
volt.

The Capacity of An Isolated Spherical Conductor

Consider a sphere with center O and radius r, which is supplied with a charge = +q. This charge is distributed uniformly over the
outer surface of the sphere. Thus, the potential at every point on the surface is the same and is given by:
𝑞
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

As, 𝐶 = 𝑄/𝑉
𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

The Parallel Plate Capacitor

The arrangement consists of two thin conducting plates, each in area A and separated by a small distance d. When charge q is
given to the first plate, a charge –q is induced on the inner face of the other plate and positive on the outer face of the plate. As
this face is connected to the earth, a net negative charge is left on this plate. Thus, the arrangement is equivalent to two thin sheets
of charge. As d is much smaller than the linear dimension of the plates (d 2 << A), we can use the result of the electric field by an
infinite sheet of charge. The electric field between the plates is:

25
 𝜎 𝜎
𝐸= +
2𝜀0 2𝜀0

𝜎
𝐸= … … (1)
𝜀0

For uniform field potential difference between the plates:

𝜎𝑑
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 = ….. from eq (1)
𝜀0
𝑞𝑑
𝑉= ⁡ as 𝜎 = q/A
𝜀0 𝐴
𝑞 𝑞
𝐶= =
𝑉 𝑞𝑑
𝜀0 𝐴
𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑

Effect of Dielectric on Capacitance

When a dielectric slab of dielectric constant K is inserted between the plates filling the entire space between the plates. The plates
of the capacitor are given charges +Q and –Q and hence induced charges – QP ⁡and + QP appear on the surfaces of the slab. So,
capacitance is increased to K times when the space between the plates is filled with a dielectric of dielectric constant K.

Combination of Capacitors

Series Grouping: The arrangements shown in the figure are examples of series grouping. When capacitors can be arranged in a
row, so that there is no connection between two capacitors to any third capacitor, it is called a series combination. Or, when the
same charge flows through each capacitor connected.

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

Parallel Grouping:
The arrangements shown in the figure are examples of parallel combinations. When two or more capacitors are connected be-
tween two given points, they are said to be in parallel. Or, when the capacitor bears the same potential difference across it.

𝐶 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
26
Energy Stored in a Capacitor

During the charging of a capacitor, work has to be done to add a charge to the capacitor against its potential. This work is stored
in the capacitor as electrical energy. Suppose during the charging of the capacitor its potential at any instant is given by:
𝑞
𝑉=
𝐶
A small amount of work done in adding a charge dq is given by:

𝑞
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑑𝑞
𝐶
Total work done in giving a charge Q to the condenser is:
𝑄 𝑞
𝑤 = ∫0 𝑑𝑞
𝐶
2 𝑄
𝑞
𝑤=[ ]
2𝐶 0
𝑄2
𝑤=
2𝐶
𝑄2 1 2 1
𝑈= = 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑄𝑉
2𝐶 2 2

Van de Graaff Generator

A Van de Graaff generator is an electrostatic generator, invented by an American physicist Robert J. Van de Graaff. It uses a moving
belt that accumulates charge on a hollow metal structure designed like a globe, placed on the top of a column that is insulating in
nature and thus, creating a very high electric potential in the order of a few million volts. This results in a very large electric field
that is used to accelerate charged particles.

Working principle of Van de Graaff Generator

Let us consider a large spherical shell of radius R. If we place a charge of magnitude Q on such a sphere, the charge will spread
uniformly over the surface of the sphere and the electric field inside the sphere will be equal to zero, and that outside the sphere
will be due to the charge Q placed at the centre of the sphere.

So the potential outside is that of a point charge; and inside it is constant, namely the value at the radius R. We thus have:

Potential inside conducting spherical shell of radius R carrying charge Q = constant and is given by,

Let a small sphere be placed at the centre of the large one such that the radius of the smaller sphere is r and the charge over its
surface is q. The potential energy thus generated due to the smaller surface at different points in the system can be given as the
following values,

At the surface of the small sphere:

1 𝑞
𝑉𝑟1 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

27
At the large spherical shell of radius R:
1 𝑞
𝑉𝑟2 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
If we consider the total charges in the system, that is, 𝑞 and 𝑄, then the total potential energy due to the system of charges can be
given as,
1 𝑞 𝑄
𝑉𝑅 = ( + )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 𝑅
1 𝑞 𝑄
𝑉𝑟 = ( + )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑅
𝑞 1 1
𝑉𝑅 − 𝑉𝑟 = ( − )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 𝑟

Assuming that q is positive, the inner sphere is always at a higher potential and is independent of the charge Q that is accumulated
on the larger surface. The difference in potential given by the value V(r) - V(R) is positive. The potential due to Q is constant up to
radius R and thus, the difference gets cancelled out. If we connect the smaller and the larger sphere with a conducting wire, the
charge q, however small, on the smaller sphere gets transferred to the bigger sphere. Here, if we introduce a small, charged sphere
into a larger spherical shell, as shown in the system, the charge on the larger sphere keeps increasing. Similarly, the potential at
the larger sphere would also keep rising as the charge increases, until the breakdown field of air is reached. The Van de Graaff
generator works on the same principle.

28
 Multiple Choice Questions
1. ________________ material has the highest relative permittivity.
A. Water B. Transformer Oil
C. Epoxy Resin D. Mica
Answer: A
Explanation:
The relative permittivity of the water is highest among the other materials given.
Permittivity describes the amount of charge needed to generate one unit of electric flux in a particular medium. Accordingly, a
charge will yield more electric flux in a medium with low permittivity than in a medium with high permittivity. Thus, permittivity
is the measure of a material's ability to resist an electric field.
Relative permittivity is the ratio of its absolute permittivity ' 𝜖 ' to free space (empty of matter) permittivity ' 𝜖0 ' i.e.,
𝜖
𝜖𝑇 =
𝜖0

2. _______________ statement is correct regarding an ideal conductor in a static electric field.

A. Static electric field intensity inside conductor is B. Static field intensity outside conductor is zero.
nonzero.
C. Static field intensity at the surface of conductor is D. Static field intensity at the surface of the conduc-
directly normal to the surface. tor is directly parallel to the surface.
Answer: C
Explanation:
Under the static condition, the electric field inside the solid perfect conductor is zero in electrostatic equilibrium even if:
• It is isolated.
• It is charged.
• It is present in the external electrostatic field.
Now, it is known that a perfect solid conductor is an equipotential body. The potential inside the conductor is the same as the
potential at the surface. Since the surface of the solid conductor is an equipotential surface, therefore, the electric field will be
perpendicular or in other words normal to the perfectly solid conductor surface.

3. In the circuit below, if a dielectric is inserted into C2 then the charge on C1 will

A. Increase B. Decrease
C. Remain same D. Be halved
Answer: A
Explanation:
Initially the wire between both capacitors is neutral, as the source is connected. Positive charge moves toward B and negative
charge moves toward A. When the dielectric is placed between the capacitor plate charge increases, due to which wire ends B
having more positive charge flow toward it and more positive charge flow toward B.
Hence, charge on capacitor C1also increase.

4. During charging and discharging of a capacitor:

A. Current flows in the circuit, which is constant B. No current flows in the circuit
during charging or discharging duration.
C. Current flows in the circuit and is varying with D. During charging current is constant but while dis-
time charging current is variable
Answer: C
Explanation:
29
• During charging of capacitor, the charge on capacitor increases and hence voltage across capacitor increases as, Q = CV Due
to increase in voltage, the flow of current increases.
• Similarly, during discharging of capacitor, the charge on capacitor decreases and hence voltage across capacitor decreases.
Due to decrease in voltage, the flow of current also decreases. So current flows in circuits and is varying with time.

5. Electric potential V at a point in an electrical field is ______________________.

A. potential energy of all charges in the field B. potential energy of a proton placed at that point.
C. potential energy of an electron placed at that D. potential energy of a unit charge placed at that
point. point.
Answer: D
Explanation:
Electric potential V at a point in an electrical field is potential energy of a unit charge placed at that point. Electric potential V is
the work done in bringing unit positive charge from infinity to the point in an electric field, and the potential energy 𝜎 is the work
done in bringing any finite charge from infinity to the point in an electric field. They are related as,
If 𝑞 = 1𝐶, 𝐽‾ = V

6. It requires 4 J of work to move a charge of 20 C from point A to point B, separated by a distance of 0.2 cm. The potential
difference between A and B in volts:
A. 80 B. 16
C. 5 D. 0.2
Answer: D
Explanation:
Given,
It requires 4 J of work to move a charge of 20 C from point A to point B, separated by a distance of 0.2 cm.
Then,
W = 4J
q = 20 C
As we know,
Work done = charge × potential difference
4 = 20 × potential difference
4
potential difference = = 0.2
20

7. For a parallel plate capacitor and a dielectric of dielectric constant K, when a dielectric material is inserted between the
plates while charge is ____________, the potential difference between the plates decreases by a factor K.
A. varies continuously. B. increased
C. decreased D. kept constant
Answer: D
Explanation:
When a dielectric material is introduced in between the plates of a charged capacitor, which is disconnected from the battery, the
charge remains constant, while the potential decreases by a factor K. The charge on the plates will increase if the dielectric mate-
rial is slipped in between the plates of a capacitor which remains connected to the battery. In this case, the potential across the
plates of the capacitor remains constant, being equal to the battery voltage.

8. The process in which a region is made free from any electric field is known as _____________.
A. Electrostatic forcing B. Electrostatic binding
C. Electrostatic shielding D. None of these
Answer: C
Explanation:
Electrostatic shielding is a phenomenon seen when a Faraday cage is used to block the effects of an electric field.

9. The formula for electrostatic potential is _____________.

A. Electrostatic potential = Work done×charge B. Electrostatic potential = Work done/charge
C. Electrostatic potential = Work done+charge D. Electrostatic potential = Work done-charge
Answer: B
Explanation:
The formula for electrostatic potential is Electrostatic potential = Work done/charge.

10. The work done in moving a unit positive test charge over a closed path in an electric field is _____________.

30
 A. Always 1 B. Infinite
C. Zero D. Negatives
Answer: C
Explanation:
We say electrostatic forces are conservative in nature since the work done in moving a unit positive test charge over a closed path
in an electric field is zero.

11. The electrostatic potential on the perpendicular bisector due to an electric dipole is _____________.
A. Zero B. 1
C. Infinite D. Negative
Answer: A
Explanation:
The electrostatic potential on the perpendicular bisector due to an electric dipole is zero.

12. A surface that has the same electrostatic potential at every point on it is known as _____________.
A. Equal-potential surface B. Same potential surface
C. Equi-magnitude surface D. Equipotential surface
Answer: D
Explanation:
Equipotential surface is a surface formed by the locus of all the points which are at the same potential. Equipotential surfaces do
not intersect with each other and are closely spaced in the region of strong electric fields and vice versa.

13. The work done against electrostatic force gets stored in which form of energy?
A. Thermal energy B. Kinetic energy
C. Potential energy D. Solar energy
Answer: C
Explanation:
The work done against electrostatic force gets stored in the form of potential energy.

14. Dielectrics are _____________ .

A. Conducting substances B. Non-conducting substances
C. Semi-conducting substances D. None of these
Answer: B
Explanation:
Dielectrics are non-conducting substances.

15. The electric potential inside a conducting sphere _____________.

A. is zero B. increases from centre to the surface
C. decreases from centre to the surface D. remains constant from centre to the surface
Answer: D
Explanation:
The electric potential inside a conducting sphere remains constant from the centre to the surface.

16. The capacity of the parallel plate capacitor increases when

A. area of the plate is decreased B. area of the plate is increased
C. distance between the plates increases D. None of these
Answer: B
Explanation:
The capacity of the parallel plate capacitor increases when the area of the plate is increased.

17. A positively charged particle is released from rest in an uniform electric field. The electric potential energy of the charge.
A. remains a constant because the electric field is B. increases because the charge moves along the
uniform. electric field.
C. decreases because the charge moves along the D. decreases because the charge moves opposite to
electric field. the electric field.
Answer: C
Explanation:

31
The positively charged particle experiences electrostatic force along the direction of electric field, hence moves in the direction
of electric field. Electric potential decreases in the direction of electric field. Thus, positive work is done by the electric field on
the charge.
We = -ΔU = -qΔV=q(Vin – V )
Hence electrostatic potential energy of the positive charge decreases.

18. Figures show some equipotential lines distributed in space. A charged object is moved from point A to point B.

A. The work done in Fig. (i) is the greatest. B. The work done in Fig. (ii) is least.
C. The work done is the same in Fig. (i), Fig.(ii) and D. The work done in Fig. (iii) is greater than Fig. (ii)
Fig. (iii). but equal to that in Fig. (i).
Answer: C
Explanation:
In all the three figures, VA = 20V and VB = 40V
Work done in carrying a charge q from A to B is W = q(VB − VA )
Hence the work done is same in all figures.

19. Equipotential at a great distance from a collection of charges whose total sum is not zero are approximately.
A. spheres B. planes
C. paraboloids D. ellipsoids
Answer: A
Explanation:
The collection of charges at great distance is considered as a single point charge. The equipotential surfaces due to a point charge
are spherical.

20. Two small spheres each carrying a charge q are placed r meter apart. If one of the spheres is taken around the other one in
a circular path of radius r, the work done will be equal to:
A. force between them × r B. force between them × 2πr
C. force between them/2πr D. zero
Answer: D
Explanation:
We know that if W is the work done in bringing a unit positive charge q from infinity to a point in the field, the electric potential
W
V at this point is given by: V = q
⇒ W = qV
kQ
And we know that electric potential is V =
r
kqQ
Combining both the equation, W =
r
Which is nothing but electric potential energy. So, we can say that electric potential energy is related to work done. So, we can say
if potential energy will be zero then work done also will be zero.

21. If a unit positive charge is taken from one point to another over an equipotential surface, then
A. work is done on the charge. B. work is done by the charge.
C. work done is constant. D. No work is done.
Answer: D
Explanation:
32
On the equipotential surface, electric field is normal to the charged surface (where potential exists) so that no work will be done.

22. A hollow metal sphere of radius 5 cm is charged so that the potential on its surface is 10 V. The potential at the centre of the
sphere is
A. 0 V B. 10 V
C. Same as at point 5 cm away from the surface D. Same as at point 25 cm away from the surface
Answer: B
Explanation:
Since potential inside the hollow sphere is same as that on the surface.

23. A conductor with a positive charge:

A. is always at +ve potential. B. is always at zero potential.
C. is always at negative potential. D. may be at +ve, zero or -ve potential.
Answer: D
Explanation:
May be at positive, zero or negative potential, it is according to the way one defines the zero potential.

24. Which of the following options are correct? If a conductor has a potential V 4- 0 and there are no charges anywhere else
outside, then.
A. there must not be charges on the surface or inside B. there cannot be any charge in the body of the con-
itself. ductor.
C. there must be charges only on the surface. D. there must be charges inside the surface.
Answer: B
Explanation:
The charge resides on the outer surface of a closed charged conductor. Hence there cannot be any charge in the body of the con-
ductor. Hence option (b) is correct.

25. 64 drops each having the capacity C and potential V are combined to form a big drop. If the charge on the small drop is q,
then the charge on the big drop will be:
A. 2q B. 4q
C. 16q D. 64q
Answer: C
Explanation:
Assuming that the drops are identical, the total charge on the 64 small drops is:
q_total = 64q

When these drops combine to form a bigger drop, the total charge remains the same. Therefore, the charge on the big drop, Q, can
be found by setting q_total equal to Q:
Q = q_total = 64q

The potential of the big drop can be found using the formula:
V = kQ/R
where k is the Coulomb constant and R is the radius of the big drop.

Since all the small drops have the same capacity, the capacity of the big drop, C', can be found by adding the capacities of the
individual drops:
C' = 64C

The radius of the big drop, R, can be found using the formula:
C'=4πεR
where ε is the permittivity of the medium.
Solving for R, we get:
R=C'/(4πε)=(64C)/(4πε)
Substituting the values of C' and Q in the formula for V, we get:
kQ k(64q)
V= = = 16πεkq/C
R (64C)
[ ]
(4πε)
Therefore, the charge on the big drop is 64q and the potential is 16πεkq/C.

33
26. The electrical conductivity of Earth's atmosphere increases with altitude because of:
A. number of ions B. acceleration of protons
C. acceleration voltage D. number of neutrons
Answer: A
Explanation:
The resistance of the atmosphere decreases with altitude. The reason for this is that high altitude atmosphere is exposed to severe
UV rays, which tear electrons apart from the air molecules. The result is high altitude atmosphere is a mixture of ions and elec-
trons, what is called a Plasma.
The presence of ions is the reason why the high atmosphere is called the ionosphere (It lies 75- 1000km). The presence of free
ions and electrons allows easier electrical conductivity since they are available to carry a current.

27. If a positive charge is shifted from a low potential region to a high potential region, then what will happen to its potential
energy?
A. It will decrease. B. It will increase.
C. It will remain the same. D. It may increase or decrease.
Answer: B
Explanation:
since PE=qV
So, ΔPE=qΔV
since positive charge is shifted from low to high potential.
So, q= positive and ΔV= Positive; so PE increases.

28. A glass slab is held within the plates of a charged parallel plate condenser. Which of the following quantities does not
change?
A. Energy of the condenser B. Capacity
C. Intensity of electric field D. Charge
Answer: D
Explanation:
A glass slab is held within the plates of a charged parallel plate condenser. Then Charge does not change.

29. Two positive charges:

A. repel each other B. always attract each other
C. attract each other D. attract each other at times and repel at other
times
Answer: A
Explanation:
Acc to coulomb's law unlike charges always attract each other while like charges always repel each other so between two positive
charges repulsion is working.

30. Charge is quantized means:

A. charge cannot take any arbitrary values, but only B. charges can take on any continuous value
values that are integral multiples of the funda-
mental charge(charge of proton/electron)
C. charges can take on any discontinuous value D. charges can take on discrete values that are mul-
tiples of charge on neutron
Answer: A
Explanation:
Total charge transferred from one body to another can be calculated by the number of electrons it is known as quantization of
charge given by q=±ne, where n= number of electrons, which should be an integer.

Question/Answer
Very Short
1. Express dielectric constant in terms of the capacitance of a capacitor.
𝑐
Answer: It is given by the expression K = where C is the capacitance of the capacitor with dielectric and C 0 is the capacitance
𝑐0
without the dielectric.

34
2. On what factors does the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor depend?
Answer:
• Area of plates,
• The separation between the plates and
• Nature of dielectric medium between the plates.

3. What is the ratio of electric field intensities at any two points between the plates of a capacitor?
Answer: The ratio is one, as the electric field is the same at all points between the plates of a capacitor.

4. Write a relation between electric displacement vector D and electric field E.

Answer: ⃗D
⃗ = ε0 ⃗E + ⃗P

5. Write the relation between dielectric constant (K) and electric susceptibility χe.
Answer: K = 1 + χe

6. A hollow metal sphere c radius 5 cm is charged such that the potential on its surface is 10 V. What is the potential at the
center of the sphere? (CBSE AI 2011)
Answer: 10 V

7. What is the geometrical shape of equipotential surfaces due to a single isolated charge? (CBSE Delhi 2013)
Answer: Concentric circles.

8. Draw the equipotential surfaces due to an isolated point charge. (CBSE Delhi 2019)
Answer: These areas are shown.

9. ‘For any charge configuration, equipotential surface through a point is normal to the electric field’. Justify.
Answer: This is because work done in moving a charge on an equipotential surface is zero. This is possible only if the equipotential
surface is perpendicular to the electric field.

10. The given graph shows the variation of charge ‘q’ versus potential difference ‘V for two capacitors C1 and C2. Both
the capacitors have the same plate separation but the plate area of C 2 is greater than that of Cy Which line (A or
B) corresponds to C1 and why? (CBSEAI 2014C)

Answer: Since C = ε0 A/d, since the area for C2 is more, therefore capacitance of C2 is more. From the graph greater the slope
greater is than the capacitance, therefore, graph A belongs to capacitor C2. While graph B belongs to capacitance Cv.

Short Questions
1. Draw a plot showing the variation of (i) electric field (E) and (ii) electric potential (V) with distance r due to a point charge
Q.
Answer: The plot is as shown.

35
2. Two identical capacitors of 10 pF each are connected in turn (i) in series and (ii) in parallel across a 20 V battery. Calculate
the potential difference across each capacitor in the first case and the charge acquired by each capacitor in the second case.
Answer: (i) Since the two capacitors have the same capacitance, therefore, the potential will be divided amongst
them. Hence V = 10 V each
(ii) Since the capacitors are connected in parallel, therefore, potential difference = 20 V
Hence charge Q = CV = 10 × 20 = 200 pC

3. A point charge ‘q’ is placed at O as shown in the figure. Is VA - VB positive, negative, or zero, if ‘q’ is an (i) positive, (ii) negative
charge?

q 1 1
Answer: If VA − VB = ( − )
4πε0 OA OB
As OA < OB
∴ If q is positive then VA - VB is positive and
if q is negative VA - VB is also negative.

4. The graph shows the variation of voltage V across the plates of two capacitors A and B versus charge Q stored on them. Which
of the two capacitors has higher capacitance? Give a reason for your answer.

Answer: Capacitor A has higher capacitance. We know that capacitance C = Q/V.

For capacitor A

For capacitor B

As VB > VA
∴ CB < CA
Thus, capacitance of A is higher.

5. A test charge ‘q’ is moved without acceleration from A to C along the path from A to B and then from B to C in electric field E
as shown in the figure,

36
Answer: (i) dV = - E dr = - E (6 - 2) = - 4E
(ii) Electric potential is more at point C as dV = - Edr, i.e. the electric potential decreases in the direction of the electric field.

6. Calculate the potential difference between A and C

Answer: Given t = d/2, C =?
We know that when a dielectric of thickness ‘t’ is inserted between the plates of a capacitor, its capacitance is given by,
ε0 A
C= t
d−t+
K
Hence we have,
ε0 A 2Kε0 A
C= =
d d d(1 + K)
d− +
2 2K

7. At which point (of the two) is the electric potential more and why?
Answer: Let the potential be zero at point P at a distance x from charge q as shown

Now potential at point P is,

kq k(−2q)
V= + =0
x d+x
Solving for x we have
x=d

8. A slab of material of dielectric constant K has the same area as that of the plates of a parallel plate capacitor but has the
thickness d/2, where d is the separation between the plates. Find out the expression for its capacitance when the slab is
inserted between the plates of the capacitor.
Answer: The potential energy of the system
1 qQ q2 Q2
U= (4 + + )
4πε0 a a√2 a√2
1 q2 Q2
U= (4qQ + + )
4πε0 a √2 √2

9. Two-point charges q and -2q are kept ‘d’ distance apart. Find the location of the point relative to charge ‘q’ at which potential
due to this system of charges is zero.
Answer: Given t = d/2, C =?
We know that when a dielectric of thickness ‘t’ is inserted between the plates of a capacitor, its capacitance is given by,
ε0 A
C= t
d−t+
K
Hence, we have,
ε0 A 2Kε0 A
C= =
d d d(1 + K)
d− +
2 2K

10. Four-point charges Q, q, Q., and q are placed at the corners of a square of side ‘a’ as shown in the figure.

37
Answer: Let the potential be zero at point P at a distance x from charge q as shown

Now potential at point P is,

kq k(−2q)
V= + =0
x d+x
Solving for x we have
x=d

11. Find the potential energy of this system.

Answer: The potential energy of the system
1 qQ q2 Q2
U= (4 + + )
4πε0 a a√2 a√2
1 q2 Q2
U= (4qQ + + )
4πε0 a √2 √2

Long Questions
1. Two-point charges 2 μC and -2 μC are placed at points A and B 6 cm apart.
Answer:
(a) The diagram is as shown.

(b) We know that E = −dV/dr

Therefore, dr = −dV/E
Since near the charge, electric field E is large, dr will be less.

2. Draw the equipotential surfaces of the system.

Answer:
(i) Parallel combination of three capacitors.
Let three capacitors of capacitances C1 , C2 , and C3 be connected in parallel, and potential difference V be applied across A and B.
If q be total charge flowing in the circuit and q1 q2 and q3 be charged flowing across.
C1 , C2 , and C3 respectively, then
q = q1 + q2 + q3
or q = C1 V + C2 V + C3 V

CP = C1 + C2 + C3
(ii) Series combination of three capacitors Let three capacitors C1 , C2 , and C3 be connected in series. Let q charge be flowing
through the circuit.
38
If V1 , V2 , and V3 be potential differences across the plates of the capacitor and V be the potential difference across the series
combination, then,

V = V1 + V2 + V3
q q q
Or V = + +
C1 C2 C3
q
If Cs is the capacitance of series combination, then V = .
Cs
So the equation (i) becomes,
q q q q
= + +
Cs C1 C2 C3
Or
1 1 1 1
= + +
Cs C1 C2 C3
Charge q across 4μF Capacitor is 10μc Potential difference across the capacitor of capacitance 4μF will be.
q 16μC 16 × 10−6 C
V= = = = 4V
C 4μF 4 × 10−6 F
∴ Potential across 12μF Capacitors = 12V − 4V = 8V
Energy stored in the capacitors of capacitance C = 12μF
1 1
U = CV 2 = × 12 × 10−6 × 82 joule
2 2
⁡= 384 × 10−6 J = 384μJ

39
 Chapter – 3 Current Electricity
Introduction

We considered all charges whether free or bound to be at rest in the previous two chapters. Charges in motion constitute an
electric current. Lightning is one of the natural phenomena in which charges flow from clouds to earth through the atmosphere.

In this chapter, we will study some basic laws concerning steady electric current and their applications.

Electric Current

The rate of flow of electric charge through any cross-section of a conductor is known as electric current. If ΔQ amount of charge
flows through any cross-section of the conductor in the interval t to (t + Δt), then it is defined as:
Δ𝑄
𝑖=
Δ𝑡
The direction of current is taken as the direction of motion of positively charged particles and opposite to the direction of nega-
tively charged particles. SI unit of current is ampere (A). It is a scalar quantity.

Current Density

The current density at any point in a conductor is the ratio of the current at that point in the conductor to the area of the cross-
section of the conductor. It is a vector quantity and denoted by 𝐽⃗.
Δ𝑖
𝐽⃗ =
Δ𝐴
The SI unit of current density is A/m2.

Drift Speed

Drift Velocity is defined as the average velocity with which the free electrons move towards the positive end of a conductor under
the influence of an external electric field applied. It is denoted by v d.
𝑒𝐸
𝑣𝑑 = 𝜏
𝑚
Where, τ = relaxation time, E = electric field, m = mass, e = charge of electron.

Relation between Current Density and Drift Speed

Let, cross-sectional area of any conductor be A, the number of electrons per unit area be n, drift velocity be vd, then the number
of total moving electrons in t second will be:
𝑁 = (𝑛𝐴𝑣𝑑 𝑡)
So, moving charge in t second Q = (nAvdt).e
𝑄
Hence, electric current in t second=
𝑡
𝑛𝐴𝑣𝑑 𝑡𝑒
𝑖=
𝑡
i = neAvd
𝑖
We know 𝐽 =
𝐴
Putting i = neAvd in above equation:
𝐽⃗ = nevd

Ohm’s Law

According to this law, "At constant temperature, the potential difference V across the ends of a given metallic wire (conductor) in
a circuit (electric) is directly proportional to the current flowing through it". i.e.,
𝑉∝𝑖

40
𝑉 =𝑖⋅𝑅

where, R = resistance of conductor

Mobility

Mobility is defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit of the electric field. It is denoted by μ,
𝑣𝑑
𝜇=
𝐸
Its SI unit is m2V-1s-1.

Resistance

Resistance is the ratio of the potential difference applied across the ends of the conductor to the current flowing through it.
𝑉
𝑅=
𝑖
The SI unit of R is ohm (Ω).

Resistivity

Resistivity is defined as the ratio of the electric field applied at the conductor to the current density of the conductor. It is denoted
by ρ
𝐸
𝜌 = . . . (1)
𝐽
If the length of the conductor be 'l', the cross-sectional area be 'A', the potential difference at the end of the conductor be 'V' and
the electric current be 'i', then 𝐸⃗⃗ and 𝐽⃗

Given by:
𝑉
𝐸⃗⃗ = . . . (2)
𝑙
𝑖
𝐽⃗ = . . . (3)
𝐴

Putting the value of E and J, from equations (2) and (3) into (1), we get:
𝑉
𝜌= 𝑙
𝑖
𝐴
𝑉 𝐴
𝜌= ⋅
𝑖 𝑙
𝐴
𝜌=𝑅
𝑙
The constant of proportionality ρ depends on the material of the conductor but not on its dimensions. ρ is known as resistivity or
specific resistance.

Conductivity

Conductivity is defined as the reciprocal resistivity of a conductor. It is expressed as,

1
𝜎=
𝜌
SI unit is mho per meter (Ω−1 m−1 ).

Superconductivity

The resistivity of certain metals or alloys drops to zero when they are cooled below a certain temperature is called superconduc-
tivity.

41
Electrical Energy

When an electric current is moved in an electric circuit, then the energy of work done by taking a charge from one point to another
point is called electric energy.
If a charge q at potential difference V is moved from one point to another point, then doing work will be:
𝑊 = 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑞 . . . (1)
Putting q = i.t in equation (1), we get
𝑊 = 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑖 ⋅ 𝑡 …(2)
Putting V = i.R in equation (2), we get
𝑊 = 𝑖 2 𝑅𝑡 . . . (3)
𝑽
Putting 𝒊 = in equation (3), we get
𝑹
𝑉2
𝑊= 𝑡
𝑅

Power

Electric power is the rate of doing work by electric charge. It is measured in watts and represented by P.
𝑊
𝑃= [∵ 1HP = 746 watt ]
𝑡
𝑉2
Hence, P = Vi = i2 R =
𝑅

Resistor Colour Codes

Resistors are usually very tiny, and it is challenging to print resistance values on them. So, colour bands are printed on them to
represent the electrical resistance. These colour bands are known as resistor colour codes. The resistor colour code was invented
in the 1920s by the Radio Manufacturers Association (RMA).

42
Combination of Resistors

There are two types of resistance combinations.

(i) Series Combination:

In Series Combination, different resistances are connected end to end. Equivalent resistance can be obtained as the formula,
𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

(ii) Parallel Combination:

In Parallel combination, the first end of all the resistances is connected to one point and the last end of all the resistances is
connected to another point. Equivalent resistance can be obtained by the formula:
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

Cells, EMF, Internal Resistance

Cells: An electrolytic cell consisting of two electrodes, called positive (P) and negative (N) immersed in an electrolytic solution as
shown in the figure.

43
Electrodes exchange charges with the electrolyte. Positive electrode P has a potential difference V+ between itself and electrolyte
solution A immediately adjacent to it. Negative electrode N has a potential difference (V–) relative to electrolyte B adjacent to it.
𝜀 = 𝑉+ − 𝑉−

EMF: It is the difference in chemical potentials of electrodes used. It is also defined as the difference of potential across the elec-
trodes of the cell when the electrodes are in an open loop.
𝜀 = 𝑉+ − 𝑉−

Internal Resistance: It is the opposition offered by the electrolyte of the cell to the flow of current through itself. It is represented
by r and given by:
𝑣
𝑟=
𝑖

Cells in Series and Parallel

Kirchhoff’s Laws:
Kirchhoff’s two rules are used for analysing electric circuits consisting of a number of resistors and cells interconnected in a
complicated way.

Kirchhoff’s first rule: Junction rule:

At any junction, the sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the sum of currents leaving the junction.
Σi=0

Kirchhoff’s second rule: the Loop rule:

The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop involving resistors and cells in the loop is zero.
Σ iR = Σ E

Wheatstone Bridge

• It is an application of Kirchhoff’s rules. The bridge is consisting of four resistances R 1, R2, R3 and R4 as four sides of a square
ABCD as shown in the figure.

• Across the diagonally opposite points between A and C, battery E is connected. This is called the battery arm. To the remain-
ing two diagonally opposite points B and D, a galvanometer G is connected to detect current. This line is known as the galva-
nometer arm.
• Currents through all resistances and galvanometer are as shown in figure. In balanced Wheatstone bridge we consider the
special case Ig = 0. Applying junction rule to junction B and D, we have: I2 = I4 and I1 = I3
44
Applying loop rule to loop ABDA:
I2 R 2 + 0 − I1 R1 = 0
I1 R2
= ….. (i)
I2 R1

Applying loop rule to loop BCDB:

I4 R 4 − I3 R 3 + 0 = 0
I2 R 4 − I1 R 3 = 0 (Using I4 = I2 and I3 = I1 )
I1 R 4
=
I2 R 3

Using equation (i) and (ii), we have:

R2 R4
=
R1 R 3
The equation (iii) relating the four resistors is called the balance condition for the galvanometer to give zero or null deflection.

Meter Bridge

It is the practical application of the Wheatstone bridge. A standard wire AC of length one meter and of uniform cross-sectional
area is stretched and clamped between two thick metal strips bent at right angles as shown in the figure.

The endpoints, where the wire is clamped are connected to a cell ε through a key K1. The metal strip has two gaps across which
resistors can be connected. One end of the galvanometer is connected to the mid-point of the metal strip between the gaps. The
other end of the galvanometer is connected to a jockey, which can slide over AC to make electrical connections by its knife edge.
R is the unknown resistance to be determined. S is the standard known resistance from a resistance box.

Let the jockey be in contact with point D. Length of portion AD of wire be l1. The resistance of the portion AD is RAD = Rml1 and
resistance of the portion DC is RDC = Rm (100 – l1), where Rm is the resistance per centimeter of the wire. Now R, S, RAD and RDC rep-
resent four resistances of the Wheatstone bridge.

𝑅 𝑅𝐴𝐷 𝑅𝑚 𝑙1
= =
𝑆 𝑅𝐷𝐶 𝑅𝑚 (100 − 𝑙1 )

Unknown resistance R in terms of standard known resistance S is given by:

𝑙1
𝑅 = 𝑆( )
100 − 𝑙1

• When the galvanometer shows zero deflection then length AD = l1. The balance condition gives.

• The percentage error in R can be minimized by adjusting the balance point near the middle of the bridge (i.e., l1 is close to
50 cm) by making a suitable choice of S.

45
Potentiometer

The potentiometer is an instrument used to measure the unknown voltage by comparing it with the known voltage. It can be used
to determine the emf and internal resistance of the given cell and also used to compare the emf of different cells. The comparative
method is used by the potentiometer. The reading is more accurate in a potentiometer.

Working Principle of Potentiometer

The basic principle of the potentiometer is that the potential drop across any section of the wire will be directly proportional to
the length of the wire, provided the wire is of a uniform cross-sectional area and a uniform current flows through the wire.

To Determine the EMF of the Cell (Calibration)

Let us consider that the potentiometer has a resistive wire of length ‘L’. Let one end of the wire be A and the other end B. A bat-
tery is connected to the two ends of the wire, and this forms the primary circuit. The secondary circuit is formed by connecting
the end A of the wire to the cell whose emf has to be calculated, and the other terminal of the cell is connected to the galvanome-
ter. The galvanometer is further connected to the jockey (movable point). Let ‘i’ be the current flowing through the wire.
𝑖 = 𝜀/(𝑟 + 𝑅)
Here,
𝜀 is the emf of the cell in the primary circuit
𝑟 is the internal resistance
𝑅 is the resistance of the wire
The voltage across the potentiometer wire of length 𝐿 is taken as
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉0
The fall of potential per unit length of the potentiometer wire is called the potential gradient. 𝑍 = (𝑉0 /𝐿) is the potential gradi-
ent.
The jockey is moved on the wire, and the null point (𝑃) is determined. The point on the wire is called the null point when the
galvanometer will not show any deflection. The length of the wire AP is taken as ' 𝐼 '.
The potential difference between 𝐴 and 𝑃 will be
𝜖
𝑅
(𝑟 + 𝑅)
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝑃 = .𝑙
𝐿
⇒ 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝑃 = (𝑉0 /𝐿). 𝐼
= 𝑍. 𝐼 = 𝜀 ′ ( since 𝑉0 = 𝑖𝑅)
𝜀 ′ is the emf of the cell connected in the secondary circuit.

Comparison of EMF of Two cells

The potentiometer can be used to compare the emf of two cells of emf 𝜀1 and 𝜀2 .

46
Let 𝑃1 be the null point when cell 𝜀1 is connected, and let ' 𝑙1 ' be the length between the end 𝐴 of the wire to the null point 𝑃1 .
Then, the potential difference between 𝐴 and 𝑃1 is
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝑃𝑙 = 𝑍. 𝑙1 = 𝜀1 . . . . (1)

Let 𝑃2 be the null point when the cell 𝜀2 is connected, and let ' 𝐼2 ′ be the length between the end 𝐴 of the wire to the null point
𝑃2 . Then, the potential difference between 𝐴 and 𝑃2 is
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝑃2 = 𝑍. 𝐼2 = 𝜀2 − − − −(2)
Comparing (1) and (2), we get
𝜀1 /𝜀2 = 𝐼1 /𝐼2
This simple mechanism thus allows one to compare the EMFs of any two sources.

Measurement of Internal Resistance of the Cell

The potentiometer can also be used to measure the internal resistance of the cell. To determine the internal resistance, the cell
whose internal resistance has to be determined is connected across the resistance box through the key(K 1). When the key is
open, the null point is obtained at a distance l1 from A. Then,
𝜀 = 𝑍. 𝐼1 . . . . (1)
When the key is closed, a current ' 𝑖 ' is passed through the resistance box (R). Let the null point be at a distance of 𝐼2 from 𝐴.
Therefore, the potential difference will be
𝑣 = 𝑍 ⋅ 𝐼2 . . . . (2)
Comparing (1) and (2), we get
𝜀/𝑣 = 𝑙1 /𝑙2 . . . . (3)
We know 𝜀 = 𝑖(𝑟 + 𝑅) and 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅
Therefore, equation (3) becomes
[𝑖(𝑟 + 𝑟)/𝑖𝑅] = 𝑙1 /𝐼2
Therefore, internal resistance,
𝑙1
𝑟 = 𝑅 ( − 1)
𝑙2
The potentiometer has the advantage that it draws no current from the voltage source being measured; as such, it is unaffected
by the internal resistance of the source.

Potentiometer Sensitivity
The sensitivity of the potentiometer is the slightest change in the potential difference that a potentiometer can measure. The
sensitivity of the potentiometer can be increased by decreasing the potential gradient, i.e., by increasing the length of the poten-
tiometer wire.

47
 Multiple Choice Questions
1. Kirchhoff’s first rule of any junction of several circuit elements in an electric circuit is based on the law of conservation of:
A. Mass B. Charge
C. Linear momentum D. Energy
Answer: B
Explanation:
• Kirchhoff's first rule of any junction of several circuit elements in an electric circuit is based on the law of conservation of
charge.
• Kirchhoff’s first law: This law is also known as junction rule or current law (KCL). According to it the algebraic sum of cur-
rents meeting at a junction is zero i.e. Σ i = 0. This law is simply a statement of “conservation of charge” as if current reaching
a junction is not equal to the current leaving the junction, the charge will not be conserved.

2. Specific resistance of ali metals is mostly affected by:

A. Temperature B. Pressure
C. Magnetic field D. Volume
Answer: A
Explanation:
Specific resistance of ali metals is mostly affected by temperature.
Specific resistance of metal at temperature
T, ρT=ρ_0 (1+αΔT)
Specific resistance of metal depends on the temperature of the metal, and it increases with increase in temperature. Also specific
resistance of metals does not vary with volume of substance, pressure and applied magnetic field.

3. The specific resistance of a rod of copper as compared to that of thin wire of copper is ___________.
A. Less B. More
C. Same D. Depends upon the length and area of cross-sec-
tion of the wire.
Answer: C
Explanation:
The specific resistance of a rod of copper as compared to that of thin wire of copper is same. Specific resistance of a conductor
depends on the nature of material but is independent of the dimension of the conductor. Thus specific resistance of rod of copper
as compared to that of thin wire of copper is same.

4. Ohm’s law is valid when the temperature of conductor is _________.

A. Very low B. Very high
C. Varying D. Constant
Answer: D
Explanation:
Ohm’s law is valid when the temperature of conductor is constant.
The resistance is dependent on resistivity and resistivity is variable at variable temperatures. To keep resistance constant, we
have to consider resistivity as constant and to keep resistivity constant we have to keep temperature constant. Hence the ohm’s
law is said to be valid at constant temperature only
so, VαI or IαV
1
And Iα
R
V = IR

5. The SI unit of electric current is Ampere. One Ampere is defined as:s

A. Charge passing per minute B. 1 coulombs of charge flowing per second
C. 2 coulombs of charge flowing per second D. Charge per second
Answer: B
Explanation:
Electric current: The flow of charge in a conductor under a potential difference maintained between the ends of the conductor
constitutes an 'electric current' in the conductor. In other words, the rate of flow of charge is called 'electric current.
Thus, if in an electric circuit, an amount of charge Q flows in t second then the electric current (I) in the circuit is given by:
I = Q/t

48
The SI unit of electric current is 'ampere’ (A) Ampere is a fundamental unit in the S.I system. The ampere is defined on the basis
of the force acting between two current-carrying, parallel conductors.
If Charge (Q) = 1 coulomb (C) , t = 1 second (s) , then i = 1 ampere (A) , thus
1 ampere = 1 coulomb per second
1A = 1 Cs-1

6. 'VA' is the unit of which one?

A. Electric resistance B. Electric energy
C. Electric power D. Electric current
Answer: C
Explanation:
Volt-ampere (VA) is a measurement of electric power in a direct current ( DC ) electrical circuit. The VA specification is also used
in alternating current ( AC ) circuits, but it is less precise in this application, because it represents apparent power, which often
differs from true power.
In a DC circuit, 1 VA is the equivalent of one watt (1 W). The power, P (in watts) in a DC circuit is equal to the product of the voltage
V (in volts) and the current I (in amperes): P = VI

7. The process of electroplating, using the phenomenon of electrolysis, is primarily based on:
A. Electromagnetic induction B. Chemical effect of electric current
C. Heating effect of electric current D. Magnetic effect of electric current
Answer: B
Explanation:
The process of electroplating, using the phenomenon of electrolysis, is primarily based on chemical effect of electric current.
The phenomenon of producing heat by the electric current is called the heating effect of electric current.
The amount of heat produced (H) in joules = I2 Rt
Where I am current, R is resistance and t are the time taken.
Due to the heating effect of the current, the filament of the bulb gets heated to a high temperature, and it starts glowing.
Similarly, the metals are melted and coated on another material to prevent corrosion. It is a chemical effect of electric current.

8. The meter bridge is used to:

A. Measure the electric current in a circuit B. Measure the potential difference across a re-
sistance
C. Measure the resistance of a resistor D. Measure the power supplied in the circuit
Answer: C
Explanation:
Meter Bridge: It is an electrical instrument based on the principle of Wheatstone bridge and is used to measure the resistance of
a resistor. The meter bridge, also known as the slide wire bridge, consists of a one-meter-long wire of uniform cross-sectional
area, fixed on a wooden block. A scale is attached to the block. Two gaps are formed on it by using thick metal strips in order to
make the Wheat stones bridge.
The formula meter bridge is given below:
𝜋𝑟 2 𝑋
𝜌=
𝐿
Where, L be the length of the wire and r be its radius.

9. Potential gradient is defined as:

A. Fall of potential per unit length of the wire B. Fall of potential per unit area of the wire
C. Fall of potential between two ends of the wire D. Potential at any one end of the wire
Answer: A
Explanation:
𝑉
Potential gradient (k): Potential difference (or fall in potential) per unit length of wire is called potential gradient i.e., 𝑘 =
𝑙
Where, V= Potential difference and L = length of the wire
Potential gradient directly depends upon:
• The resistance per unit length (R/L) of potentiometer wire.
• The radius of potentiometer wire (i.e., Area of cross section)
• The specific resistance of the material of potentiometer wire (i.e., ρ)
• The current flowing through potentiometer wire (I)

10. Keeping voltage constant, if more lamps are put into a series circuit, the overall current in the circuit:

49
 A. Increases B. Decreases
C. Remains the same D. Becomes infinite
Answer: B
Explanation:
• In a series circuit, the total resistance in the circuit is equal to the sum of all the resistances in the circuit.
• A lamp is nothing but resistance, hence with the addition of a lamp the total resistance of the circuit will increase.
• Now when the voltage is kept constant the current in the circuit will decrease with the increase of resistance in accordance
with ohm’s Law (I = V/R) (with an increase in denominator value of fraction decreases).
• Thus, on adding more lamps into a series circuit, the overall current in the circuit will decrease if the voltage is kept constant.
• The opposite will happen in a circuit where lamps/resistors will be connected parallel.

11. The direction of the electric field intensity at a point due to an infinitely long straight uniformly positive charged wire is:
A. Radially outward B. Radially inward
C. Parallel to the wire D. None of these
Answer: A
Explanation:
We know that the direction of the electric field at every point due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire must be
radial (outward if λ > 0, inward if λ < 0).
Electric field lines start from positive charges and end at negative charges. If there is a single positive charge, then electric field
lines start from positive charge and end at infinity. Therefore the direction of the electric field intensity at a point due to an infi-
nitely long straight uniformly positive charged wire will be radially outward.

12. The resistivity of a wire depends upon:

A. Material B. Shape
C. Length D. Area of cross section
Answer: A
Explanation:
The resistivity of a wire depends upon the material. The resistivity or specific resistance of a material is an intensive property
(property which does not depend on the system size or the amount of material in the system) and depends only on material and
temperature.

13. Which of the following setups can be used to verify Ohm's law?

A.
B.

C. D.

Answer: A
Explanation:
In a circuit ammeter is always connected in series and voltmeter is always connected in parallel. So, the option A is the correct
setup for verifying Ohm's law.

14. Specific resistance of all metals is most affected by:

A. Temperature B. Pressure
C. Degree of illumination D. Applied magnetic field
Answer: A
Explanation:
50
Specific resistance of metal at temperature T, 𝜌T = 𝜌0 (1 + 𝛼ΔT)
Specific resistance of metal depends on the temperature of the metal, and it increases with increase in temperature. Also specific
resistance of metals does not vary with volume of substance, pressure and applied magnetic field.

15. The instrument for the accurate measurement of the e.m.f of a cell is:
A. A voltmeter B. A slide wire bridge
C. An ammeter D. A potentiometer
Answer: D
Explanation:
The instrument for the accurate measurement of the e.m.f of a cell is a potentiometer. Both potentiometer and voltmeter are
devices to measure potential difference. E M F is the terminal p.d between the electrodes of a cell in an open circuit, i.e., when no
current is drawn from it. Potentiometer measures the potential difference using null deflection method, where no current is
drawn from the cell; whereas voltmeter needs a small current to show deflection. So, accurate measurement of p.d is done using
a potentiometer.

16. Potentiometer measures the potential difference more accurately than a voltmeter, because:
A. It has a wire of low resistance B. It has a wire of high resistance
C. It has a wire of high resistance D. It does not draw current from external circuit
Answer: D
Explanation:
A potentiometer measures the potential difference more accurately than a voltmeter because it does not draw current from ex-
ternal circuit. Potentiometer measures the potential difference using null deflection method, where no current is drawn from the
cell; whereas voltmeter needs a small current to show deflection. So, accurate measurement of p.d is done using a potentiometer.

17. In a potentiometer experiment, for measuring internal resistance of a cell, the balance point has been obtained on the fourth
wire. The balance point can be shifted to fifth wire by:
A. Increasing the current due to auxiliary battery B. Decreasing the current due to auxiliary battery
C. Putting a suitable resistance in series with the cell D. Putting a shunt resistance in parallel with the cell
Answer: B
Explanation:
In a potentiometer experiment, for measuring internal resistance of a cell, the balance point has been obtained on the fourth wire.
The balance point can be shifted to the fifth wire by decreasing the current due to auxiliary battery. If the current due to the
auxiliary battery is decreased, the potential gradient will decrease, so the balancing length increases. Thus null point will move
to fifth wire.

18. The sensitivity of the potentiometer can be increased by:

A. Increasing the e.m.f. of primary cell B. Decreasing the length of potentiometer wire
C. Increasing the potential gradient D. Increasing the length of potentiometer wire
Answer: D
Explanation:
The sensitivity of the potentiometer can be increased by increasing the length of potentiometer wire. A potentiometer is consid-
ered to be sensitive if the potential gradient (dV/dl) is low. Such a potentiometer can measure very small changes in potential
difference. Increasing the length of the potentiometer wire decreases the potential gradient. Its sensitivity increases. Increasing
potential gradient decreases the sensitivity. increasing the emf of the primary cell and by decreasing the length, potential gradient
increases.

19. Kirchhoff’s second law is a consequence of:

A. Law of conservation of charge B. Law of conservation of angular momentum
C. Law of conservation of energy D. Law of conservation of momentum
Answer: D
Explanation:
Kirchhoff’s second law is a consequence of the Law of conservation of energy.
Work done in moving a charge in a closed circuit is zero, therefore the algebraic sum of potential differences in a closed circuit is
zero.
20. A battery is connected with a potentiometer wire. The internal resistance of the battery is negligible. If the length of the
potentiometer wire of the same material and radius is doubled then:
A. Potential gradient becomes half B. Potential gradient becomes two times
C. Potential gradient does not change D. None of these
Answer: C
51
Explanation:
A battery is connected with a potentiometer wire. The internal resistance of the battery is negligible. If the length of the potenti-
ometer wire of the same material and radius is doubled then potential gradient does not change.
𝑉
Potential gradient Is given by . If V and l are constant, the potential gradient also remains constant. The change in the radius
𝑙
will cause a change in the current. This does not change the potential gradient.

21. The accurate measurement of EMF can be obtained using:

A. Voltmeter B. Voltammeter
C. Potentiometer D. Multimeter
Answer: C
Explanation:
A voltmeter draws current from a cell, therefore a voltmeter measures terminal potential difference rather than EMF, while a
potentiometer at balance, does not draw any current from the cell; so the cell remains in an open circuit. So potentiometer reads
the actual value of EMF.

22. The example of non-ohmic resistance is:

A. Diode B. Copper wire
C. Filament lamp D. Both (A) and (C)
Answer: D
Explanation:
The filament lamp does not obey Ohm's law. The expression of current is given by,
𝑉𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼0 (𝑒 2𝜋 − 1)

Thus, Vvs I curve is not a straight line. So, the diode is non-ohmic. copper wire, filament lamp, and carbon resistor are all ohmic
resistances.

23. Ohm’s Law gives the relation between?

A. Voltage, Work B. Current, Resistance
C. Voltage, Current D. Voltage, Resistance
Answer: C
Explanation:
Ohm’s Law states that the electric current flowing through a metallic wire is directly proportional to the potential difference V,
across its ends provided, its temperature remains the same. Hence ohm's law gives a relation between current and voltage.

24. The specific resistance of a rod of copper as compared to that of thin wire of copper is ___________.
A. Less B. More
C. Same D. Depends upon the length and area of cross-sec-
tion of the wire
Answer: D
Explanation:
The specific resistance of a rod of copper as compared to that of thin wire of copper is same. Specific resistance of a conductor
depends on the nature of material but is independent of the dimension of the conductor. Thus, specific resistance of rod of copper
as compared to that of thin wire of copper is same.

25. Ohm's law is valid when the temperature of conductor is:

A. Very low B. Very high
C. Varying D. Constant
Answer: D
Explanation:
Ohm's law is valid when the temperature of conductor is constant.
The resistance is dependent on resistivity and resistivity is variable at variable temperatures. To keep resistance constant, we
have to consider resistivity as constant and to keep resistivity constant we have to keep temperature constant. Hence the ohm's
1
law is said to be valid at constant temperature only. so, 𝑉𝛼𝐼 Or 𝐼𝛼𝑉 And I 𝛼 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑅

26. Identify the material which is suitable for making standard resistors.
A. Silver B. Copper
C. Constantan D. Germanium
Answer: C
52
Explanation:
Alloys like constantan or manganin are used for making standard resistance coils due to their high resistivity values and very
small temperature coefficient.

27. Which of the following relation is significant for metals when the temperature increases?
A. Resistivity increases and conductivity decreases B. Resistivity decreases and conductivity decreases
C. Resistivity and conductivity do not change with D. Temperature dependence is non-linear
temperature
Answer: A
Explanation:
The resistivity of a metal increases and the conductivity decreases with the increase in temperature. With an increase in temper-
ature, the free electrons collide more frequently with the metal ions. The mean collision time also decreases.

28. Which among the following has weak temperature dependence values with resistivity?
A. Silver B. Copper
C. Nichrome D. Germanium
Answer: C
Explanation:
Alloys have high resistivity. The resistivity of nichrome has weak temperature dependence. At absolute zero, a pure metal has
negligibly small resistivity while an alloy like nichrome has some residual resistivity.

29. The resistivity of ‘X’ decreases with temperature and its coefficient of resistivity is negative. Identify X.
A. Silver B. Silicon
C. Copper D. Nichrome
Answer: B
Explanation:
The coefficient of resistivity is negative for semiconductors and their resistivity decreases with temperature. The relaxation time
does not change with temperature, but the number density of free electrons increases exponentially with the increase in temper-
ature. Consequently, the resistivity decreases exponentially with the increase in temperature.

30. Which of the following is not a valid reason for using alloys to make standard resistors?
A. Alloys have a high value of resistivity. B. They are least affected by air and moisture.
C. Alloys have a large temperature coefficient. D. Their contact potential with copper is small.
Answer: C
Explanation:
Alloys have a high value of resistivity. They have a very small temperature coefficient. So, their resistance does not change appre-
ciably even for several degrees rise of temperature. That leaves the answer – alloys have a large temperature coefficient.

Question/Answer
Very Short
1. A wire or resistivity ρ is stretched to double its length. What will be its new resistivity?
Answer: The resistivity remains the same as it does not depend upon the length of the wire.

2. What is the effect of temperature on the relaxation time of electrons in a metal?

Answer: The relaxation time of electrons decreases with the rise in temperature of the metal.

3. Which physical quantity does the voltage versus current graph for a metallic conductor depict? Give its SI unit.
Answer: It represents resistance. It is measured in ohm.

4. Define drift velocity of electrons.

Answer: The mean velocity acquired by electrons in a conductor when an external electric field is applied to it.

5. A resistance R is connected across a cell of emf ε and internal resistance r. A potentiometer now measures the potential
difference between the terminals, of the cell as V., Write the expression for ‘r’ in terms of ε, V and R.
𝜀
Answer: The required relation is 𝑟 = ( − 1) 𝑅
𝑉

53
6. How is the drift velocity in a conductor affected by the rise in temperature?
Answer: It decreases.

7. Two students A and B were asked to pick a resistor of 15 kΩ from a collection of carbon resistors. A picked a resistor with
bands of colours brown, green, orange, while B chose a resistor with bands of black, green, red. Who picked the correct
resistor?
Answer: A

8. Define the term ‘Mobility’ of charge carriers in a conductor. Write its S.l. unit.
Answer: Mobility of charge carriers in a conductor is defined as the magnitude of their drift velocity per unit applied electric
field. Its SI unit is m2 V-1 s-1.

9. How does the mobility of electrons in a conductor change, if the potential difference applied across the conductor is doubled,
keeping the length and temperature of the conductor constant?
Answer: No change.

10. Graph showing the variation of current versus voltage for a material GaAs is shown in the figure. Identify the region of
negative resistance (ii) where Ohm’s.

Answer: (i) DE (ii) AB

Short Question
1. Find the potential energy of this system.
Answer: The potentiometer is based on the null method, or it does not draw any (net) current from the cell and measures emf
However, the voltmeter draws some current from the cell when connected across it, hence measures terminal voltage.
V
As, R =
l
The slope of B > Slope of A
At higher temperature resistance of a metallic wire is more or its conductance is low. Hence, graph (2) is at a higher tempera-
ture, i.e., T2 > T1 .

2. The figure shows the V – l graph for a parallel and series combination of two resistors A and B. Which line repre-
sents the parallel combination?

Answer: For the same potential, the current is less in series combination than parallel combination. Therefore, from the graph,
it is apparent that the same potential current is less in A. Therefore, B represents the parallel combination. |
𝑉
As, 𝑅 =
𝑙
The slope of B > Slope of A

3. V – l graph for a given metallic wire at two temperatures is shown. Which of these is at a higher temperature?

54
Answer: At higher temperature resistance of a metallic wire is more or its conductance is low. Hence, graph (2) is at a higher
temperature, i.e., 𝑇2 > 𝑇1 .

4. In an experiment on a metre bridge, if the balancing length AC is ‘x’, what would be its value, when the radius of the metre
bridge wire AB is doubled? Justify your answer. (CBSE AI 2011C)

Answer: In a metre bridge, at the balance point we have

R1 x
=
R 2 100 − x
As R1 and R 2 remain the same, x will also remain the same. It does not depend upon the diameter of the wire.

5. The emf of a cell is always greater than its terminal voltage. Why? Give reason.
Answer: When current passes through a cell, there is a drop in potential across it due to its internal resistance. This is called the
lost volt. Thus, terminal voltage is less than the emf of the cell.

6. Draw a graph showing the variation of resistivity with temperature for nichrome. Which property of nichrome is used to
make standard resistance coils?
Answer: The graph is as shown.

The property has a low-temperature coefficient of resistance.

7. Define the term ‘mobility’ for a charge carrier and state its SI unit.
Answer: Mobility is defined as the ratio of the drift velocity of the charge to the applied electric field.
i. Anions and cations.
ii. Electrons and holes
iii. Free electrons.

8. Name the mobile charge carriers in an electrolyte, a semiconductor, and an ionised gas.
Answer: Current density is defined as the current flowing per unit area of the conductor.

9. Define the term current density of a metallic conductor. Deduce the relation connecting current density (J) and the conduc
tivity (a) of the conductor when an electric field E is applied to it.
l
Answer: Mathematically current density is given by the expression J =
A

ρl L l V V
But I = V/R and R = = . Substituting in the above relation, we have J = = × σA = × σ = Eσ
A σA A AL L

Long Questions
1. Explain the term ‘drift velocity’ of electrons in a conductor. Hence obtain the expression for the current through a conductor
in terms of ‘drift velocity’.
Answer: Drift velocity (Vd ) is defined as the average velocity with which the free electrons get drifted inside a conductor under
the effect of the electric field, opposite to the direction of the field.

55
Let n be the electrons per unit volume in the conductor. Here n is called the number density of electrons. Assume that all elec-
trons move with the same drift velocity Vd . In a time, interval dt, each electron moves a distance vdt. Now the volume of the cyl-
inder covered by the electrons in time dt is,
V = Avd dt
and the number of electrons in this volume is,
N = nV = nAvd dt
If e is the charge on the electron, then charge flowing through the conductor in small time dt is,
dQ = e(nAvd dt)
Hence the current through the conductor is,
dQ
I= = nAevd
dt

2. Draw a plot showing the variation of resistivity of an (i) conductor and (ii) semiconductor, with the increase in temperature.
Answer: The plots are as shown.

3. How does one explain this behaviour in terms of the number density of charge carriers and the relaxation time?
Answer: With a rise in temperature the average relaxation time for a conductor decreases and resistivity increases, while for a
semiconductor the number density of charge carriers increases, hence the resistivity decreases.

56
 Chapter – 4 Moving Charges and Magnetism
Introduction

Both Electricity and Magnetism have been known for more than 2000 years. However, it was only about 200 years ago, in 1820,
that it was realized that they were intimately related During a lecture demonstration in the summer of 1820, the Danish physicist
Hans Christian Oersted noticed that a current in a straight wire caused a noticeable deflection in a nearby magnetic compass
needle. He investigated this phenomenon. He found that the alignment of the needle is tangential to an imaginary circle which
has the straight wire as its centre and has its plane perpendicular to the wire. This situation is depicted in Fig.4.1(a). It is
noticeable when the current is large and the needle sufficiently close to the wire so that the earth's magnetic field may be ignored.
Reversing the direction of the current reverses the orientation of the needle [Fig. 4.1(b)]. The deflection increases on increasing
the current or bringing the needle closer to the wire. Iron filings sprinkled around the wire arrange themselves in concentric
circles with the wire as the centre [Fig. 4.1(c)]. Oersted concluded that moving charges or currents produced a magnetic field in
the surrounding space.

Figure 4.1 The magnetic field due to a straight long current-carrying wire. The wire is perpendicular to the plane of the
paper. A ring of compass needles surrounds the wire. The orientation of the needles is shown when.
a. The Current Emerges Out of The Plane Of The Paper,
b. The current moves into the plane of the paper.
c. The arrangement of iron filings around the wire. The darkened ends of the needle represent north poles. The
effect of the earth's magnetic field is neglected.

In this chapter, we will see how magnetic field exerts forces on moving charged particles, like electrons, protons, and current-
carrying wires. We shall also learn how currents produce magnetic fields. We shall see how particles can be accelerated to very
high energies in a cyclotron. We shall study how currents and voltages are detected by a galvanometer.

In this and subsequent Chapter on magnetism, we adopt the following convention: A current or a field (electric or magnetic)
emerging out of the plane of the paper is depicted by a dot (⊙). A current or a field going into the plane of the paper is depicted
by a cross (⊗)∗ . Figures. 4.1(a) and 4.1(b) correspond to these two situations, respectively.

Magnetic Force

Sources and fields

Before we introduce the concept of a magnetic field 𝐁, we shall recapitulate what we have learnt in Chapter 1 about the electric
field 𝐄. We have seen that the interaction between two charges can be considered in two stages. The charge Q, the source of the
field, produces an electric field 𝐄, where.

𝐄 = Q𝐫ˆ/(4πε0 )r 2 …. (4.1)
where 𝐫ˆ is unit vector along 𝐫, and the field 𝐄 is a vector field. A charge q interacts with this field and experiences a force 𝐅 given
by
𝐅 = q𝐄 = qQ𝐫ˆ/(4πε0 )r 2 ….. (4.2)

As pointed out in the Chapter 1, the field 𝐄 is not just an artefact but has a physical role. It can convey energy and momentum and
is not established instantaneously but takes finite time to propagate. The concept of a field was specially stressed by Faraday and
was incorporated by Maxwell in his unification of electricity and magnetism. In addition to depending on each point in space, it
can also vary with time, i.e., be a function of time. In our discussions in this chapter, we will assume that the fields do not change
with time.

57
The field at a particular point can be due to one or more charges. If there are more charges the fields add vectorially. You have
already learnt in Chapter 1 that this is called the principle of superposition.

Just as static charges produce an electric field, the currents or moving charges produce (in addition) a magnetic field, denoted by
𝐁 (r), again a vector field. It has several basic properties identical to the electric field. It is defined at each point in space (and can
in addition depend on time). Experimentally, it is found to obey the principle of superposition: the magnetic field of several
sources is the vector addition of magnetic field of each individual source.

Magnetic Field, Lorentz Force

Let us suppose that there is a point charge q (moving with a velocity 𝐯 and, located at 𝐫 at a given time t ) in presence of both the
electric field 𝐄 (r) and the magnetic field 𝐁(𝐫). The force on an electric charge q due to both of them can be written as

𝐅 = q[𝐄(𝐫) + 𝐯 × 𝐁(𝐫)] ≡ 𝐅electric + 𝐅magnetic …(4.3)

This force was given first by H.A. Lorentz based on the extensive experiments of Ampere and others. It is called the Lorentz force.
You have already studied in detail the force due to the electric field. If we look at the interaction with the magnetic field, we find
the following features.
• It depends on q, 𝐯 and 𝐁 (charge of the particle, the velocity and the magnetic field). Force on a negative charge is opposite
to that on a positive charge.
• The magnetic force q[𝐯 × 𝐁] includes a vector product of velocity and magnetic field. The vector product makes the force
due to magnetic field vanish (become zero) if velocity and magnetic field are parallel or anti-parallel. The force acts in a
(sideways) direction perpendicular to both the velocity and the magnetic field. Its direction is given by the screw rule or
right-hand rule for vector (or cross) product as illustrated in Fig. 4.2.
• The magnetic force is zero if charge is not moving (as then |𝐯| = 0 ). Only a moving charge feels the magnetic force.

The expression for the magnetic force helps us to define the unit of the magnetic field, if one takes q, 𝐅 and 𝐯, all to be unity in the
force equation 𝐅 = q[𝐯 × 𝐁] = qvBsin⁡ θ𝐧ˆ, where θ is the angle between 𝐯 and 𝐁 [see Fig. 4.2 (a)]. The magnitude of magnetic
field B is 1 SI unit, when the force acting on a unit charge ( 1C ), moving perpendicular to B with a speed 1 m/s, is one newton.

Dimensionally, we have [B] = [F/qv] and the unit of 𝐁 are Newton second / (coulomb metre). This unit is called tesla (T) named
after Nikola Tesla (1856 - 1943). Tesla is a rather large unit. A smaller unit (non-SI) called gauss (= 10−4 tesla) is also often used.
The earth's magnetic field is about 3.6 × 10−5 T. Table 4.1 lists magnetic fields over a wide range in the universe.

Figure 4.2 The direction of the magnetic force acting on a charged particle. (a) The force on a positively charged particle with
velocity 𝐯 and making an angle θ with the magnetic field 𝐁 is given by the right-hand rule. (b) A moving charged particle q is
deflected in an opposite sense to −q in the presence of magnetic field.

Order of Magnitudes of Magnetic Fields in A Variety of Physical Situations

Physical situation Magnitude of B (in tesla)
Surface of a neutron star 108
Typical large field in a laboratory 1
Near a small bar magnet 10-2
On the earth's surface 10-5
Human nerve fibre 10-10
Interstellar space 10-12

Magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor

58
We can extend the analysis for force due to magnetic field on a single moving charge to a straight rod carrying current. Consider
a rod of a uniform cross-sectional area A and length l. We shall assume one kind of mobile carrier as in a conductor (here
electrons). Let the number density of these mobile charge carriers in it be n. Then the total number of mobile charge carriers in
it is nLA. For a steady current I in this conducting rod, we may assume that each mobile carrier has an average.

drift velocity 𝐯d , In the presence of an external magnetic field 𝐁, the force on these carriers is:
𝐅 = (nlA)q𝐯d × 𝐁

where q is the value of the charge on a carrier. Now nq𝐯d is the current density 𝐣 and |(nq𝐯d )|A is the current I (see Chapter 3 for
the discussion of current and current density). Thus,
𝐅 ⁡= [(nq𝐯d )A] × 𝐁 = [𝐣Al] × 𝐁
= I𝐥 × 𝐁⁡⁡. . . (4.4)

where 𝐥 is a vector of magnitude l, the length of the rod, and with a direction identical to the current I. Note that the current I is
not a vector. In the last step leading to Eq. (4.4), we have transferred the vector sign from 𝐣 to 𝐈 holds for a straight rod. In this
equation, 𝐁 is the external magnetic field. It is not the field produced by the current-carrying rod. If the wire has an arbitrary
shape, we can calculate the Lorentz force on it by considering it as a collection of linear strips d𝐥j and summing.
𝐅 = ∑ Id⁡ 𝐥j × 𝐁
j
This summation can be converted to an integral in most cases.

On Permittivity and Permeability

In the universal law of gravitation, we say that any two-point masses exert a force on each other which is proportional to the
product of the masses m1 , m2 and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r between them. We write it as F =
Gm1 m2 /r 2 where G is the universal constant of gravitation. Similarly in Coulomb's law of electrostatics we write the force
between two-point charges q1 , q2 , separated by a distance r as F = kq1 q2 /r 2 where k is a constant of proportionality. In SI units,
k is taken as 1/4πε where ε is the permittivity of the medium. Also in magnetism, we get another constant, which in SI units, is
taken as μ/4π where μ is the permeability of the medium.

Although G, ε and μ arise as proportionality constants, there is a difference between gravitational force and electromagnetic force.
While the gravitational force does not depend on the intervening medium, the electromagnetic force depends on the medium
between the two charges or magnets. Hence while G is a universal constant, ε and μ depend on the medium. They have different
values for different media. The product εμ turns out to be related to the speed v of electromagnetic radiation in the medium
through εμ = 1/v 2.

Electric permittivity ε is a physical quantity that describes how an electric field affects and is affected by a medium. It is
determined by the ability of a material to polarize in response to an applied field, and thereby to cancel, partially, the field inside
the material. Similarly, magnetic permeability μ is the ability of a substance to acquire magnetization in magnetic fields. It is a
measure of the extent to which magnetic fields can penetrate matter.

Example 4.1: A straight wire of mass 200 g and length 1.5 m carries a current of 2 A. It is suspended in mid-air by a uniform
horizontal magnetic field B (Fig. 4.3). What is the magnitude of the magnetic field?

Figure 4.3
Solution
From Eq. (4.4), we find that there is an upward force 𝐅, of magnitude IlB, For mid-air suspension, this must be balanced by the
force due to gravity:
mg = IlB

59
 mg
B ⁡=
Il
0.2 × 9.8
⁡= = 0.65 T
2 × 1.5

Note that it would have been sufficient to specify m/l, the mass per unit length of the wire. The earth's magnetic field is
approximately 4 × 10−5 T and we have ignored it.

Example 4.2: If the magnetic field is parallel to the positive y-axis and the charged particle is moving along the positive x-axis
(Fig. 4.4), which way would the Lorentz force be for (a) an electron (negative charge), (b) a proton (positive charge).

Figure 4.4
Solution
The velocity 𝐯 of particle is along the x-axis, while 𝐁, the magnetic field is along the y-axis, so 𝐯 × 𝐁 is along the z-axis (screw rule
or right-hand thumb rule). So, (a) for electron it will be along −Z axis. (b) for a positive charge (proton) the force is along +z axis.

Motion in a Magnetic Field

We will now consider, in greater detail, the motion of a charge moving in a magnetic field. We have learnt a force on a particle
does work if the force has a component along (or opposed to) the direction of motion of the particle. In the case of motion of a
charge in a magnetic field, the magnetic force is perpendicular to the velocity of the particle. So, no work is done and no change
in the magnitude of the velocity is produced (though the direction of momentum may be changed). [Notice that this is unlike the
force due to an electric field, q𝐄, which can have a component parallel (or antiparallel) to motion and thus can transfer energy in
addition to momentum.]

Figure 4.5 Circular motion

We shall consider the motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field. First consider the case of 𝐯 perpendicular to 𝐁.
The perpendicular force, q𝐯 × 𝐁, acts as a centripetal force and produces a circular motion perpendicular to the magnetic field.
The particle will describe a circle if 𝐯 and 𝐁 are perpendicular to each other (Fig. 4.5).

If velocity has a component along 𝐁, this component remains unchanged as the motion along the magnetic field will not be
affected by the magnetic field. The motion in a plane perpendicular to 𝐁 is as before a circular one, thereby producing a helical
motion.

60
 Figure 4.6 Helical motion

You have already learnt in earlier classes that if r is the radius of the circular path of a particle, then a force of mv 2 /r, acts
perpendicular to the path towards the centre of the circle, and is called the centripetal force. If the velocity 𝐯 is perpendicular to
the magnetic field 𝐁, the magnetic force is perpendicular to both 𝐯 and 𝐁 and acts like a centripetal force. It has a magnitude qvB.
Equating the two expressions for centripetal force,

mv 2 /r = qvB, which gives.

r = mv/qB⁡. . ..(I)

For the radius of the circle described by the charged particle. The larger the momentum, the larger is the radius and bigger the
circle described. If ω is the angular frequency, then v = ωr. So,
ω = 2πv = qB/m⁡. . . . . [II(a)]

Which is independent of the velocity or energy. Here v is the frequency of rotation. The independence of v from energy has
important application in the design of a cyclotron.

The time taken for one revolution is T = 2π/ω ≡ 1/v. If there is a component of the velocity parallel to the magnetic field
(denoted by v∥ ), it will make the particle move along the field and the path of the particle would be a helical one. The distance
moved along the magnetic field in one rotation is called pitch p. Using Eq. (Ia), we have
p = v∥ T = 2πmv∥ /qB⁡. . . . . [II(b)]

The radius of the circular component of motion is called the radius of the helix.

Example 4.3: What is the radius of the path of an electron (mass 9 × 10−31 kg and charge 1.6 × 10−19 C ) moving at a speed of
3 × 107 m/s in a magnetic field of 6 × 10−4 T perpendicular to it? What is its frequency? Calculate its energy in keV.
(1eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J).

Solution
Using Eq. (I) we find.
r = mv/(qB) = 9 × 10−31 kg × 3 × 107 m s−1 /(1.6 × 10−19 C × 6 × 10−4 T)
= ⁡26 × 10−2 m = 26 cm
v = v/(2πr) = 2 × 106 s−1
= 2 × 106 Hz = 2MHz.
E = (1/2)mv 2 = (1/2)9 × 10−31 kg × 9 × 1014 m2 /s2
= 40.5 × 10−17 J ≈ ⁡4 × 10−16 J = 2.5keV

Helical Motion of Charged Particles and Aurora Borealis

In polar regions like Alaska and Northern Canada, a splendid display of colours is seen in the sky. The appearance of dancing
green, pink lights is fascinating, and equally puzzling. An explanation of this natural phenomenon is now found in physics, in
terms of what we have studied here.

Consider a charged particle of mass m and charge q, entering a region of magnetic field B with an initial velocity 𝐯. Let this velocity
have a component 𝐯p parallel to the magnetic field and a component 𝐯n normal to it. There is no force on a charged particle in the
61
direction of the field. Hence the particle continues to travel with the velocity 𝐯p parallel to the field. The normal component 𝐯n of
the particle results in a Lorentz force (𝐯n × 𝐁) which is perpendicular to both 𝐯n and 𝐁. the particle thus has a tendency to perform
a circular motion in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic field. When this is coupled with the velocity parallel to the field, the
resulting trajectory will be a helix along the magnetic field line, as shown in Figure (a) here. Even if the field line bends, the
helically moving particle is trapped and guided to move around the field line. Since the Lorentz force is normal to the velocity of
each point, the field does not work on the particle and the magnitude of velocity remains the same.

(a) (b)
During a solar flare, many electrons and protons are ejected from the sun. Some of them get trapped in the earth's magnetic field
and move in helical paths along the field lines. The field lines come closer to each other near the magnetic poles; see figure (b).
Hence the density of charges increases near the poles. These particles collide with atoms and molecules of the atmosphere.
Excited oxygen atoms emit green light and excited nitrogen atoms emit pink light. This phenomenon is called Aurora Borealis in
physics.

Motion in Combined Electric and Magnetic Fields

Velocity selector
You know that a charge q moving with velocity 𝐯 in presence of both electric and magnetic fields experiences a force given by Eq.
(4.3), that is,

𝐅 = q(𝐄 + 𝐯 × 𝐁) = 𝐅E + 𝐅B

We shall consider the simple case in which electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the
velocity of the particle, as shown in Fig. 4.7. We have,

ˆ ) = −qB𝐣ˆ
𝐅E = q𝐄 = qE𝐣ˆ, 𝐅B = q𝐯 × 𝐁, = q(v𝐢ˆ × B𝐤
Therefore, 𝐅 = q(E − vB)𝐣ˆ.

Thus, electric and magnetic forces are in opposite directions as shown in the figure. Suppose we adjust the value of 𝐄 and 𝐁 such
that magnitudes of the two forces are equal. Then, total force on the charge is zero and the charge will move in the fields
undeflected. This happens when,
E
qE = qvB or v = ⁡. . ..(IV)
B
This condition can be used to select charged particles of a particular velocity out of a beam containing charges moving at different
speeds (irrespective of their charge and mass). The crossed E and B fields, therefore, serve as a velocity selector. Only particles

62
with speed E/B pass undeflected through the region of crossed fields. This method was employed by J. J. Thomson in 1897 to
measure the charge to mass ratio (e/m) of an electron. The principle is also employed in Mass Spectrometer, a device that
separates charged particles, usually ions, according to their charge to mass ratio.

Cyclotron
The cyclotron is a machine to accelerate charged particles or ions to high energies. It was invented by E.O. Lawrence and M.S.
Livingston in 1934 to investigate nuclear structure. The cyclotron uses both electric and magnetic fields in combination to
increase the energy of charged particles. As the fields are perpendicular to each other they are called crossed fields. Cyclotron
uses the fact that the frequency of revolution of the charged particle in a magnetic field is independent of its energy. The particles
move most of the time inside two semicircular disc-like metal containers, D1 and D2 , which are called dees as they look like the
letter D. Inside the metal boxes the particle is shielded and is not acted on by the electric field. The magnetic field, however, acts
on the particle and makes it go round in a circular path inside a dee. Every time the particle moves from one dee to another it is
acted upon by the electric field. The sign of the electric field is changed alternately in tune with the circular motion of the particle.
This ensures that the particle is always accelerated by the electric field. Each time the acceleration increases the energy of the
particle. As energy increases, the radius of the circular path increases. So, the path is a spiral one.

The whole assembly is evacuated to minimise collisions between the ions and the air molecules. A high frequency alternating
voltage is applied to the dees. Positive ions or positively charged particles (e.g., protons) are released at the centre P. They move
in a semi-circular path in one of the dees and arrive in the gap between the dees in a time interval T/2; where T, the period of
revolution.
1 2πm
T= =
vc qB
qB
or vc = ⁡. . . . (V)
2πm

This frequency is called the cyclotron frequency for obvious reasons and is denoted by vc .

Figure 4.8 A schematic sketch of the cyclotron. There is a source of charged particles or ions at 𝐏 which move in a circular
fashion in the dees, 𝐃𝟏 and 𝐃𝟐 , on account of a uniform perpendicular magnetic field B. An alternating voltage source
accelerates these ions to high speeds. The ions are eventually 'extracted' at the exit port.

The frequency va of the applied voltage is adjusted so that the polarity of the dees is reversed at the same time that it takes the
ions to complete one half of the revolution. The requirement va = vc is called the resonance condition. The phase of the supply is
adjusted so that when the positive ions arrive at the edge of D1 , D2 is at a lower potential and the ions are accelerated across the
gap. Inside the dees the particles travel in a region free of the electric field. The increase in their kinetic energy is qV each time
they cross from one dee to another ( V refers to the voltage across the dees at that time). From Eq. (4.5), it is clear that the radius
of their path goes on increasing each time their kinetic energy increases. The ions are repeatedly accelerated across the dees until
they have the required energy to have a radius approximately that of the dees. They are then deflected by a magnetic field and
leave the system via an exit slit. From Eq. (4.5) we have,

qBR
v= ….(4.9)
m

63
(4.9) where R is the radius of the trajectory at exit and equals the radius of a dee.
Hence, the kinetic energy of the ions is,

1 q2 B2 R2
mv 2 = ⁡⁡. . . ..(4.10)
2 2m

The operation of the cyclotron is because the time for one revolution of an ion is independent of its speed or radius of its orbit.
The cyclotron is used to bombard nuclei with energetic particles, so accelerated by it, and study the resulting nuclear reactions.
It is also used to implant ions into solids and modify their properties or even synthesize new materials. It is used in hospitals to
produce radioactive substances which can be used in diagnosis and treatment.

Example 4.4: A cyclotron's oscillator frequency is 10MHz. What should be the operating magnetic field for accelerating protons?
If the radius of its 'dees' is 60 cm, what is the kinetic energy (in MeV) of the proton beam produced by the accelerator.
(e = 1.60 × 10−19 C, mp = 1.67 × 10−27 kg, ⁡1MeV = 1.6 × 10−13 J).

Solution
The oscillator frequency should be same as proton's cyclotron frequency.
Using Eqs. (4.5) and [4.6(a)] we have
B = 2πmv/q = 6.3 × 1.67 × 10−27 × 107 /(1.6 × 10−19 ) = 0.66 T
The final velocity of protons is.
v = r × 2πv = 0.6 m × 6.3 × 107 = 3.78 × 107 m/s.
E = 1/2mvv 2 = 1.67 × 10−27 × 14.3 × 1014 /(2 × 1.6 × 10−13 ) = 7MeV

Magnetic Field Due to A Current Element, Biot-Savart Law

All magnetic fields that we know are due to currents (or moving charges) and due to intrinsic magnetic moments of particles.
Here, we shall study the relation between current and the magnetic field it produces. It is given by the Biot-Savart's law. Figure
4.9 shows a finite conductor XY carrying current I. Consider an infinitesimal element dl of the conductor. The magnetic field d𝐁
due to this element is to be determined at a point P which is at a distance r from it. Let θ be the angle between d𝐥 and the
displacement vector r. According to Biot-Savart's law, the magnitude of the magnetic field dB is proportional to the current I, the
element length |d𝐥|, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r. Its direction* is perpendicular to the plane
containing d𝐥 and 𝐫. Thus, in vector notation,

Id𝐥 × 𝐫
d𝐁 ⁡∝ ⁡
r3
μ0 Id𝐥 × 𝐫
= ⁡. ..⁡⁡[4.11(a)]
4π r 3

where μ0 /4π is a constant of proportionality. The above expression holds when the medium is vacuum. The magnitude of this
field is,
μ0 I dlsin⁡ θ
|d𝐁| = ⁡. ..[4.11 (b)]
4π r2

Figure 4.9: Illustration of the Biot-Savart law. The current element 𝐈 𝐝𝐥 produces a field 𝐝𝐁 at a distance 𝐫. The ⊗ sign
indicates that the field is perpendicular to the plane of this page and directed into it.
64
Where we have used the property of cross-product. Equation [4.11 (a)] constitutes our basic equation for the magnetic field. The
proportionality constant in SI units has the exact value,

μ0
= 10−7 Tm/A⁡. . ..⁡[4.11 (c)]
4π

We call μ0 the permeability of free space (or vacuum).

The Biot-Savart law for the magnetic field has certain similarities as well as differences with Coulomb’s law for the electrostatic
field. Some of these are:

• Both are long range, since both depend inversely on the square of distance from the source to the point of interest. The
principle of superposition applies to both fields. [In this connection, note that the magnetic field is linear in the source I d𝐥
just as the electrostatic field is linear in its source: the electric charge.]
• The electrostatic field is produced by a scalar source, namely, the electric charge. The magnetic field is produced by a vector
source Id𝐥.
❖ The sense of 𝐝𝐥 × 𝐫 is also given by the Right-Hand Screw rule: Look at the plane containing vectors 𝐝𝐥 and 𝐫. Imagine
moving from the first vector towards the second vector. If the movement is anticlockwise, the resultant is towards you.
If it is clockwise, the resultant is away from you.
• The electrostatic field is along the displacement vector joining the source and the field point. The magnetic field is
perpendicular to the plane containing the displacement vector 𝐫 and the current element I d𝐥.
• There is an angle dependence in the Biot-Savart law which is not present in the electrostatic case. In Fig. 4.9, the magnetic
field at any point in the direction of d𝐥 (the dashed line) is zero. Along this line, θ = 0, sin⁡ θ = 0 and from Eq. [4.11(a)], |d𝐁| =
0.

There is an interesting relation between ε0 , the permittivity of free space; μ0 , the permeability of free space; and c, the speed of
light in vacuum:

μ0 1 1 1
ε0 μ0 = (4πε0 ) ( )=( ) (10−7 ) = =
4π 9 × 109 (3 × 108 )2 c 2

We will discuss this connection further in Chapter 8 on the electromagnetic waves. Since the speed of light in vacuum is constant,
the product μ0 ε0 is fixed in magnitude. Choosing the value of either ε0 or μ0 , fixes the value of the other. In SI units, μ0 is fixed to
be equal to 4π × 10−7 in magnitude.

Example 4.5: An element Δ𝐥 = Δx𝐢ˆ is placed at the origin and carries a large current I = 10 A (Fig. 4.10). What is the magnetic
field on the y-axis at distance of 0.5 m. Δx = 1 cm.

Figure 4.10
Solution
μ0 I dlsin⁡ θ
|d𝐁| = [using Eq. (4.11)]
4π r 2
Tm
dl = Δx = 10−2 m, I = 10 A, ⁡r = 0.5 m = y, μ0 /4π = 10−7 .
A
θ = 90∘ ; sin⁡ θ = 1

65
 10−7 × 10 × 10−2
⁡| d𝐁| = = 4 × 10−8 T
25 × 10−2

The direction of the field is in the +z-direction. This is so since,

ˆ
d𝐥 × 𝐫 = Δx𝐢ˆ × y𝐣ˆ = yΔx(𝐢ˆ × 𝐣ˆ) = yΔx𝐤

We remind you of the following cyclic property of cross-products,

ˆ ; 𝐣ˆ × 𝐤
𝐢ˆ × 𝐣ˆ = 𝐤 ˆ = 𝐢ˆ; 𝐤
ˆ × 𝐢ˆ = 𝐣ˆ

Note that the field is small in magnitude. In the next section, we shall use the Biot-Savart law to calculate the magnetic field due
to a circular loop.

Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Circular Current Loop

In this section, we shall evaluate the magnetic field due to a circular coil along its axis. The evaluation entails summing up the
effect of infinitesimal current elements (I d⁡l) mentioned in the previous section. We assume that the current I is steady and that
the evaluation is carried out in free space (i.e., vacuum).
Figure 4.11 depicts a circular loop carrying a steady current I. The loop is placed in the y − z plane with its centre at the origin O
and has a radius R. The x-axis is the axis of the loop. We wish to calculate the magnetic field at the point P on this axis. Let x be
the distance of P from the centre O of the loop.

Consider a conducting element d𝐥 of the loop. This is shown in Fig. 4.11. The magnitude dB of the magnetic field due to d𝐥 is given
by the Biot-Savart law [Eq. 4.11(a)],

μ0 I|d𝐥×𝐫|
dB = . . ..⁡(4.12)
4π r3

Now r 2 = x 2 + R2. Further, any element of the loop will be perpendicular to the displacement vector from the element to the
axial point. For example, the element d𝐥 in Fig. 4.11 is in the y − z plane whereas the displacement vector 𝐫 from d𝐥 to the axial
point P is in the x − y plane. Hence |d𝐥 × 𝐫| = rdl. Thus,

Figure 4.11 Magnetic field on the axis of a current carrying circular loop of radius 𝐑. Shown are the magnetic field 𝐝𝐁
(due to a line element 𝐝𝐥 ) and its components along and perpendicular to the axis.

μ0 I dl
dB = ⁡. . ..⁡(4.13)
4π (x2 +R2 )

The direction of d𝐁 is shown in Fig. 4.11. It is perpendicular to the plane formed by d𝐥 and 𝐫. It has an x-component d𝐁x and a
component perpendicular to x-axis, d𝐁⊥ . When the components perpendicular to the x-axis are summed over, they cancel out
and we obtain a null result. For example, the d𝐁⊥ component due to d𝐥 is cancelled by the contribution due to the diametrically
opposite d𝐥 element, shown in Fig. 4.11. Thus, only the x-component survives. The net contribution along x-direction can be
obtained by integrating dBx = dBcos⁡ θ over the loop. For Fig. 4.11,

66
 R
cos⁡ θ =
(x 2 + R2 )1/2

From Eqs. (4.13) and (4.14),

μ0 I dl R
dBx =
4π (x + R2 )3/2
2

The summation of elements d l over the loop yields 2πR, the circumference of the loop. Thus, the magnetic field at P due to entire
circular loop is
μ0 IR2
B = Bx 1̂ = 3 1̂ . . ..⁡(4.15)
2(x2 +R2 )2

As a special case of the above result, we may obtain the field at the centre of the loop. Here x = 0, and we obtain,

𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵0 = 𝑖ˆ . . ..⁡4.16)
2𝑅

The magnetic field lines due to a circular wire form closed loops and are shown in Fig. 4.12. The direction of the magnetic field is
given by (another) right-hand thumb rule stated below:

Curl the palm of your right hand around the circular wire with the fingers pointing in the direction of the current. The right-hand
thumb gives the direction of the magnetic field.

Figure 4.12 The magnetic field lines for a current loop. The direction of the field is given by the right-hand thumb rule
described in the text. The upper side of the loop may be thought of as the north pole and the lower side as the south pole
of a magnet.

Example 4.6: A straight wire carrying a current of 12 A is bent into a semi-circular arc of radius 2.0 cm as shown in Fig. 4.13(a).
Consider the magnetic field 𝐁 at the centre of the arc. (a) What is the magnetic field due to the straight segments? (b) In what
way the contribution to 𝐁 from the semicircle differs from that of a circular loop and in what way does it resemble? (c) Would
your answer be different if the wire were bent into a semi-circular arc of the same radius but in the opposite way as shown in
Fig. 4.13(b)?

Figure 4.13
Solution
(a) d𝐥 and 𝐫 for each element of the straight segments are parallel. Therefore,
d𝐥 × 𝐫 = 0. Straight segments do not contribute to |𝐁|.

67
(b) For all segments of the semicircular arc, d𝐥 × 𝐫 are all parallel to each other (into the plane of the paper). All such
contributions add up in magnitude. Hence direction of 𝐁 for a semicircular arc is given by the right-hand rule and magnitude
is half that of a circular loop. Thus, B is 1.9 × 10−4 T normal to the plane of the paper going into it.
(c) Same magnitude of 𝐁 but opposite in direction to that in (b).

Example 4.7 Consider a tightly wound 100 turn coils of radius 10cm, carrying a current of 1 A. What is the magnitude of the
magnetic field at the centre of the coil?
Solution Since the coil is tightly wound, we may take each circular element to have the same radius R = 10 cm = 0.1 m. The
number of turns N = 100. The magnitude of the magnetic field is,

μ0 NI 4π × 10−7 × 102 × 1
B= = = 2π × 10−4 = 6.28 × 10−4 T
2R 2 × 10−1

Ampere’s Circuital Law

There is an alternative and appealing way in which the Biot-Savart law may be expressed. Ampere's circuital law considers an
open surface with a boundary (Fig. 4.14). The surface has current passing through it. We consider the boundary to be made up
of a number of small line elements. Consider one such element of length dl. We take the value of the tangential component of the
magnetic field, Bt , at this element and multiply it by the length of that element dl [Note: Bt dl = 𝐁 ⋅ d𝐥. All such products are added
together. We consider the limit as the lengths of elements get smaller and their number gets larger. The sum then tends to be an
integral. Ampere's law states that this integral is equal to μ0 times the total current passing through the surface, i.e.,

∮⁡⁡𝐁 ⋅ d𝐥 = μ0 I ….. [4.17(a)]

Figure 4.14
where I is the total current through the surface. The integral is taken over the closed loop coinciding with the boundary C of the
surface. The relation above involves a sign-convention, given by the right-hand rule. Let the fingers of the right-hand be curled in
the sense the boundary is traversed in the loop integral ∮⁡𝐁 ⋅ d𝐥. Then the direction of the thumb gives the sense in which the
current I is regarded as positive.
For several applications, a much-simplified version of Eq. [4.17(a)] proves sufficient. We shall assume that, in such cases, it is
possible to choose the loop (called an amperian loop) such that at each point of the loop, either.
1. B is tangential to the loop and is a non-zero constant B, or
2. 𝐁 is normal to the loop, or
3. B vanishes.

Now, let L be the length (part) of the loop for which 𝐁 is tangential. Let Ie be the current enclosed by the loop. Then, Eq. (4.17)
reduces to,

BL = μ0 Ie ⁡. . ..⁡[4.17(b)]

When there is a system with a symmetry such as for a straight infinite current-carrying wire in Fig. 4.15, the Ampere's law enables
an easy evaluation of the magnetic field, much the same way Gauss' law helps in determination of the electric field. This is
68
exhibited in the Example 4.9 below. The boundary of the loop chosen is a circle and magnetic field is tangential to the
circumference of the circle. The law gives, for the left-hand side of Eq. [4.17 (b)], B. 2πr. We find that the magnetic field at a
distance r outside the wire is tangential and given by
B × 2πr = μ0 I,
B = μ0 I/(2πr)⁡. . ..⁡(4.18)

The above result for the infinite wire is interesting from several points of view.
(i) It implies that the field at every point on a circle of radius r, (with the wire along the axis), is same in magnitude. In other
words, the magnetic field possesses what is called cylindrical symmetry. The field that normally can depend on three
coordinates depends only on one: r. Whenever there is symmetry, the solutions simplify.
(ii) The field direction at any point on this circle is tangential to it. Thus, the lines of constant magnitude of magnetic field form
concentric circles. Notice now, in Fig. 4.1(c), the iron filings form concentric circles. These lines, called magnetic field lines
form closed loops. This is unlike the electrostatic field lines which originate from positive charges and end at negative
charges. The expression for the magnetic field of a straight wire provides a theoretical justification to Oersted's
experiments.
(iii) Another interesting point to note is that even though the wire is infinite, the field due to it at a nonzero distance is not
infinite. It tends to blow up only when we come very close to the wire. The field is directly proportional to the current and
inversely proportional to the distance from the (infinitely long) current source.
(iv) There exists a simple rule to determine the direction of the magnetic field due to a long wire. This rule, called the right-
hand rule, is: Grasp the wire in your right hand with your extended thumb pointing in the direction of the current. Your
fingers will curl around in the direction of the magnetic field.

Ampere's circuital law is not new in content from Biot-Savart law. Both relate the magnetic field and the current, and both express
the same physical consequences of a steady electrical current. Ampere's law is to Biot-Savart law, what Gauss's law is to
Coulomb's law. Both Ampere's and Gauss's law relate a physical quantity on the periphery or boundary (magnetic or electric
field) to another physical quantity, namely, the source, in the interior (current or charge). We also note that Ampere's circuital
law holds for steady currents which do not fluctuate with time. The following example will help us understand what is meant by
the term enclosed current.

Example 4.8 Figure 4.15 shows a long straight wire of a circular cross-section (radius a ) carrying steady current I. The current
I is uniformly distributed across this cross-section. Calculate the magnetic field in the region r < a and r > a.

Figure 4.15
Solution
(a) Consider the case r > a. The Amperian loop, labelled 2 , is a circle concentric with the cross-section. For this loop,
L = 2πr
Ie = Current enclosed by the loop = I
The result is the familiar expression for a long straight wire
B(2πr) = μ0 I
μ0 I
B= ⁡[4.19(a)]
2πr
1
B ∝ ⁡(r > a)
r
(b) Consider the case r < a. The Amperian loop is a circle labelled 1. For this loop, taking the radius of the circle to be r,
69
L = 2πr
• Note that there are two distinct right-hand rules: One which gives the direction of 𝐁 on the axis of current-loop and the
other which gives direction of 𝐁 for a straight conducting wire. Fingers and thumbs play different roles in the two.

Now the current enclosed Ie is not I, but is less than this value. Since the current distribution is uniform, the current enclosed is,
πr 2 Ir 2
Ie = I ( 2 ) = 2
πa a
Ir2
Using Ampere's law, B(2πr) = μ0
a2
μ0 I
B=( )r
2πa2
B ∝ r⁡(r < a)

Figure 4.16
Figure (4.16) shows a plot of the magnitude of B with distance r from the centre of the wire. The direction of the field is tangential
to the respective circular loop (1 or 2) and given by the right-hand rule described earlier in this section. This example possesses
the required symmetry so that Ampere's law can be applied readily.

It should be noted that while Ampere's circuital law holds for any loop, it may not always facilitate an evaluation of the magnetic
field in every case. For example, for the case of the circular loop discussed in .it cannot be applied to extract the simple expression
B = μ0 I/2R [Eq. (4.16)] for the field at the centre of the loop. However, there exists a large number of situations of high symmetry
where the law can be conveniently applied. We shall use it in the next section to calculate the magnetic field produced by two
commonly used and very useful magnetic systems: the solenoid and the toroid.

The Solenoid and The Toroid

The solenoid and the toroid are two pieces of equipment which generate magnetic fields. The television uses the solenoid to
generate magnetic fields needed. The synchrotron uses a combination of both to generate the high magnetic fields required. In
both solenoid and toroid, we come across a situation of high symmetry where Ampere's law can be conveniently applied.

The solenoid
We shall discuss a long solenoid. By long solenoid we mean that the solenoid's length is large compared to its radius. It consists
of a long wire wound in the form of a helix where the neighbouring turns are closely spaced. So, each turn can be regarded as a
circular loop. The net magnetic field is the vector sum of the fields due to all the turns. Enamelled wires are used for winding so
that turns are insulated from each other.

70
 (a)

(b)
Figure 4.17 (a) The magnetic field due to a section of the solenoid which has been stretched out for clarity. Only the
exterior semi-circular part is shown. Notice how the circular loops between neighbouring turns tend to cancel.
(b) The magnetic field of a finite solenoid.

Figure 4.17 displays the magnetic field lines for a finite solenoid. We show a section of this solenoid in an enlarged manner in Fig.
4.17(a). Figure 4.17(b) shows the entire finite solenoid with its magnetic field. In Fig. 4.17(a), it is clear from the circular loops
that the field between two neighbouring turns vanishes. In Fig. 4.17(b), we see that the field at the interior mid-point P is uniform,
strong and along the axis of the solenoid. The field at the exterior mid-point Q is weak and moreover is along the axis of the
solenoid with no perpendicular or normal component. As the solenoid is made longer it appears like a long cylindrical metal
sheet. Figure 4.18 represents this idealized picture. The field outside the solenoid approaches zero. We shall assume that the field
outside is zero. The field inside becomes everywhere parallel to the axis.

Figure 4.18 The magnetic field of a very long solenoid. We consider a rectangular Amperian loop abcd to determine the
field.

71
Consider a rectangular Amperian loop abcd. Along cd the field is zero as argued above. Along transverse sections bc and ad, the
field component is zero. Thus, these two sections make no contribution. Let the field along ab be B. Thus, the relevant length of
the Amperian loop is, L = h.

Let n be the number of turns per unit length, then the total number of turns is nh. The enclosed current is, Ie = I(nh), where I is
the current in the solenoid. From Ampere's circuital law [Eq. 4.17 (b)]
BL = μ0 Ie , ⁡Bh = μ0 I(nh)
B = μ0 nI⁡. . ..⁡(4.20)

The direction of the field is given by the right-hand rule. The solenoid is commonly used to obtain a uniform magnetic field. We
shall see in the next chapter that a large field is possible by inserting a soft iron core inside the solenoiod

(a)

(b)
Figure 4.19 (a) A toroid carrying a current 𝐈. (b) A sectional view of the toroid. The magnetic field can be obtained at an
arbitrary distance 𝐫 from the centre 𝐎 of the toroid by Ampere's circuital law. The dashed lines labelled 1,2 and 3 are
three circular Amperian loops.

The toroid
The toroid is a hollow circular ring on which a large number of turns of a wire are closely wound. It can be viewed as a solenoid
which has been bent into a circular shape to close on itself. It is shown in Fig. 4.19 (a) carrying a current I. We shall see that the
magnetic field in the open space inside (point P) and exterior to the toroid (point Q ) is zero. The field 𝐁 inside the toroid is
constant in magnitude for the ideal toroid of closely wound turns.

Figure 4.19 (b) shows a sectional view of the toroid. The direction of the magnetic field inside is clockwise as per the right-hand
thumb rule for circular loops. Three circular Amperian loops 1, 2 and 3 are shown by dashed lines. By symmetry, the magnetic
field should be tangential to each of them and constant in magnitude for a given loop. The circular areas bounded by loops 2 and
3 both cut the toroid: so that each turn of current carrying wire is cut once by the loop 2 and twice by the loop 3.
Let the magnetic field along loop 1 be B1 in magnitude. Then in Ampere's circuital law [Eq. 4.17(a)], L = 2πr1 . However, the loop
encloses no current, so Ie = 0. Thus,
72
B1 (2πr1 ) = μ0 (0), ⁡B1 = 0

Thus, the magnetic field at any point P in the open space inside the toroid is zero.
We shall now show that magnetic field at Q is likewise zero. Let the magnetic field along loop 3 be B3 . Once again from Ampere's
law L = 2πr3 . However, from the sectional cut, we see that the current coming out of the plane of the paper is cancelled exactly
by the current going into it. Thus, Ie = 0, and B3 = 0. Let the magnetic field inside the solenoid be B. We shall now consider the
magnetic field at S.Once again, we employ Ampere's law in the for m of Eq. [4.17 (a)]. We find, L = 2πr.

The current enclosed Ie is (for N turns of toroidal coil) NI.

B(2πr) = μ0 NI
μ0 NI
B= ⁡. . ..⁡(4.21)
2πr

We shall now compare the two results: for a toroid and solenoid. We re-express Eq. (4.21) to make the comparison easier with
the solenoid result given in Eq. (4.20). Let r be the average radius of the toroid and n be the number of turns per unit length. Then

N = 2πrn = (average) perimeter of the toroid⁡ × number of turns per unit length
And thus,
B = μ0 nI⁡. . ..⁡(4.22)
i.e., the result for the solenoid!

In an ideal toroid the coils are circular. In reality the turns of the toroidal coil form a helix and there is always a small magnetic
field external to the toroid.

Magnetic Confinement
We have seen in heading (see also the box on helical motion of charged particles earlier in this chapter) that orbits of charged
particles are helical. If the magnetic field is non-uniform, but does not change much during one circular orbit, then the radius of
the helix will decrease as it enters stronger magnetic field, and the radius will increase when it enters weaker magnetic fields.
We consider two solenoids at a distance from each other, enclosed in an evacuated container (see figure below where we have
not shown the container). Charged particles moving in the region between the two solenoids will start with a small radius. The
radius will increase as field decreases and the radius will decrease again as field due to the second solenoid takes over. The
solenoids act as a mirror or reflector. [See the direction of 𝐅 as the particle approaches coil 2 in the figure. It has a horizontal
component against the forward motion.] This makes the particles turn back when they approach the solenoid. Such an
arrangement will act like magnetic bottle or magnetic container. The particles will never touch the sides of the container. Such
magnetic bottles are of great use in confining the high energy plasma in fusion experiments. The plasma will destroy any other
form of material container because of its high temperature. Another useful container is a toroid. Toroid’s are expected to play a
key role in the tokamak, an equipment for plasma confinement in fusion power reactors. There is an international collaboration
called the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), being set up in France, for achieving controlled fusion, of
which India is a collaborating nation.

Example 4.9: A solenoid of length 0.5 m has a radius of 1 cm and is made up of 500 turns. It carries a current of 5 A. What is the
magnitude of the magnetic field inside the solenoid?
Solution The number of turns per unit length is,
500
n= = 1000 turns /m
0.5
The length l = 0.5 m and radius r = 0.01 m. Thus, l/a = 50 i.e., l ≫ a. Hence, we can use the long solenoid formula, namely, Eq.
(4.20)

73
B ⁡= μ0 nI
⁡= 4π × 10−7 × 103 × 5
⁡= 6.28 × 10−3 T

Force Between Two Parallel Currents, The Ampere

We have learnt that there exists a magnetic field due to a conductor carrying a current which obeys the Biot-Savart law. Further,
we have learnt that an external magnetic field will exert a force on

Figure 4.20 Two long straight parallel conductors carrying steady currents Ia and Ib and separated by a distance d. B2 is the
magnetic field set up by conductor ' a ' at conductor 'b'.

A current-carrying conductor. This follows from the Lorentz force formula. Thus, it is logical to expect that two current-carrying
conductors placed near each other will exert (magnetic) forces on each other. In the period 1820-25, Ampere studied the nature
of this magnetic force and its dependence on the magnitude of the current, on the shape and size of the conductors as well as the
distances between the conductors. In this section, we shall take the simple example of two parallel current-carrying conductors,
which will perhaps help us to appreciate Ampere's painstaking work.

Figure 4.20 shows two long parallel conductors a and b separated by a distance d and carrying (parallel) currents Ia and Ib ,
respectively. The conductor ' a 'produces, the same magnetic field 𝐁𝐚 at all points along the conductor ' b '. The right-hand rule
tells us that the direction of this field is downwards (when the conductors are placed horizontally). Its magnitude is given by Eq.
[4.19(a)] or from Ampere's circuital law,

μ0 Ia
Ba =
2πd

The conductor ' b ' carrying a current Ib will experience a sideways force due to the field 𝐁a . The direction of this force is towards
the conductor ' a ' (Verify this). We label this force as 𝐅ba , the force on a segment L of ' b ' due to ' a '. The magnitude of this force
is given by Eq. (4.4),

Fba ⁡= Ib LBa
μ0 Ia Ib
⁡= L⁡. . . (4.23)
2πd
It is of course possible to compute the force on ' a ' due to ' b '. From considerations similar to above we can find the force 𝐅ab , on
a segment of length L of ' a' due to the current in ' b '. It is equal in magnitude to Fba ' and directed towards 'b'. Thus,

𝐅ba = −𝐅ab ⁡. . ..⁡(4.24)

Note that this is consistent with Newton's third Law. Thus, at least for parallel conductors and steady currents, we have shown
that the Biot-Savart law and the Lorentz force yield results in accordance with Newton's third Law.

We have seen from above that currents flowing in the same direction attract each other. One can show that oppositely directed
currents repel each other. Thus, Parallel currents attract, and antiparallel currents repel.

74
This rule is the opposite of what we find in electrostatics. Like (same sign) charges repel each other, but like (parallel) currents
attract each other.

Let fba represent the magnitude of the force 𝐅ba per unit length. Then, from Eq. (4.23)
μ0 Ia Ib
fba = ⁡…⁡(4.25)
2πd

The above expression is used to define the ampere (A), which is one of the seven SI base units.

The ampere is the value of that steady current which, when maintained in each of the two very long, straight, parallel conductors
of negligible cross-section, and placed one meter apart in vacuum, would produce on each of these conductors a force equal to
2 × 10−7 newtons per metre of length.

This definition of the ampere was adopted in 1946. It is a theoretical definition. In practice one must eliminate the effect of the
earth's magnetic field and substitute very long wires by multiturn coils of appropriate geometries. An instrument called the
current balance is used to measure this mechanical force.

The SI unit of charge, namely, the coulomb, can now be defined in terms of the ampere.

When a steady current of 1 A is set up in a conductor, the quantity of charge that flows through its cross-section in 1 s is one
coulomb (1C).
• It turns out that when we have time-dependent currents and/or charges in motion, Newton's third law may not hold
for forces between charges and/or conductors. An essential consequence of the Newton's third law in mechanics is
conservation of momentum of an isolated system. This, however, holds even for the case of time-dependent situations
with electromagnetic fields, provided the momentum carried by fields is also taken into account.

Roget's Spiral for Attraction Between Parallel Currents

Magnetic effects are generally smaller than electric effects. As a consequence, the force between currents is rather small, because
of the smallness of the factor μ. Hence it is difficult to demonstrate attraction or repulsion between currents. Thus for 5 A current
in each wire at a separation of 1 cm, the force per metre would be 5 × 10−4 N, which is about 50mg weight. It would be like pulling
a wire by a string going over a pulley to which a 50mg weight is attached. The displacement of the wire would be quite
unnoticeable.

With the use of a soft spring, we can increase the effective length of the parallel current and by using mercury, we can make the
displacement of even a few mm observable very dramatically. You will also need a constant current.

Supply giving a constant current of about 5 A. Take a soft spring whose natural period of oscillations is about 0.5 − 1s. Hang it
vertically and attach a pointed tip to its lower end, as shown in the figure here. Take some mercury in a dish and adjust the spring
such that the tip is just above the mercury surface. Take the DC current source, connect one of its terminals to the upper end of
the spring, and dip the other terminal in mercury. If the tip of the spring touches mercury, the circuit is completed through
mercury.

Let the DC source be put off beginning with. Let the tip be adjusted so that it just touches the mercury surface. Switch on the
constant current supply and watch the fascinating outcome. The spring shrinks with a jerk, the tip comes out of mercury (just by
a mm or so), the circuit is broken, the current stops, the spring relaxes and tries to come back to its original position, the tip again
touches mercury establishing a current in the circuit, and the cycle continues with tick, tick, tick, . . .. In the beginning, you may
require some small adjustments to get a good effect.

75
Example 4.10: The horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field at a certain place is 3.0 × 10−5 T and the direction of the
field is from the geographic south to the geographic north. A very long straight conductor is carrying a steady current of 1 A. What
is the force per unit length on it when it is placed on a horizontal table and the direction of the current is (a) east to west; (b)
south to north?

Solution
𝐅 = 𝐈𝐥 × 𝐁
F = IlBsin⁡ θ
The force per unit length is
f = F/l = IBsin⁡ θ
(a) When the current is flowing from east to west,
θ = 90∘
Hence, f = I B
= 1 × 3 × 10−5 = 3 × 10−5 N m−1

This is larger than the value 2 × 10−7 Nm−1 quoted in the definition of the ampere. Hence it is important to eliminate the effect of
the earth's magnetic field and other stray fields while standardising the ampere.
The direction of the force is downwards. This direction may be obtained by the directional property of cross product of vectors.
(b) When the current is flowing from south to north,
θ = 0∘
f=0
Hence there is no force on the conductor.

Torque on Current Loop, Magnetic Dipole

Torque on a rectangular current loop in a uniform magnetic field

We now show that a rectangular loop carrying a steady current I and placed in a uniform magnetic field experiences a torque. It
does not experience a net force.

We first consider the simple case when the rectangular loop is placed such that the uniform magnetic field 𝐁 is in the plane of the
loop. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.21 (a).

The field exerts no force on the two arms AD and BC of the loop. It is perpendicular to the arm AB of the loop and exerts a force
𝐅1 on it which is directed into the plane of the loop. Its magnitude is,
F1 = IbB

(a)
Figure 4.21 (a) A rectangular current-carrying coil in uniform magnetic field. The magnetic moment m points downwards. The
torque τ is along the axis and tends to rotate the coil anticlockwise. (b) The couple acting on the coil.

Similarly, it exerts a force 𝐅2 on the arm CD and 𝐅2 is directed out of the plane of the paper.
F2 = IbB = F1

Thus, the net force on the loop is zero. There is a torque on the loop due to the pair of forces 𝐅1 and 𝐅2 . Figure 4.21 (b) shows a
view of the loop from the AD end. It shows that the torque on the loop tends to rotate it anti-clockwise. This torque is (in
magnitude),

76
 (b)

a a
τ ⁡= F1 + F2
2 2
a a
= IbB + IbB = I(ab)B
2 2
= IAB⁡. . ..⁡(4.26)

Where A = ab is the area of the rectangle.

We next consider the case when the plane of the loop is not along the magnetic field but makes an angle with it. We take the angle
between the field and the normal to

(a)

(b)
Figure 4.22 (a) The area vector of the loop ABCD makes an arbitrary angle 𝛉 with the magnetic field. (b) Top view of the
loop. The forces 𝐅𝟏 and 𝐅𝟐 acting on the arms 𝐀𝐁 and 𝐂𝐃 are indicated.

The coil to be angle θ (The previous case corresponds to θ = π/2 ). Figure 4.22 illustrates this general case.

The forces on the arms BC and DA are equal, opposite, and act along the axis of the coil, which connects the centers of mass of BC
and DA. Being collinear along the axis they cancel each other, resulting in no net force or torque. The forces on arms AB and CD
are 𝐅𝟏 and 𝐅𝟐 . They too are equal and opposite, with magnitude,

77
 F1 = F2 = IbB

But they are not collinear! This results in a couple as before. The torque is, however, less than the earlier case when plane of loop
was along the magnetic field. This is because the perpendicular distance between the forces of the couple has decreased. Figure
4.22 (b) is a view of the arrangement from the AD end and it illustrates these two forces constituting a couple. The magnitude of
the torque on the loop is,

a a
τ ⁡= F1 sin⁡ θ + F2 sin⁡ θ
2 2
= IabBsin⁡ θ
= IABsin⁡ θ⁡. . ..⁡(4.27)

As θ → 0, the perpendicular distance between the forces of the couple also approaches zero. This makes the forces collinear and
the net force and torque zero. The torques in Eqs. (4.26) and (4.27) can be expressed as vector product of the magnetic moment
of the coil and the magnetic field. We define the magnetic moment of the current loop as,

𝐦 = I𝐀⁡. . .. (4.28)

Where the direction of the area vector 𝐀 is given by the right-hand thumb rule and is directed into the plane of the paper in Fig.
4.21. Then as the angle between 𝐦 and 𝐁 is θ, Eqs. (4.26) and (4.27) can be expressed by one expression,

𝛕 = 𝐦 × 𝐁⁡. . ..⁡(4.29)

This is analogous to the electrostatic case (Electric dipole of dipole moment 𝐩e in an electric field 𝐄),

𝛕 = 𝐩𝐞 × 𝐄

As is clear from Eq. (4.28), the dimensions of the magnetic moment are [A][L2 ] and its unit is Am2 .

From Eq. (4.29), we see that the torque 𝛕 vanishes when 𝐦 is either parallel or antiparallel to the magnetic field B. This indicates
a state of equilibrium as there is no torque on the coil (this also applies to any object with a magnetic moment 𝐦). When 𝐦 and
𝐁 are parallel, the equilibrium is a stable one. Any small rotation of the coil produces a torque which brings it back to its original
position. When they are antiparallel, the equilibrium is unstable as any rotation produces a torque which increases with the
amount of rotation. The presence of this torque is also the reason why a small magnet or any magnetic dipole aligns itself with
the external magnetic field.

If the loop has N closely wound turns, the expression for torque, Eq. (4.29), still holds, with
𝐦 = NI𝐀⁡. . . ..⁡(4.30)

Example 4.11: A 100 turn closely wound circular coil of radius 10 cm carries a current of 3.2 A. (a) What is the field at the centre
of the coil? (b) What is the magnetic moment of this coil?
The coil is placed in a vertical plane and is free to rotate about a horizontal axis which coincides with its diameter. A uniform
magnetic field of 2 T in the horizontal direction exists such that initially the axis of the coil is in the direction of the field. The coil
rotates through an angle of 90∘ under the influence of the magnetic field. (c) What are the magnitudes of the torques on the coil
in the initial and final position? (d) What is the angular speed acquired by the coil when it has rotated by 90∘ ? The moment of
inertia of the coil is 0.1 kg m2 .

Solution:
(a) From Eq. (4.16)
μ0 NI
B=
2R
Here, N = 100; I = 3.2 A, and R = 0.1 m. Hence,
4π × 10−7 × 102 × 3.2 4 × 10−5 × 10
B ⁡= = ⁡ (using π × 3.2 = 10 )
2 × 10−1 2 × 10−1
−3
⁡= 2 × 10 T
The direction is given by the right-hand thumb rule.
(b) The magnetic moment is given by Eq. (4.30),
m = NIA = NIπr 2 = 100 × 3.2 × 3.14 × 10−2 = 10 A m2
The direction is once again given by the right-hand thumb rule.
(c) τ = |𝐦 × 𝐁|⁡ [from Eq. (4.29)]
78
= mBsin⁡ θ
Initially, θ = 0. Thus, initial torque τi = 0. Finally, θ = π/2 (or 90∘ ). Thus, final torque τf = mB = 10 × 2 = 20 N m.
(d) From Newton's second law,
dω
g = mBsin⁡ θ
dt
where g is the moment of inertia of the coil. From chain rule,
dω dω dθ dω
= = ω
dt dθ dt dθ
Using this,
gωdω = mBsin⁡ θdθ
Integrating from θ = 0 to θ = π/2,
ωf π/2
g∫ ωdω = mB ∫ sin⁡ θdθ
0 0
ω2f π/2
g = −mBcos⁡ θ|0 = mB
2
1/2
2mB 2 × 20 1/2
ωf = ( ) = ( −1 ) = 20 s−1
g 10

Example 4.12: A current-carrying circular loop lies on a smooth horizontal plane. Can a uniform magnetic field be set up in such
a manner that the loop turns around itself (i.e., turns about the vertical axis).
a. A current-carrying circular loop is located in a uniform external magnetic field. If the loop is free to turn, what is its
orientation of stable equilibrium? Show that in this orientation, the flux of the total field (external field + field produced by
the loop) is maximum.
b. A loop of irregular shapes carrying current is located in an external magnetic field. If the wire is flexible, why does it change
to a circular shape?

Solution:
a. No, because that would require τ to be in the vertical direction. But 𝛕 = I𝐀 × 𝐁, and since 𝐀 of the horizontal loop is in the
vertical direction, τ would be in the plane of the loop for any 𝐁.
b. Orientation of stable equilibrium is one where the area vector 𝐀 of the loop is in the direction of external magnetic field. In
this orientation, the magnetic field produced by the loop is in the same direction as external field, both normal to the plane
of the loop, thus giving rise to maximum flux of the total field.
c. It assumes circular shape with its plane normal to the field to maximize flux, since for a given perimeter, a circle encloses
greater area than any other shape.

Circular current loop as a magnetic dipole

In this section, we shall consider the elementary magnetic element: the current loop. We shall show that the magnetic field (at
large distances) due to current in a circular current loop is very similar in behavior to the electric field of an electric dipole. we
have evaluated the magnetic field on the axis of a circular loop, of a radius R, carrying a steady current I. The magnitude of this
field is [(Eq. (4.15)],
μ0 IR2
B=
2(x + R2 )3/2
2

and its direction is along the axis and given by the right-hand thumb rule (Fig. 4.12). Here, x is the distance along the axis from
μ0 R2
the centre of the loop. For x >> R, we may drop the R2 term in the denominator. Thus, B =
2x3
Note that the area of the loop⁡ A = πR2 . Thus,

μ0 IA
B=
2πx 3

As earlier, we define the magnetic moment m to have a magnitude IA,

𝐦 = I𝐀. Hence,
μ 𝐦
𝐁 ⁡≃ 0 3
2πx
μ0 2𝐦
= ⁡. . . ..⁡[4.31(a)]
4π x3

The expression of Eq. [4.31(a)] is very similar to an expression obtained earlier for the electric field of a dipole. The similarity
may be seen if we substitute,
79
μ0 ⁡→ 1/ε0
𝐦 ⁡→ 𝐩e (electrostatic dipole)
𝐁 ⁡→ 𝐄 (electrostatic field)

We then obtain,
2𝐩e
𝐄=
4πε0 x 3

which is precisely the field for an electric dipole at a point on its axis.
It can be shown that the above analogy can be carried further. We had found in Chapter 1 that the electric field on the
perpendicular bisector of the dipole is given by [See Eq. (1.21)],

𝐩e
𝐄≃
4πε0 x 3
where x is the distance from the dipole. If we replace 𝐩 → 𝐦 and μ0 → 1/ε0 in the above expression, we obtain the result for 𝐁
for a point in the plane of the loop at a distance x from the centre. For x >> R,

μ0 𝐦
𝐁≃ ; ⁡x >> R⁡. . ..⁡[4.31(b)]
4π x3

The results given by Eqs. [4.31(a)] and [4.31(b)] become exact for a point magnetic dipole.

The results obtained above can be shown to apply to any planar loop: a planar current loop is equivalent to a magnetic dipole of
dipole moment 𝐦 = I𝐀, which is the analogue of electric dipole moment 𝐩. Note, however, a fundamental difference: an electric
dipole is built up of two elementary units - the charges (or electric monopoles). In magnetism, a magnetic dipole (or a current
loop) is the most elementary element. The equivalent of electric charges, i.e., magnetic monopoles, are not known to exist.

We have shown that a current loop (i) produces a magnetic field (see Fig. 4.12) and behaves like a magnetic dipole at large
distance, and

(ii) is subject to torque like a magnetic needle. This led Ampere to suggest that all magnetism is due to circulating currents. This
seems to be partly true, and no magnetic monopoles have been seen so far. However, elementary particles such as electrons or a
proton also carry an intrinsic magnetic moment, not accounted for by circulating currents.

Figure 4.23 In the Bohr model of hydrogen-like atoms, the negatively charged electron is revolving with uniform speed
around a centrally placed positively charged (+𝐙𝐞) nucleus. The uniform circular motion of the electron constitutes a
current. The direction of the magnetic moment is into the plane of the paper and is indicated separately by ⊗.

The electron of charge (−e)(e = +1.6 × 10−19 C) performs uniform circular motion around a stationary heavy nucleus of charge
+Ze. This constitutes a current I, were,

e
I = …. (4.32)
T

and T is the time period of revolution. Let r be the orbital radius of the electron, and v the orbital speed. Then,

2πr
T= ⁡. . ..⁡(4.33)
v

Substituting in Eq. (4.32), we have I = ev/2πr.

There will be a magnetic moment, usually denoted by μl , associated with this circulating current. From Eq. (4.28) its magnitude
is, μl = Iπr 2 = evr/2.

The direction of this magnetic moment is in the plane of the paper in Fig. 4.23. [This follows from the right-hand rule discussed
earlier and the fact that the negatively charged electron is moving anti-clockwise, leading to a clockwise current.] Multiplying
and dividing the right-hand side of the above expression by the electron mass me , we have,

e
μl ⁡= (m vr)
2me e
e
⁡= l⁡⁡[4.33(a)]
2me

80
Here, l is the magnitude of the angular momentum of the electron about the central nucleus ("orbital" angular momentum).
Vectorially,

e
𝛍𝐥 = − 𝐥⁡. ..⁡⁡[4.34(b)]
2me

The negative sign indicates that the angular momentum of the electron is opposite in direction to the magnetic moment. Instead
of electron with charge (−e), if we had taken a particle with charge (+q), the angular momentum and magnetic moment would
be in the same direction.

μ1 e
= ⁡. . . . (4.35)
l 2me

The ratio is called the gyromagnetic ratio and is a constant. Its value is 8.8 × 1010 C/kg for an electron, which has been verified
by experiments.

The fact that even at an atomic level there is a magnetic moment confirms Ampere's bold hypothesis of atomic magnetic moments.
This, according to Ampere, would help one to explain the magnetic properties of materials. Can one assign a value to this atomic
dipole moment? The answer is Yes. One can do so within the Bohr model. Bohr hypothesised that the angular momentum assumes
a discrete set of values, namely,

nh
l= ⁡. . ..⁡⁡(4.36)
2π

where n is a natural number, n = 1,2,3, … and h is a constant named after Max Planck (Planck's constant) with a value h =
6.626 × 10−34 J s. This condition of discreteness is called the Bohr quantisation condition. We shall discuss it in detail in Chapter
12. Our aim here is merely to use it to calculate the elementary dipole moment. Take the value n = 1, we have from Eq. (4.34)
that,

e
(μl )min ⁡= h
4πme
1.60 × 10−19 × 6.63 × 10−34
=
4 × 3.14 × 9.11 × 10−31
= 9.27 × 10−24 Am2 ⁡. . . ..⁡(4.37)

Where the subscript 'min' stands for minimum. This value is called the Bohr magneton.

Any charge in uniform circular motion would have an associated magnetic moment given by an expression similar to Eq. (4.34).
This dipole moment is labelled as the orbital magnetic moment. Hence the subscript ' l ' in μl . Besides the orbital moment, the
electron has an intrinsic magnetic moment, which has the same numerical value as given in Eq. (4.37). It is called the spin
magnetic moment. But we hasten to add that it is not as though the electron is spinning. The electron is an elementary particle,
and it does not have an axis to spin around like a top or our earth. Nevertheless, it does possess this intrinsic magnetic moment.
The microscopic roots of magnetism in iron and other materials can be traced back to this intrinsic spin magnetic moment.

The Moving Coil Galvanometer

Currents and voltages in circuits have been discussed extensively in Chapters 3. But how do we measure them? How do we claim
that current in a circuit is 1.5 A or the voltage drop across a resistor is 1.2 V ? Figure 4.24 exhibits a very useful instrument for
this purpose: the moving coil galvanometer (MCG).

The galvanometer consists of a coil, with many turns, free to rotate about a fixed axis (Fig. 4.24), in a uniform radial magnetic
field. There is a cylindrical soft iron core which not only makes the field radial but also increases the strength of the magnetic
field. When a current flows through the coil, a torque act on it. This torque is given by Eq. (4.26) to be,

τ = NIAB

Where the symbols have their usual meaning. Since the field is radial by design, we have taken sin⁡ θ = 1 in the above expression
for the torque. The magnetic torque NIAB tends to rotate the coil. A spring Sp provides a counter torque kϕ that balances the
magnetic torque NIAB, resulting in a steady angular deflection ϕ. In equilibrium,
81
kϕ = NIAB

where k is the torsional constant of the spring, i.e., the restoring torque per unit twist. The deflection ϕ is indicated on the scale
by a pointer attached to the spring. We have,

NAB
ϕ=( )I (4.38)
k

Figure 4.24 The moving coil galvanometer. Its elements are described in the text. Depending on the requirement, this
device can be used as a current detector or for measuring the value of the current (ammeter) or voltage (voltmeter).

The quantity in brackets is a constant for a given galvanometer.

The galvanometer can be used in a number of ways. It can be used as a detector to check if a current is flowing in the circuit. We
have come across this usage in the Wheatstone's bridge arrangement. In this usage the neutral position of the pointer (when no
current is flowing through the galvanometer) is in the middle of the scale and not at the left end as shown in Fig.4.24. Depending
on the direction of the current, the pointer deflection is either to the right or the left.

The galvanometer cannot as such be used as an ammeter to measure the value of the current in a given circuit. This is for two
reasons: (i) Galvanometer is a very sensitive device, it gives a full-scale deflection for a current of the order of μA. (ii) For
measuring currents, the galvanometer has to be connected in series, and as it has a large resistance, this will change the value of
the current in the circuit. To overcome these difficulties, one attaches a small resistance rs , called shunt resistance, in parallel
with the galvanometer coil; so that most of the current passes through the shunt. The resistance of this arrangement is,

R G rs /(R G + rs ) ≃ rs ⁡ if ⁡R G >> rs

If rs has small value, in relation to the resistance of the rest of the circuit R c , the effect of introducing the measuring instrument
is also small and negligible. This arrangement is schematically shown in Fig. 4.25. The scale of this ammeter is calibrated and then
graduated to read off the current value with ease. We define the current sensitivity of the galvanometer as the deflection per unit
current. From Eq. (4.38) this current sensitivity is,

ϕ NAB
= (4.39)
I k

82
Figure 4.25: Conversion of a galvanometer (G) to an ammeter by the introduction of a shunt resistance 𝐫𝐬 of very small
value in parallel.

A convenient way for the manufacturer to increase the sensitivity is to increase the number of turns N. We choose galvanometers
having sensitivities of value, required by our experiment.

The galvanometer can also be used as a voltmeter to measure the voltage across a given section of the circuit. For this it must be
connected in parallel with that section of the circuit. Further, it must draw a very small current, otherwise the voltage
measurement will disturb the original set up by an amount which is very large amount. Usually, we like to keep the disturbance
due to the measuring device below one per cent. To ensure this, a large resistance R is connected in series with the galvanometer.
This arrangement is schematically depicted in Fig.4.26. Note that the resistance of the voltmeter is now,
R G + R ≃ R: large

The scale of the voltmeter is calibrated to read off the voltage value with ease. We define the voltage sensitivity as the deflection
per unit voltage. From Eq. (4.38),

ϕ NAB I NAB 1
=( ) =( ) (4.40)
V k V k R

Figure 4.26: Conversion of a galvanometer (𝐆) to a voltmeter by the introduction of a resistance 𝐑 of large value in
series.

An interesting point to note is that increasing the current sensitivity may not necessarily increase the voltage sensitivity. Let us
take Eq. (4.39) which provides a measure of current sensitivity. If N → 2N, i.e., we double the number of turns, then.

ϕ ϕ
→2
I I

Thus, the current sensitivity doubles. However, the resistance of the galvanometer is also likely to double, since it is proportional
to the length of the wire. In Eq. (4.40), N → 2N, and R → 2R, thus the voltage sensitivity,

ϕ ϕ
→
V V

remains unchanged. So, in general, the modification needed for conversion of a galvanometer to an ammeter will be different
from what is needed for converting it into a voltmeter.

83
 Multiple Choice Questions
1. What is the space around a current-carrying conductor, in which its magnetic effect can be experienced called?
A. Electric field B. Magnetic pole
C. Magnetic field D. Charge distribution
Answer: C
Explanation:
The space around a current-carrying conductor, in which its magnetic effect can be experienced is called the magnetic field. When
a current is passed through a conductor, it modifies the space around the conductor and forms a magnetic field.

2. Give the SI unit of the magnetic field.

A. Ampere B. Tesla
C. Oersted D. Weber
Answer: B
Explanation:
The SI unit of the magnetic field is tesla, named after the great scientist Nikola tesla. 1 tesla is 107 times the magnetic field
produced by a conducting wire of length one meter and carrying a current of one ampere at a distance of one meter from it and
perpendicular to it.

3. What is the force exerted by a stationary charge when it is placed in a magnetic field?
A. Zero B. Maximum
C. Minimum D. Depends on the strength of the magnetic field
Answer: A
Explanation:
A stationary charge does not produce any magnetic field and it does not suffer any interaction against the external magnetic field.
Hence the force exerted is zero.

4. What is the work done by the magnetic field on a moving charged particle?
A. Maximum B. Minimum
C. Depends on the strength of the magnetic field D. Zero
Answer: D
Explanation:
As the magnetic force acts in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the velocity or the direction of motion of the charged
particle, the work done is zero.
W = F × dl × cos⁡ 90∘
W=0

5. The north pole of a magnet is brought near a stationary negatively charged conductor. What is the force experienced by it at
the poles?
A. Maximum B. Minimum
C. Zero D. Depend on the nature of the conductor
Answer: C
Explanation:
The north pole of a magnet will not experience any force. This is because a stationary charge does not produce any magnetic field.
Therefore, the force experienced by the magnet at the poles is zero.

6. Identify the condition under which the force acting on a charge moving through a uniform magnetic field is minimum.
A. θ = 90∘ B. θ = 180∘
C. θ = 270 ∘
D. θ = 340∘
Answer: B
Explanation:
When θ = 0∘ or 180∘ , Fm = qvBsin⁡ θ = qvB(0) = 0.
So, when a charge moves parallel or antiparallel to the direction of the magnetic field, it experiences a minimum force.

7. Identify the condition under which the force acting on a charge moving through a uniform magnetic field is maximum.
A. θ = 90∘ B. θ = 180∘
C. θ = 270∘ D. θ = 340∘
Answer: A
84
Explanation:
When θ = 90∘ → Fm is maximum
Thus, a charge experiences a maximum force when it moves perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field. So, this is the
condition when the force experienced is maximum.

8. A positive charge is moving vertically upwards. When it enters a region of magnetic field directed towards north, what is the
direction of the force on the charge?
A. Up B. Down
C. Left D. Right
Answer: C
Explanation:
According to Fleming’s left-hand rule, the magnetic force will act towards left. When the positive charge enters a region of
magnetic field directed towards north, the magnetic force will act towards left.

9. An electron moving with a velocity of 15 ms-1 enters a uniform magnetic field of 0.2 T, along a direction parallel to the field.
What would be its trajectory in this field?
A. Elliptical B. Straight path
C. Helical D. Circular
Answer: B
Explanation:
The electron will continue to follow its straight path because a parallel magnetic field does not exert any force on the electron.
So, there won’t be any change in its trajectory when the electron enters a uniform magnetic field.

10. In a certain arrangement, a proton does not get deflected while moving through a magnetic field region. Under what
conditions is it possible?
A. F = 0 B. F = 180N
C. F = −180N D. F = 3600N
Answer: A
Explanation:
Magnetic force on a proton is Fm = qvBsin⁡(θ).
A proton moving parallel or antiparallel to a magnetic field does not experience any force. Hence, the proton does not get deflected
while moving through a magnetic field region.

11. Which of the following will experience a maximum force, when projected with the same velocity perpendicular to the
magnetic field:
(i) α-particle, and
(ii) β-particle?
A. Both α-particle and β-particle B. None
C. β-particle D. α-particle
Answer: D
Explanation:
F = qvB.
For a-particle, q = 2e, Fa = 2evB
For β-particle, q = e, Fβ = evB.
Thus, the α-particle will experience maximum force.

12. A charged particle in a plasma trapped in a magnetic bottle leaks out after a millisecond. What is the total work done by the
magnetic field during the time the particle is trapped?
A. Maximum B. Minimum
C. Zero D. Depends on the strength of the magnetic field
Answer: C
Explanation:
Work done is zero. Since a magnetic field exerts a force perpendicular to the direction of motion of the charged particle, no work
is done by it on the charged particle. Therefore, the total work done by the magnetic field during the time the particle is trapped
is zero.

13. A proton enters a magnetic field of flux density 5T with a velocity of 5 × 107 ms −1 at an angle of 30∘ with the field. Find the
force on the proton.
A. 0.2 × 10−11 N B. 2 × 10−11 N
85
 C. 20 × 10−11 N D. 200 × 10−11 N
Answer: B
Explanation:
F = qvBsin⁡ θ.
F = 1.6 × 10−19 × 5 × 107 × 5 × sin⁡ 30∘
F = 2 × 10−11 N.

14. Calculate the speed of an electron if it travels in a circular path of radius 50cm in a magnetic field of 5 × 10−3 T.
A. 440 ×
107 m B. 4 × 107 m/s
s
C. 44 × 107 m/s D. 0.4 ×
107 m
s
Answer: C
Explanation:
Magnetic force on the electron = Centripetal force on the electron.
mv 2
evB =
r
eBr
v=
m
(1.6 × 10−19 × 5 × 10−3 × 50 × 10−2 )
v=
(9.1 × 10−31 )
v = 43.95 × 10 m/s ≈ 44 × 107 m/s.
7

15. A chamber is maintained at a uniform magnetic field of 5 × 10−3 T. An electron with a speed of 5 × 107 ms−1 enters the
chamber in a direction normal to the field. Calculate the radius of the path.
A. 15.7cm B. 5.7cm
C. 25.7cm D. 75.7cm
Answer: B
Explanation:
mv
Radius → r =
eB
(9.1 × 10−31 × 5 × 107 )
r=
(1.6 × 10−19 × 5 × 10−3 )
r = 5.7cm
Therefore, the radius of the path is 5.7cm.

16. Which of the following particles cannot be accelerated using a cyclotron?

A. Neutron B. α-particle
C. Deuteron D. Proton
Answer: A
Explanation:
Neutrons, being electrically neutral, cannot be accelerated in a cyclotron. cyclotron is a heavy particle accelerator used to
accelerate charged particles like protons, deuterons, and α-particles to high velocities.

17. If an electron entering at a magnetic field of 2 × 10−2 T has a velocity of 3 × 107 ms−1 and describes a circle of radius
e
8 × 10−3 m, then find the value of of the electron.
m
1011 C 1011 C
A. 1.567 × B. 190 ×
Kg Kg
1011 C 1011 C
C. 18 × D. 1.875 ×
Kg Kg
Answer: D
Explanation:
mv
Radius, r = .
eB
e v
=
m rB
e 3 × 107
=
m (8 × 10−3 × 2 × 10−2 )
e
= 1.875 × 1011 C/Kg.
m

18. A cyclotron has an oscillatory frequency of 12MHz and a dee radius of 50cm. Calculate the magnetic field required to
accelerate deuterons of mass 3.3 × 10−27 Kg and charge 1.6 × 10−19 C.

86
 A. 25.6T B. 75.5T
C. 1.56T D. 7.56T
Answer: C
Explanation:
qB
Cyclotron frequency = .
2πm
(2πmfc )
B=
(q)
(2 × 3.142 × 3.3 × 10−27 × 12 × 106 )
B=
(1.6 × 10−19 )
B = 1.56T

19. The frequency of revolution of a charged particle in a cyclotron does not depend on ‘X’. Identify X.
A. Magnetic field B. Speed of the particle
C. Mass of the particle D. Charge on the particle
Answer: B
Explanation:
The radius of the circular path of the charged particle increases in direct proportion to its speed. Consequently, both its time-
period and frequency of revolution are independent of its speed. So, the ‘X’ is the speed of the particle.

20. Alpha particles of mass 6.68 × 10−27 Kg and charge 3.2 × 10−19 C is accelerated in a cyclotron in which a magnetic field of
1.25T is applied perpendicular to the dees. How rapidly should the electric field between the dees be reversed?
A. 5.25 × 10−8 s B. 955.25 × 10−8 s
C. 55.25 × 10−8 s D. 575.25 × 10−8 s
Answer: A
Explanation:
πm
Time period, t =
qB
(3.14 × 6.68 × 10−27 )
t=
(3.2 × 10−19 × 1.25)
t = 5.25 × 10−8 s.

21. What should be the minimum magnitude of the magnetic field that must be produced at the equator of earth so that a proton
may go round the earth with a speed of 1 × 107 ms−1 ? Earth's radius is 6.4 × 106 m.
A. 16.63 × 10−8 T B. 91.63 × 10−8 T
C. 1.63 × 10 T −8
D. 761.63 × 10−8 T
Answer: C
Explanation:
mv
B=
qr
(1.67 × 10−27 × 107 )
B=
(1.6 × 10−19 × 6.4 × 106 )
B = 1.63 × 10−8 T
Therefore, the minimum magnitude of magnetic field should be 1.63 × 10−8 T.

22. In a cyclotron, a magnetic induction of 1.4T is used to accelerate protons. How rapidly should the electric field between the
dees be reversed?
A. 5.2 × 10−8 s B. 2.34 × 10−8 s
C. 792.25 × 10 s −8
D. 46.25 × 10−8 s
Answer: B
Explanation:
πm
Time period, t =
qB
(3.14 × 1.67 × 10−27 )
t=
(1.6 × 10−19 × 1.4)
t = 2.34 × 10−8 s

23. Give the SI unit of magnetic permeability of free space.

A. T A m-2 B. T A-2 m
C. T A-1 m D. T A m2

87
Answer: C
Explanation:
Magnetic permeability of free space is a measure of the amount of resistance encountered when forming a magnetic field in a
classical vacuum. The SI unit of permeability is weber ampere -1 metre-1 (Wb A-1 m-1) or tesla ampere-1 meter (T A-1 m).

24. State the rule that is used to find the direction of field acting at a point near a current-carrying straight conductor.
A. Cork rule B. The right-hand thumb rule
C. Swimming rule D. Fleming’s rule
Answer: B
Explanation:
The right-hand thumb rule can be used to find the direction of the magnetic field at a point near a current-carrying conductor.
Right hand rule states that, if the thumb of the right hand is in the direction of the current flow, then, the curly fingers show the
direction of the magnetic field.

25. Give the dimensional formula for magnetic permeability of free space.
A. [MLT −2 A−2 ] B. [M2 L−2 A−2 ]
C. [MLL T A ]
2 −2 −2
D. [M −1 LT −2 A−2 ]
Answer: A
Explanation:
Magnetic permeability = Magnetic flux density × [Magnetic field strength] ⁡−1 .
μ = [ML0 T −2 A−1 ] × [M0 L−1 T 0 A1 ]−1
μ = [MLT −2 A−2 ].

26. A wire placed along the north-south direction carries a current of 8 A from south to north. Find the magnetic field due to a 1
cm piece of wire at a point 200 cm north-east from the piece.
A. 14 × 10−9 T B. 1004 × 10−9 T
C. 204.4 × 10 T −9
D. 1.4 × 10−9 T
Answer: D
Explanation:
(μ0 Idlsin⁡(θ))
dB =
(4πr 2 )
(4π × 10−7 × 8 × 1 × 10−2 × sin⁡ 45∘
dB =
(4π × 22)
dB = 1.4 × 10−9 T.

27. Which of the following is not a point of similarity between Biot-Savart law and Coulomb’s law.
A. Both fields depend inversely on the square of the B. They are not a universal law
distance from the source to the point of
observation
C. The principle of superposition does not apply to D. Both are long-range fields
both
Answer: D
Explanation:
The principle of superposition applies to both fields. This is because the magnetic field is linearly related to its source, namely,
the current element and the electrostatic field is related linearly to its source, the electric charge.

28. Give the SI unit of the magnetic field from Biot-Savart law.
A. Ampere B. Tesla
C. Weber D. Gauss
Answer: D
Explanation:
The SI unit of the magnetic field is the tesla (T). One tesla is 107 times the magnetic field produced by a conducting wire of length
one meter and carrying a current of one ampere at a distance of one meter from it and perpendicular to it.

29. Pick out the expression for magnetic field strength at any point at the center of a circular loop from the following?
μo I 2πr μo I 2πr
A. B=[ ] ∫0 dlsin⁡ 90 B. B=[ ] ∫0 dlsin⁡ 45
4πr 4πr
μo I 2πr 2πr
C. B = [ ] ∫0 dlsin⁡ 30 D. B = [μo × 4πr]∫0 dlsin⁡ 90
4πr
Answer: A
88
Explanation:
The magnetic field strength at any point at center of circular loop carrying current I and radius r is given as:
μo I 2πr
B=[ ] ∫ dlsin 90
4πr 0
μo I μo I
It can also be expressed as → B = [ ] × 2πr or B = [ ] direction.
4πr 2r
It is inwards if the current is flowing in the clockwise direction, and it is onwards if the current is flowing in the anticlockwise
direction.

30. Identify the expression for the magnetic field on the axis of circular loop.
μo Ir μo Ir
A. B= 1 × 2πr B. B= 3
4π[(r2 +x2 )2 ] 4π[(r2 +x2 )2 ]
μo Ir μo Ir
C. B= 3 × 2πr D. B= 1 × 4πr
4π[(r2 +x2 )2 ] 4π[(r2 +x2 )2 ]

Answer: C
Explanation:
The expression for magnetic field on the axis of circular loop is given as:
μo Ir
B= 3 × 2πr
4π [(r 2 + x 2 )2 ]
It is towards the loop if the current in it is in clockwise direction and it is away from the loop if current in it is in anticlockwise
direction.

Question/Answer
Very Short
1. Under what condition is the force acting on a charge moving through a uniform magnetic field minimum?
Answer: When the charge moves parallel to the direction of the magnetic field.

2. What Is the nature of the magnetic field in a moving coil galvanometer?

Answer: Radial magnetic field.

3. State two properties of the material of the wire used for suspension of the coil in a moving coil galvanometer.
Answer:
• High tensile strength.
• Small value of torque per unit twist.

4. Write one condition under which an electric charge does not experience a force in a magnetic field.
Answer: When it moves parallel to the direction of the magnetic field.

5. Mention the two characteristic properties of the material suitable for making the core of a transformer.
Answer:
• Low retentivity
• High permeability

6. ⃗ in a magnetic
Write the expression, in a vector form, for the Lorentz magnetic force due to a charge moving with velocity 𝑉
⃗ . What is the direction of the magnetic force?
field 𝐵
⃗ ×𝐵
Answer: The expression is 𝐹 = q (𝑉 ⃗ ). The force is perpendicular to both the velocity and the magnetic field vector.

7. Write the condition under which an electron will move undeflected in the presence of crossed electric and magnetic fields.
Answer: An electron moves perpendicular to both fields.

8. What can be the cause of the helical motion of a charged particle?

Answer: The charge enters the magnetic field at any angle except 0°, 180°, and 90°.

9. Write the underlying principle of a moving coil galvanometer.

Answer: A current-carrying loop placed in a magnetic field experiences a torque.

89
10. A proton and an electron traveling along parallel paths enter a region of the uniform magnetic field, acting perpendicular to
their paths. Which of them will move in a circular path with a higher frequency?
Answer:

The frequency of revolution is given by,

Bq 1
v= ⇒v∝
2πm m
As for me < mp
therefore ve > vp

Short Questions
1. A charged particle having a charge q is moving with a speed of v along the X-axis. It enters a region of space where the electric
field is 𝐸⃗ (E𝑗̂) and a magnetic field 𝐵
⃗ are both present. The particle, on emerging from the region, is observed to be moving,
along the X-axis only. Obtain an expression for the magnitude of 𝐵 ⃗ in terms of v and E. Give the direction of 𝐵
⃗.
Answer: Since the particle continues to move along the X-axis, therefore, the magnetic force acting on it should be completely
balanced by the electric force. Since the electric force acts along the Y-axis, therefore, the magnetic force must be along the Z-axis.
Thus, is equilibrium q E = B q v or v = E/B

2. A stream of electrons traveling with speed v m s-1 at right angles to a uniform magnetic field ‘B’ is reflected in a circular path
of radius ‘r’.

Answer:
Let a stream of electrons be traveling with speed v at right angles to a uniform magnetic field B then force due to magnetic field
provides the required centripetal force which deflects the electron beam along a circular path of radius ‘r’ such that,
where e = electronic charge and m = mass of the electron.

3. Which one of the two, an ammeter or a milliammeter, has a higher resistance and why?
Answer: The shunt resistance connected to convert a galvanometer into an ammeter or a milliammeter is given by the expression
Ig G
S= where S is shunt resistance, G galvanometer resistance, I total current through G and S, and lg galvanometer current. In
I−lg
the case of milliammeter, I is small.
Therefore Smilliammeter > Sammens . Hence the resistance of a milliammeter is greater than that of an ammeter.

4. A straight wire of length L carrying a current l stay suspended horizontally in mid-air in a region where there is a uniform
⃗ . The linear mass density of the wire is l. Obtain the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field.
magnetic field 𝐵
Answer: The magnetic force acting on the straight wire balances the weight of the wire. Therefore, in equilibrium we have Mg =
BIL, here M = L l, therefore we have L l g = BlL or B = l/ l g
This field acts vertically upwards.

5. In the figure below, the straight wire AB Is fixed while the loop Is free to move under the influence of the electric currents
flowing in them. In which direction does the loop begin to move? Give a reason for your

Answer: The loop moves towards the straight wire AB. In the loop in the side nearer to the wire AB current l2 is in the same
direction as l1 and hence attractive force acts. However, on the side farther away from the wire AB current l2 is in the opposite
direction and the force is repulsive. But as the magnitude of attractive force is greater than the repulsive force, the net force is
attractive in nature and hence, the loop moves towards the wire AB.

90
6. A coil of ‘N’ turns, and radius ‘R’ carries a current ‘l’. It is unwound and rewound to make a square coil of side ‘a’ having the
same number of turns (N). Keeping the current ‘l’ same, find the ratio of the magnetic moments of the square coil and the
circular coil.
Answer: The magnetic moment of a current loop is given by the relation M = nlA For the circular loop MC = N/πR2
Now when the coil is unwound and rewound to make a square coil, then,
2πR = 4a or a = πR/2
Hence magnetic moment of the square coil is M5 = NIa2 = NI(πR/2)2 = NIπ2 R2 /4 … (2)
From (1) and (2) we have
MS Nl2π R2 /4 π
= =
MC Nlπ R2 4

7. Write the expression for Lorentz magnetic force on a particle of charge ‘q’ moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B. Show
that no work is done by this force on the charged particle. (CBSE Al 2011)
Answer: The expression is 𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗ ). This force always acts perpendicular to the direction of motion of the charged particle.
Therefore, the angle between 𝐹 and 𝑟 is 90∘. Hence work done is 𝑊 = 𝐹 , 𝑟 = Fr⁡ cos⁡ 90∘ = 0

8. (a) State Biot-Savart law in vector form expressing the magnetic field due to an element ⃗⃗⃗𝑑𝑙 carrying current l at a distance 𝑟
from the element.
Answer:
(a) It states that for a small current element d l the magnetic field at a distance r is given by,
μ I(dL × r̂)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
dB
4π r2

Long Questions
1. (a) A particle of charge ‘q’ and mass ‘m’, moving with velocity 𝑣 is subjected to a uniform magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ perpendicular to
its velocity. Show that the particle describes a circular path. Obtain an expression for the radius of the circular path of the
particle.
(b)Explain, how its path will be affected if the velocity 𝑣 makes an angle (θ ≠ 90°) with the direction of the magnetic field.
Answer: (a) Let a charged particle of charge q and mass m be moving with velocity 𝑣 right angle to the field (i.e., in
the plane of the paper), then magnetic force 𝐹 acting on the charge q will be
⃗ = q(v
F ⃗ ×B⃗)
or
F = qvBsin⁡ 90∘
or
F = qvB … (1)

As this forces fact at a right angle to the velocity V of the charged particle, the slot is unable to change the velocity
but can make the charged particle move In a circular path.
If r is the radius of the circle, then the centripetal force required by the charged particle will be,
mv 2
Fc =
r
This centripetal force Is provided by the magnetic force acting on the charged particle.
i.e., Fc = F
mv2
or = qvB
r
mv
or r =
qB
(b) If (θ ≠ 90°), the velocity 𝑣 of the moving charge can be resolved into two components v cos θ, in the direction of the magnetic
field and make it v sin θ, in the direction perpendicular to the magnetic field. The charged particle under the combined effect of
the two components of velocities wilt cover linear as well as a circular path, i.e., helical path whose axis is parallel to the
magnetic field.

91
2. (a)Obtain the conditions under which an electron does not suffer any deflection while passing through a magnetic field.
(b)Two protons 𝑃 and 𝑄 moving with the same speed pass through the magnetic fields 𝐵 ⃗ 1 and 𝐵
⃗ 2 respectively, at right
⃗ 2 | > |𝐵
angles to the field directions, if |𝐵 ⃗ 1 |, which of the two protons will describe the circular path of smaller radius?
Explain.
Answer: (a) No deflection suffered by the electron if it moves parallel or anti-parallel to the magnetic field.
The radius of the circular path travelled by a charged particle in a magnetic field is given by,
mv
r=
Bq
r1 B2
Therefore, =
r2 B1
⃗ 2 | > |B
As |B ⃗ 1 | therefore, r2 < r1

92
 Chapter- 5 Magnetism and Matter
Magnetic Field and Force

Magnetic Field is an area around the magnet where material or a charge particle experiences the magnetic force.
Magnetic force is the attraction or the repulsive force that arises between the charged particle when placed close to each other.
Now, consider a positive charge 𝑞 moving in a uniform magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ , with a velocity 𝑣
⃗ be 𝜃.
Let the angle between 𝑣 and 𝐵
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐵𝑣sin⁡ 𝜃 = 180∘
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐵 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵
𝐹 ⃗)
𝐼𝑓𝜃 = 90∘ , then sin⁡ 𝜃 = 1
𝑣cos⁡ 𝜃(= 𝑣1 )
𝑣=0

Diagram Showing the Direction of Force, Magnetic Field, and Motion of Charged Particles.
1. The magnitude of force 𝐹 experienced by the moving charge is directly proportional to the magnitude of the charge i.e., 𝐹 ∝ 𝑞
2. The magnitude of force 𝐹 is directly proportional to the component of velocity acting perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic
field, i.e., 𝐹 ∝ 𝑣sin⁡ 𝜃
3. The magnitude of force 𝐹 is directly proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic field applied i.e., 𝐹 ∝ 𝐵 Combining the above
factors, we get 𝐹 ∝ 𝑞𝐵𝑣sin⁡ 𝜃 or 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑞𝐵𝑣sin⁡ 𝜃 where k is a constant of proportionality. Its value is found to be one i.e., 𝑘 = 1.
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐵𝑣sin⁡ 𝜃
⃗)
𝐹 = 𝑞 (𝑣 × 𝐵
⃗ ), which is perpendicular to the plane containing 𝑣 and 𝐵
The direction of 𝐹 is same as the direction of (𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗ . Its direction is given by Right-
handed-Screw Rule or Right-Hand Rule.
⃗ are in the plane of the paper, then according to Right-Hand Rule, the direction of 𝐹 on the positively charged particle will be
If 𝑣 and 𝐵
perpendicular to the plane of paper upwards as shown in the figure and on the negatively charged particle will be perpendicular to the
plane of paper downwards as shown in the figure.

Definition of 𝑩⃗⃗ :
If 𝑣 = 1, 𝑞 = 1 and sin⁡ 𝜃 = 1 or 𝜃 = 90∘,
then from (1), 𝐹 = 1 × 1 × 𝐵 × 1 = 𝐵.
The force experienced by a unit charge travelling with a unit velocity perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field induction at a place
in the magnetic field is equal to the force experienced by a unit charge moving with a unit velocity perpendicular to the direction of magnetic
field induction at that moment in time.

Special Cases:
Case-1: If 𝜃 = 0∘ or 180∘ , then sin⁡ 𝜃 = 0.
∴ From (1)
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵(0) = 0.
That means, a charged particle moving along or opposite to the direction of magnetic field, does not experience any force.

Case-2: If 𝑣 = 0, then
𝐹 = 0.
That means, if a charged particle is at rest in a magnetic field, it experiences no force

Case-3: If 𝜃 = 90∘, then sin⁡ 𝜃 = 1, then

93
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐵𝑣

Note, SI unit of 𝐵⃗ is tesla (𝑇) or Weber /( metre )2 i.e., (𝑊𝑏/𝑚2 ) or 𝑁𝑠𝐶 −1 𝑚−1
Therefore, the magnetic field inducted at a point is said to be one tesla, if a charge of one coulomb while moving at right angle to a magnetic
field, with a velocity of 1 ms−−1 experiences a force of 1𝑁, at that point.
MLT−2
Dimensions of B = = MA−1 T −2
AT LT−1

Lorentz Force

Lorentz force is the force experienced by a charged particle travelling in space where both electric and magnetic fields exist.
Force due to electric field. When a charged particle carrying charge +𝑞 is subjected to an electric field of strength 𝐸⃗ , it experiences a force
given by: - 𝐹𝑒 = 𝑞 𝐸⃗ whose direction is the same as that of 𝐸⃗ .

Force Due to Magnetic Field- If the charged particle is moving in a magnetic field 𝐵⃗, with a velocity 𝑣 it experiences a force given by:-
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗ ) The direction of this force is in the direction of (𝑣 × 𝐵
⃗ ) i.e. perpendicular to the plane containing 𝑣 and 𝐵
⃗ and is directed as
given by Right hand screw rule The total force experienced by the charged particle Due to both the electric and magnetic fields will be given
by:-
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑚 = 𝑞𝐸⃗ + 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵
𝐹𝑒 + 𝐹 ⃗ ) = 𝑞(𝐸⃗ + (𝑣 × 𝐵⃗ ))

Case I:
When 𝑣, 𝐸⃗ and 𝐵
⃗ , all the three are collinear.
The magnetic force on the charged particle is zero since it is travelling parallel antiparallel to the fields. The electric force on the charged
𝑞𝐸⃗
particle will produce acceleration 𝑎 = along the direction of electrical field. As a result, there will be change in the speed of charged
m
particles along the direction of the field.
So, there will be no change in the direction of motion of the charged particle but, the speed, velocity, momentum, and kinetic energy of
charged particle will change.

Case II:
When 𝑣, 𝐸⃗ and 𝐵
⃗ are mutually perpendicular to each other.
𝐹
If 𝐸⃗ and 𝐵
⃗ are such that 𝐹 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑒 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑚 = 0, then acceleration in the particle 𝑎 = = 0. That means the particle will pass through the fields
𝑚
without any change in its velocity. Here
𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝑚 so qE = q ∨ B or
v = E/B

Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Magnetic Field

⃗ , with velocity 𝑣 making an angle 𝜃 with the

Suppose a particle of mass 𝑚 and charge 𝑞, entering a uniform magnetic field induction 𝐵
direction of magnetic field acting in the plane of paper as shown in figure: -

Diagram Showing Motion of A Charged Particle in A Uniform Magnetic Field

Resolving 𝑣 into two rectangular components: vcos 𝜃(= 𝑣1 ) and vsin 𝜃(= 𝑣2 )
Now, component velocity 𝑣2 , the force acting on the charged particle due to magnetic field is: -

94
𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑣 ⃗)
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 × 𝐵
F = 𝑞|𝑣 ⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 × 𝐵| = qv2 Bsin⁡ 90∘ = q(vsin⁡ 𝜃)B
As this force is to remain always perpendicular to 𝑣2 it does not perform any work and hence cannot change the magnitude of velocity 𝑣2 .
It changes only the direction of motion. Due to it, the charged particle moves in a circular path in the magnetic field as shown in the figure:

Diagram Showing the Circular Path Described by A Charged Particle in A Uniform Magnetic Field.

The magnetic field is depicted perpendicular to the plane of the paper, pointing inwards, and the particle is travelling in that plane. When
the particle is at locations A, C, and D, the magnetic force on the particle will be directed along with AO, CO, and DO, respectively, i.e.,
towards the circular path's centre O.
The force F on the charged particle due to magnetic field provides the required
𝑚𝑣 2
Centripetal force = (1)
𝑟
necessary for motion along a circular path of radius 𝑟.
𝑚𝑣22 Bqr
∴ ⁡Bqv2 = or v2 =
𝑟 m
or 𝑣sin⁡ 𝜃 = Bqr/m… (2)
The angular velocity of rotation of the particle in magnetic field will be: -
Vsin⁡ 𝜃 Bqr Bq
𝜔= = =
r mr m
The frequency of rotation of the particle in magnetic field will be: -
𝜔 Bq
v= = … (3)
2𝜋 2𝜋m
The time period of revolution of the particle in the magnetic field will be: -
1 2𝜋m
T= = … (4)
V Bq
We can see from (3) and (4) that 𝑣 and 𝑇 are independent of the particle's velocity 𝑣. It indicates that at a given position, all charged particles
with the same particular charge (mass/charge) but moving at different velocities will complete their circular trajectories at the same time
due to component velocities perpendicular to the magnetic fields.
For component velocity 𝑣cos⁡ 𝜃(= 𝑣1 ) there will be no force on the charged particle in the magnetic field, because the angle between 𝑣1
⃗ is zero. As a result, the charged particle moves at a constant speed 𝑣cos in the direction of the magnetic field.
and 𝐵
As a result of the combined effect of the two component velocities, the charged particle in a magnetic field will traverse both a linear and a
circular course, i.e., the charged particle's path will be helical, with its axis parallel to the magnetic field direction, as shown in figure.

Charge Particle Describing a Helical Path in Uniform Magnetic Field.

95
The linear distance covered by the charged particle in the magnetic field in time equal to one revolution of its circular path (known as pitch
of helix) will be: -
2𝜋m
d = v1 T = vcos⁡ 𝜃
Bq
Important Points
⃗ , it experiences no force; as 𝑣 = 0 and 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐵𝑣sin⁡ 𝜃 = 0.
1. If a charged particle having charge 𝑞 is at rest in a magnetic field 𝐵
2. ⃗ , it also does not experience any force because angle 𝜃 between 𝑣 and 𝐵
If charged particle is moving parallel to the direction of 𝐵 ⃗ is 0∘
or 180 and sin 0 = sin⁡ 180 = 0. Therefore, the charged particle in this situation will continue moving along the same path with the
∘ ∘ ∘

same velocity.
3. If charged particle is moving perpendicular to the direction of 𝐵 ⃗ , it experiences a maximum force which acts perpendicular to the
⃗ as well as 𝑣. Hence this force will provide the required centripetal force and the charged particle will describe a circular
direction 𝐵
mv2
path in the magnetic field of radius 𝑟, given by = Bqv
r

Motion in Combined Electron and Magnetic Fields

1. Velocity Filter
A velocity filter is an arrangement of cross electric and magnetic fields in a region that allows us to choose charged particles with a specific
velocity from a beam, regardless of their mass and charge.
A velocity selector is made up of two slits, 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 , that are held parallel to each other and share a common axis. Uniform electric and
magnetic fields are applied perpendicular to each other and to the axis of the slits in the region between the slits, as shown in the figure.
After passing through slit 𝑆1 , a beam of charged particles of various charges and masses enters the region of the crossed electric field 𝐸⃗ and
magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ , each particle experiences a force due to these fields. Regardless of mass or charge, the force exerted on each particle by
the electric field (𝑞𝐸⃗ ) is equal to and opposite to the force due to magnetic field 𝑞𝑣𝐵.
𝑞𝐸 = 𝑞 ∨ 𝐵 or 𝑣 = 𝐸/𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
nBA/k
⃗⃗⃗⃗
F2
nBA/k

Velocity Filter
Such particles will pass through the slit 𝑆2 unaltered and filtered out of the zone. As a result, even if the charge and mass of the particles
entering from slit 𝑆2 vary, they will all have the same velocity. In a mass spectrograph, the velocity filter is used to determine the mass and
specific charge (charge/mass) of a charged particle.

2. Cyclotron
A cyclotron is a device developed by Lawrence and Livingstone by which positively charged particles like proton, deuteron, alpha particle
etc. can be accelerated.

Principle. The working of the cyclotron is based on the fact that a positively charged particle can be accelerated to sufficiently high energy
with the help of smaller values of the oscillating electric field by making it cross the same electric field time and again with the use of strong
magnetic field.

96
 Cyclotron
Construction
It consists of two 𝐷-shaped hollow evacuated metal chambers 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 called the dees. These dees are placed horizontally with their
diametric edges parallel and slightly separated from each other. The dees are connected to a high-frequency oscillator which can produce
a potential difference of the order of 104 V at frequency ≈ 107 Hz. The two dees are enclosed in an evacuated steel box and are well
insulated from it. The box is placed in a strong magnetic field produced by two pole pieces of strong electromagnets 𝑁, 𝑆. The magnetic
field is perpendicular to the plane of the dees. 𝑃 is a place of ionic source or positively charged particle figure.

Working and Theory

At 𝑃, the positive ion that will be accelerated is created. Assume 𝐷1 is at a negative potential and 𝐷2 is at a positive potential at that time.
As a result, the ion will accelerate toward 𝐷1 . The ion will be in a field-free space after it enters 𝐷1 . As a result, in 𝐷1 , it moves at a constant
speed of 𝑣. The ion, however, will trace a circular path of radius 𝑟 due to a perpendicular magnetic field of intensity B in 𝐷1 , given by:
mv 2
Bqv =
r
mv
⁡∴ ⁡r =
Bq
Time taken by ion to describe a semi-circular path is given by,
𝜋r 𝜋m 𝜋
t= = = = a( constant )
v Bq B(q/m)

Maximum Energy of Positive Ion:

Let 𝑣0 , 𝑟0 = maximum velocity and maximum radius of the circular path followed by the positive ion in cyclotron.
mv20 Bqr0
Then = Bqv0 orv ⁡0 =
r0 m
1 1 𝐵𝑞𝑟0 2 𝐵2 𝑞 2 𝑟02
∴ Max. K.E. = 𝑚𝑣02 = 𝑚( ) =
2 2 𝑚 2𝑚

Cyclotron Frequency:
If T is the time period of oscillating electric field then, T = 2t = 2𝜋m/Bq.
1 Bq
The cyclotron frequency is given by, v = = .
T 2𝜋m
It is also known as the magnetic resonance frequency.
The cyclotron angular frequency is given by, 𝜔c = 2𝜋V = Bq/m

Force on a Current Carrying Conductor Placed in a Magnetic Field

Expression for the force acting on the conductor carrying current placed in a magnetic field.
Consider a straight cylindrical conductor 𝑃𝑄 of length 𝑙, area of cross-section A, carrying current 𝐼 placed in a uniform magnetic field of
induction, 𝐵. Let the conductor be placed along the 𝑋-axis and the magnetic field be acting in 𝑋𝑌 plane making an angle 𝜃 with 𝑋-axis.
Suppose the current 𝐼 flows through the conductor from the end 𝑃 to 𝑄, figure. Since the current in a conductor is due to motion of electrons,
therefore, electrons are moving from the end 𝑄 to 𝑃.

97
 Diagram Showing Force Acting on the Conductor Carrying Current Placed in A Magnetic Field.
Let, ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣𝑑 drift velocity of electron; −e = charge on each electron.
Then magnetic Lorentz force on an electron is given by: - 𝑓 = −e(𝑣 ⃗)
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑑 × 𝐵
If n is the number density of free electrons, that is, the number of free electrons per unit volume of the conductor, then the total number of
free electrons in the conductor is equal to N = n(Aℓ) = nAℓ
The total force on the conductor is equal to the force acting on all free electrons inside the conductor as they move in a magnetic field, and
it is given by:
𝐹 = 𝑁𝑓 = nAℓ[−e(𝑣 ⃗ )] = −nAℓe(𝑣
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑑 × 𝐵 ⃗)
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑑 × 𝐵 (7)
We know that current through a conductor is related with drift velocity by the relation,
I = nAeVd
Iℓ = nAeVd ⋅ ℓ
We represent 𝐼 as current element vector. It acts in the direction of flow of current i.e., along OX. Since 𝐼 and 𝑣𝑑 have opposite directions,
hence we can write,
I⃗ℓ = −nAℓe𝑣d (8)
From (7) and (8), we have,
⃗ ×𝐵
𝐹 = 𝐼ℓ ⃗ ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡(9)
⃗ ×𝐵
⁡|𝐹 | = I|ℓ ⃗|
F = Iℓ Bsin 𝜃 ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡(10)⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡
⃗⃗ and 𝐵
were 𝜃 is the smaller angle between 𝐼𝑙 ⃗

Special case:
Case I: If 𝜃 = 0∘ or 180∘ , sin 𝜃 = 0
From (10), 𝐹 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵(0) = 0 (Minimum)
It indicates that if a current-carrying linear conductor is put parallel to the mag 𝑏⃗ field's direction, it receives no force.

Case II: If 𝜃 = 90∘ , sin⁡ 𝜃 = 𝑞;

From (10), 𝐹 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵 × 1 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵
It indicates that if a current-carrying linear conductor is placed perpendicular to the magnetic field's direction, it will feel maximum force.
Right-handed screw rule can be used to determine the direction.

Torque on a Current-Carrying Coil in a Magnetic Field

Consider a rectangular coil PQRS suspended in a uniform magnetic field of induction 𝐵 ⃗ . Let 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑅𝑆 = 𝑙 and 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑆𝑃 = 𝑏. Let 𝐼 be the
current flowing through the coil in the direction PQRS and 𝜃 be the angle which plane of the coil makes with the direction of magnetic field
figure. The forces will be acting on the four arms of the coil.

98
Let ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹2 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹3 &𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗4 be the forces acting on the four current-carrying arms PQ, QR, RS and SP of the coil.
The force on arm SP is given by,
⃗⃗⃗4 = I(SP
𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗ )orF4 = I(SP)Bsin⁡(180∘ − 𝜃) = IbBsin⁡ 𝜃
The direction of this force is in the direction of (𝑆𝑃⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗ ) i.e., in the plane of coil directed upwards.
The force on the arm 𝑄𝑅 is given by,
𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 = I(QR ⃗ ) or F2 = I(QR)Bsin⁡ 𝜃 = IbBsin⁡ 𝜃
The direction of this force is in the plane of the coil directed downwards.
Because the forces ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹2 and ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹4 are of similar size and act in opposing directions the same straight line, they cancel each other out, leaving the
coil with no impact.
Now, the force on the arm PQ is given by,
𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗1 = I(PQ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⊥ 𝐵
⃗ )orF1 = I(PQ)Bsin⁡ 90∘ = IℓB(∵ PQ ⃗)
This force is projected outwards, perpendicular to the plane of the coil (i.e., perpendicular to the plane of paper directed towards the
reader). Force on the arm RS is given by,
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
𝐹3 = I(RS ⃗ )orF3 = I(PQ)Bsin⁡ 90∘ = I𝐶 B(∵ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗)
RS ⊥ 𝐵
The direction of this force is perpendicular to the plane of paper directed away from the reader i.e. into the plane of the coil.
The forces acting on the arms 𝑃𝑄 and RS are equal, parallel, and acting in opposite directions with separate lines of action, forming a pair
that causes the coil to revolve anticlockwise around the dotted line as axis.
The torque on the coil (equal to moment of couple) is given by:
𝜏 = either force × arm of the couple.
The forces 𝐹1 and 𝐹3 acting on the arms 𝑃𝑄 and RS will be as shown in figure when seen from the top.
Arm of couple = 𝑆𝑇 = PScos 𝜃 = bcos 𝜃
𝜏 = IℓB × bcos⁡ 𝜃 = IBAcos⁡ 𝜃(∵ ℓ × b = A = area of coil
PQRS)
If the rectangular coil has 𝑛 turns, then
𝜏 = nIBAcos⁡ 𝜃
Note that if the normal drawn on the plane of the coil makes an angle with the direction of magnetic field, then
𝜃 + 𝛼 = 90∘ or 𝜃 = 90∘ − 𝛼; And cos⁡ 𝜃 = cos⁡(90∘ − 𝛼) = sin⁡ 𝛼
Then the torque is given by,
𝜏 = nIBAsin 𝛼 = MBsin 𝛼 = |𝑀 ⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗ | =∣ nIvec A × 𝐵
⃗ ∣ where nIA = M = magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment of the rectangular
current loop.
𝜏=𝑀 ⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗ = nI(𝐴 × 𝐵
⃗)
This torque tends to rotate the coil about its own axis. Its value changes with angle between plane of coil and direction of magnetic field.

Special Cases:
Case1: If the coil is set with its plane parallel to the direction of magnetic field 𝐵, then 𝜃 = 0∘ and cos⁡ 𝜃 = 1.
∴ Torque, 𝜏 = nIBA(1) = nIBA( Maximum).
This is the case with a radial field.

Case 2: If the coil is set with its plane perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field 𝐵, then 𝜃 = 90∘ and cos⁡ 𝜃 = 0. ⁡ ∴ Torque, 𝜏 =
𝑛𝐼𝐵𝐴(0) = 0( Minimum ).

Moving Coil Galvanometer

A moving coil galvanometer is an instrument used for the detection and measurement of small electric currents.
99
Principle:
Its operation is based on the fact that a current-carrying coil encounters a torque when put in a magnetic field.

Construction:
It is made up of a coil PQRS1 with a large number of turns of insulated copper wire, as shown in the diagram. The coil is looped around a
rectangular or circular non-magnetic metallic frame (typically brass). A phosphor bronze strip suspends the coil from a movable torsion
head H in a uniform magnetic field produced by two powerful cylindrical magnetic pole pieces N and S.

Moving Coil Galvanometer

The coil's bottom end is attached to one end of quartz or phosphor bronze hairspring S'. The terminal T2 is attached to the other end of this
very elastic spring S'. If the coil is circular, the core is spherical; if the coil is rectangular, the core is cylindrical. It is held so tightly within
the coil that it can freely rotate without hitting the iron core or pole parts. As a result, the magnetic field associated with the coil is a radial
field. i.e., the coil's plane remains parallel to the magnetic field direction in all locations. The phosphor bronze strip has a concave mirror
affixed to it. Using the lamp and scale arrangement, we can note the coil's deflection. To eliminate disruption from the air and other factors,
the entire setup is housed in a nonmetallic container. At the base of the case, there are levelling screws.
For us, the spring S' performs three functions:
(i) It allows current to travel via the coil PQRS1.
(ii) It maintains the coil's position, and
(iii) it creates the twisted coil's restoring torque.

𝑇1 is the terminal to which the torsion head is connected. Terminals 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 can be used to connect the galvanometer to the circuit.
Theory:
Suppose the coil PQRS1 is suspended freely in the magnetic field.
Let,
𝐼 = length PQ or RS1 of the coil,
𝑏 = breadth 𝑄𝑅 or 𝑆1 𝑃 of the coil,
n = number of turns in the coil.
Area of each turn of the coil, A = ℓ × b.
Let, B = strength of the magnetic field in which coil is suspended. I = current passing through the coil in the direction as shown in the figure.
Let be the angle formed by the normal drawn on the plane of the coil with the magnetic field direction at any given time.
As previously stated, when a rectangular coil carrying current is put in a magnetic field, it experiences a torque equal to 𝜏 = nIBAsin⁡ 𝛼.
If the magnetic field is radial i.e., the plane of the coil is parallel to the direction of the magnetic field then 𝜃 = 90∘ and sin⁡ 𝛼 = 1, ⁡𝜏 = nIBA.

100
The coil rotates as a result of the torque. Twists occur in the phosphor bronze strip. As a result, a restoring torque is applied to the phosphor
bronze strip, attempting to return the coil to its previous position. Let 𝜃 be the twist produced in the phosphor bronze strip due to rotation
of the coil and k be the restoring torque per unit twist of the phosphor bronze strip, then total restoring torque produced 𝑘 = 𝜃. In the
equilibrium position of the coil, deflecting torque = restoring torque.
⁡∴ ⁡nIBA = k𝜃
k
𝐼= 𝜃orI = G𝜃
nBA
k
Where = G = a =constant for a galvanometer. It is known as galvanometer constant.
nBA
Hence, I ∝ 𝜃
It means that the deflection caused by the galvanometer is proportionate to the current flowing through it. The scale on such a galvanometer
is linear.
The deflection produced in a galvanometer when a unit current runs through it is defined as the current sensitivity of the galvanometer.
If 𝜃 is the deflection in the galvanometer when current / is passed through it, then Current sensitivity,
𝜃 nBA k
Is = = ⁡ (∵ I = 𝜃)
I k nBA
The unit of current sensitivity is rad. 𝐴—1 or div. 𝐴—1
A galvanometer's voltage sensitivity is defined as the deflection produced when a unit voltage is applied across the two terminals of the
galvanometer.
Let, V = voltage applied across the two terminals of the galvanometer,
𝜃 = deflection produced in the galvanometer. Then, voltage sensitivity, 𝑣𝑠 = 𝜃N
If 𝑅 = resistance of the galvanometer, 𝐼 = current through it. Then 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝜃 nBA I
Voltage sensitivity, VS = = = S , the unit of Vs israd ⁡−1 or div. V −1 .
IR kR R

Conditions for a Sensitive Galvanometer

A galvanometer is said to be very sensitive if it shows large deflection even when a Conditions for a Sensitive Galvanometer:
A galvanometer is said to be very sensitive if it shows large deflection even when a small current is passed through it, From the theory of
nBA
galvanometer, 𝜃 = I. For a given value of I, will be large if 𝑛𝐵𝐴/𝑘 is large. It is so if (a) 𝑛 is large (b) 𝐵 is large (c) 𝐴 is large and (d) 𝑘 is
k
small.
a. The value of 𝑛 cannot be increased beyond a particular point since it causes the galvanometer's resistance to grow, as well as making
the galvanometer bulky. This has the effect of lowering sensitivity. As a result, 𝑛 cannot be increased indefinitely.
b. The value of 𝐵 can be increased by using a strong horseshoe magnet.
c. Because the coil will not be in a uniform magnetic field if the value of 𝐴 is increased beyond a certain point, the value of 𝐴 cannot be
increased beyond that point. Furthermore, it will make the galvanometer bulky and difficult to handle.
d. It is possible to reduce the value of k. The nature of the material used as a suspension strip determines the value of 𝑘. For quartz or
phosphor bronze, the value of 𝑘 is relatively low. As a result, a suspension strip made of quartz or phosphor bronze is utilised in
sensitive galvanometers.

Ammeter

An ammeter is a low resistance galvanometer. It is used to measure the current in a circuit in amperes.

Circuit Diagram of Ammeter

Using a low resistance wire in parallel with the galvanometer, a galvanometer can be transformed into an ammeter. The resistance of this
wire (also known as the shunt wire) is determined by the ammeter's range can be computed as follows:
Let
G = Resistance of galvanometer,
n = Number of scale divisions in the galvanometer,
101
K = Figure of merit or current for one scale deflection in the galvanometer.
Then the current which produces full scale deflection in the galvanometer, 𝐼𝑔 = 𝑛𝐾.
Let I be the maximum current be measured by a galvanometer 𝐼𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗ = 0.
To accomplish this, a shunt of resistance 𝑆 is connected in parallel with the galvanometer, with a portion of the total current 𝐼𝑔 flowing
through the galvanometer and the remainder (𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 ) flowing through the shunt figure.
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 𝐼𝑔 𝐺 = (𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 )𝑆
𝐼𝑔
𝑆=( )𝐺
𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔

When this value of shunt resistance 𝑆 is coupled in series with a galvanometer, it functions as an ammeter with a range of 0 to I ampere.
The galvanometer's scale, which was recording the highest current Ig before conversion to the ammeter, is now the same scale. When this
value of shunt resistance 𝑆 is coupled in series with a galvanometer, it functions as an ammeter with a range of 0 to I ampere. The same
galvanometer scale that was recording the highest current I𝑔 before conversion into volts is now in use.

Note:
Initial reading of each division of the galvanometer to be used as ammeter is 𝐼𝑔 /𝑛 and the reading of the same each division after conversion
into ammeter is 𝐼/𝑛.
The effective resistance RP of ammeter (i.e., shunted galvanometer) will be
1 1 1 S+G GS
= + = orR P =
RP G S GS G+S
The combined resistance of the galvanometer and the shunt is very low since the shunt resistance is low, hence the ammeter has a
significantly lower resistance than the galvanometer. The resistance of a perfect ammeter is zero.

Voltmeter

A voltmeter is a galvanometer with high resistance. It's a voltmeter that measures the potential difference between two locations in a
circuit.
A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in series with the galvanometer. The value of the
resistance depends upon the range of voltmeter and can be calculated as follows:
Let,
𝑮 = Resistance of galvanometer,
𝐧 = Number of scale divisions in the galvanometer
𝐊 = Figure of merit of galvanometer i.e. current for one scale deflection of the galvanometer.
Current which produces full scale deflection in the galvanometer 𝐼𝑔 = 𝑛𝐾. Let V be the potential difference to be measured by the
galvanometer. To accomplish so, a resistance 𝑅 of this value is connected in series with the galvanometer, resulting in a current I 𝑔 flowing
through the galvanometer when a potential difference V is supplied between the terminals 𝐴 and 𝐵 figure.

Circuit Diagram of Voltmeter

Now, total resistance of voltmeter = 𝐺 + 𝑅
V V
From Ohm's law, Ig = orG +R =
G+R Ig
or
V
R= −G
Ig
When this 𝑅 value is linked in series with a galvanometer, it functions as a voltmeter with a range of 0 to V volts. Now, with two voltmeters,
the same scale of the galvanometer that was recording the greatest potential I g G before conversion will record the potential 𝑉 after
conversion. It means that each division of the voltmeter's scale will indicate a higher potential than the galvanometers. Effective resistance
RS of converted galvanometer into voltmeter is:
Rs = G + R

102
Because a high resistance R is linked in series with the galvanometer in a voltmeter, the resistance of the voltmeter is much higher than
that of the galvanometer. An ideal voltmeter's resistance is infinite.

Biot-savart's Law

According to Biot-Savart's law, the magnitude of the magnetic field induction dB (also called magnetic flux density) at a point 𝑃 due to
current element depends upon the factors at stated below:
i. dB ∝ I
ii. dB ∝ dℓ
iii. dB ∝ sin 𝜃
1
iv. dB ∝
r2
Combining these factors, we get:

Idℓ sin 𝜃
dB ⁡∝
r2
Idℓ sin 𝜃
dB ⁡= K ⁡. . . . . (1)
r2

Biot-Savart’s Law
Where K is a constant of proportionality. Its value depends on the system of units chosen for the measurement of the various quantities
and also on the medium between point P and the current element. When there is free space between current element and point, then:

In SI units,
𝜇
K = 0 and in cgs system K = 1… (2)
4𝜋
where 𝜇𝑜 is absolute magnetic permeability of free space.
𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 WbA−1 m−1 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 TA−1 m
(∵ 1 T = 1𝑊𝑏𝑚−2 )
In SI units,
𝜇0 Idℓsin⁡ 𝜃
dB = × … (3)
4𝜋 r2
In cgs system,
Idℓsin⁡ 𝜃
dB =
r2
The Direction of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑩
From (4), the direction of dB must be the same as the direction of the cross-product vector, dr. The right-handed screw rule, often known
as the Right Hand Rule, is a representation of this. In this case, dB is perpendicular to the plane containing d and r and is pointing inwards.
If the current element is to the left of the point 𝑃, 𝑑𝐵 will be perpendicular to the plane containing 𝑑 and 𝑟 and headed outwards.

Some Important Features of Biot Savart's Law:

1 Biot Savart's law is valid for a symmetrical current distribution.
2 Biot Savart's law is applicable only to very small length conductor carrying current.
3 This law cannot be easily verified experimentally as the current-carrying conductor of very small length cannot be obtained
practically.
4 This law is analogous to Coulomb's law in electrostatics.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is perpendicular to both 𝐼𝑑𝑙
5 The direction of 𝑑𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑟.
6 If 𝜃 = 0∘ i.e. the point P lies on the axis of the linear conductor carrying current (or on the wire carrying current) then, dB =
𝜇0 Idℓsin⁡ 0∘
= 0 That means there is no magnetic field induction at any point on the thin linear current carrying conductor.
4𝜋 r2
𝜇0 Idℓ
7 If 𝜃 = 90∘ i.e., the point P lies at a perpendicular position w.r.t. current element, then dB = , which is maximum.
4𝜋 r2

103
 8 If 𝜃 = 0∘ or 180∘ , then 𝑑𝐵⃗ = 0 i.e., minimum
The magnetic field's Biot-law Savart's and the electrostatic field's Coulomb's law have similarities and differences.

Similarities:
i. Both the laws for fields are long range, since in both the laws, the field at a point varies inversely as the square of the distance from
the source to point of observation.
ii. Both the fields obey superposition principles.
⃗⃗⃗ , just as the electric field is linear in its source, the electric charge 𝑞.
iii. The magnetic field is linear in the source 𝐼𝑑𝑙

Magnetic Field Due to a Straight Conductor Carrying Current

Figure 1 shows a straight wire conductor 𝑋𝑌 laying in the plane of paper carrying current 𝐼 in the direction of 𝑋 to 𝑌. Let 𝑃 be a point that
is perpendicular to the straight wire conductor at a distance of a. 𝑃𝐶 clearly equals a. Allow small current elements to form the conductor.
Consider the straight wire conductor at O with a small current element ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑑𝑙 . Let r be P's position vector relative to the current element, and
be the angle between Id and r. Let's say CO = 𝑙.

Diagram Showing Magnetic Field Due to a Current Carrying Conductor.

According to Biot-Savart's law, the magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝐵 (i.e., magnetic flux density or magnetic induction) at point P due to current element
⃗⃗⃗ is given by:
𝐼𝑑𝑙
𝜇0 𝐼(𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟 )
⃗ =
𝑑𝐵
4𝜋 𝑟3
𝜇0 Iℓ sin 𝜃
or dB = × 2 …(5)
4𝜋 r
In rt. angled △ POC,𝜃 + 𝜙 = 90∘ or 𝜃 = 90∘ − 𝜙
∴ sin⁡ 𝜃 = sin⁡(90∘ − 𝜙) = cos⁡ 𝜙…(6)
𝑎 𝑎
Also, cos⁡ 𝜙 = or ⁡𝑟 = …(7)
𝑟 cos⁡ 𝜙
ℓ
And, tan 𝜙 = or ℓ = atan 𝜙
a
On Differentiating it, we get:-
dℓ = asec 2 ⁡ 𝜙d𝜙…(8)
Putting the values in (5) from (6), (7) and (8), we get:
𝜇0 I(asec2 ⁡ 𝜙d𝜙)cos⁡ 𝜙 𝜇0 I
dB = a2
= cos⁡ 𝜙d𝜙 (9)
4𝜋 ( ) 4𝜋 a
cos2 ⁡ 𝜙

The direction of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝐵 , according to right hand thumb rule, will be perpendicular to the plane of paper and directed inwards. As all the current
elements of the conductor will also produce magnetic field in the same direction, therefore, the total magnetic field at point 𝑃 due to current
through the whole straight conductor 𝑋𝑌 can be obtained by integrating Eq. (9) within the limits −𝜙1 = 𝜙2 = 90∘ :
𝜇0 I 𝜇0 I
= [sin⁡ 𝜙2 − sin⁡(−𝜙1 )] = (sin⁡ 𝜙1 + sin⁡ 𝜙2 )
4𝜋 a 4𝜋 a

Special Cases:
i. When the conductor 𝑋𝑌 is of infinite length and the point 𝑃 lies near the centre of the conductor then,
𝜙1 = 𝜙2 = 90∘
𝜇0 I 𝜇0 2I
So, B = [sin⁡ 90∘ + sin⁡ 90∘ ] = .
4𝜋 a 4𝜋 a

104
ii. When the conductor 𝑋𝑌 is of infinite length but the point 𝑃 lies near the end 𝑌 (or 𝑋 ) then,
𝜙1 = 90∘ and 𝜙2 = 0∘
𝜇0 I 𝜇0 I
B= [sin⁡ 90∘ + sin⁡ 0∘ ] =
4𝜋 a 4𝜋 a
The magnetic field due to an infinite long linear conductor carrying current near its centre is twice than that near one of its ends.
iii. If length of conductor is finite, say 𝐿 and point 𝑃 lies on right bisector of conductor, then
L/2 L
𝜙1 = 𝜙2 = 𝜙andsin⁡ 𝜙 = =
2
√a + (L/2) 2 √4a + L2
2
𝜇0 I 𝜇0 2I 𝜇0 2I L
Then, B = [sin⁡ 𝜙 + sin⁡ 𝜙] = sin⁡ 𝜙 =
4𝜋a 4𝜋 a 4𝜋 a √4a2 +L2
⃗ and 𝑟 for each element of the straight wire conductor are parallel. Therefore, dℓ
iv. When point P lies on the wire conductor, then dℓ ⃗ ×𝑟=
0. So, the magnetic field induction at 𝑃 = 0.

Direction of Magnetic Field:

Magnetic field lines caused by a current-carrying straight conductor take the shape of concentric circles with the conductor in the centre,
lying in a plane perpendicular to the straight conductor. If current flows from 𝐴 to 𝐵 in a straight conductor, the direction of magnetic field
lines is anticlockwise, and if current flows from B to 𝐴 in a straight conductor, the direction is clockwise (b). Right Hand Thumb Rule or
Maxwell's cork screw rule determines the direction of magnetic field lines.

Direction of Magnetic Field

Right hand thumb rule.: According to this rule, if we imagine the linear wire conductor to be held in the grip of the right hand so that the
thumb points in the direction of current, then the curvature of the fingers around the conductor will represent the direction of magnetic
field lines, figure (a) and (b).

Right Hand Thumb Rule

Magnetic Field at the Centre of the Circular Coil Carrying Current

Consider a circular coil with a radius of r and a centre of O that is lying in the plane of the paper. Assume I is the current flowing in the
circular coil in the direction depicted in Figure. Assume the circular coil is made up of a huge number of current elements, each measuring
dl in length.

105
 Magnetic Field in the Centre of the Circular Coil Carrying Current.
The magnetic field in the centre of the circular coil due to the current element Idl, according to Biot-Savart’s law is given by
𝜇0 𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟 𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑟sin⁡ 𝜃 𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙sin⁡ 𝜃
⃗ =
𝑑𝐵 𝐼 ( 3 ) or 𝑑𝐵 = =
4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟3 4𝜋 𝑟 2
Where 𝑟 is the position vector from point 𝑂. Now, the angle between 𝑑𝑙 and 𝑟 is 90∘, therefore,
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙sin⁡ 90∘ 𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵 = or 𝑑𝐵 = … (12)
4𝜋 𝑟2 4𝜋 𝑟 2
The direction of dB in this situation is perpendicular to the plane of the current loop and inwards. Because current flowing through all
parts of the circular coil contributes to the magnetic field in the same direction, the total magnetic field at point O due to current flowing
through the entire circular coil may be calculated by integrating eq (12). Thus
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵 = ∫ ⁡ 𝑑𝐵 = ∫ ⁡ = ∫ ⁡ 𝑑𝑙
4𝜋 𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑟 2
And we know, ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = total length of the circular coil = circumference of the current loop = 2𝜋𝑟
𝜇0 𝐼 𝜇0 2𝜋𝑙
𝐵= 2
. 2𝜋𝑟 =
4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟
Now if this coil consists of 𝑛 number of loops, then
𝜇0 2𝜋𝑛𝐼 𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵= = × 2𝜋𝑛
4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋𝑟
𝜇0 𝐼
i.e., 𝐵 = × angle subtended by the coil at the center.
4𝜋𝑟

⃗⃗
Direction of 𝑩
Right hand rule determines the direction of the magnetic field at the centre of a circular current loop If we hold the thumb of the right hand
perpendicular to the grip of the fingers in such a way that the curvature of the fingers represents the direction of current in the wire loop,
the thumb of the right hand will point in the direction of magnetic field near the current loop’s centre.

Direction of Magnetic Field Lines

Amperes’s Circuital Law

Consider a surface with a boundary C and current I flowing across it. Allow a huge number of small line elements, each with a length of dl,
to make up the boundary C. The direction 𝑑𝑙 of the tiny line element under examination is tangential to its direction of dl. If 𝐵𝑡 is the

106
tangential component of the magnetic field induction at this element, then 𝐵𝑡 and 𝑑𝑙 are both operating in the same direction, with no angle
between them. For that element, we multiply 𝐵𝑡 by dl. Then
⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙
𝐵𝑡 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵

When the length dl is small and the products of all closed boundary components are summed together, the sum tends to be an integral
around the closed route or loop (i.e., ∮⁡1 )

As a result, ∑ of 𝐵⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 over all items on a closed route = ∮⁡𝐵

⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = B’s line integral around the closed route or loop whose boundary
corresponds with the closed path’s border. Ampere’s circuital law states that,
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼…… (19)
∮⁡⁡𝐵

where I is the total current flowing through the closed route or loop and 𝜇0 is the space’s absolute permeability. Thus, the line integral of
magnetic field induction 𝐵⃗ around a closed channel in vacuum equals 𝜇0 times the total current I threading the closed path, according to
Ampere’s circuital equation.

Where 𝐼 is the total current flowing through the closed route or loop and 𝜇0 is the space’s absolute permeability. Thus, the line integral of
magnetic field induction 𝐵⃗ around a closed channel in vacuum equals 𝜇0 times the total current I threading the closed path, according to
Ampere’s circuital equation.

The Right-Hand Rule specifies a sign convention for the sense of a closed path to be travelled while taking the line integral of the magnetic
field (i.e., integration direction) and current threading it. According to it, if the curvature of the fingers of the right hand is perpendicular
to the thumb of the right hand, and the curvature of the fingers represents the sense, the boundary is traversed in a closed path or loop for
∮⁡𝐵⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 , then the direction of the thumb gives the sense in which the current I is considered positive.
According to sign convention, 𝐼1 is positive and 𝐼2 is negative for the closed path depicted in figure. Then, according to Ampere’s circuital
⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒 where 𝐼𝑒 is the total current encompassed by the loop or closed route.
Law, ∮⁡𝐵

Diagram Depicting Current I1 is Positive and I2 is Negative for the Closed Path.
The size and geometry of the closed route or loop enclosing the current have no bearing on the relationship (19).

Magnetic Field Due to Infinite Long Wire Carrying Current

Consider an infinitely long straight line in a paper plane. Let I be the stream that flows from X to Y. A magnetic field is generated that has
the same magnitude at all places at the same distance from the wire, i.e., the magnetic field is cylindrically symmetric around the wire.

107
 Magnetic Field Due To An Infinitely Long Current Carrying Wire.

Let P represent a location r away from the straight wire, and B represent the magnetic field at P. It will behave perpendicular to the magnetic
field line that passes through P. Consider an amperian loop as a circle of radius r that is perpendicular to the plane of the paper and has its
centre on wire, with point P lying on the loop, as shown in figure. At all places throughout this loop, the magnitude of the magnetic field is
the same. The magnetic field B at P will be perpendicular to the circular loop's circumference. The amperian route will be integrated in an
anticlockwise direction. Then B and d are both moving in the same direction. Around the closed loop, the line integral of B is
⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = ∮⁡⁡𝐵𝑑𝑙cos⁡ 0∘ = 𝐵∮⁡⁡𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵2𝜋𝑟
∮⁡⁡𝐵
According to the sign convention, I is positive here.
Applying Ampere's circuital law
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼 or 𝐵2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝐼 or 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐼 = 𝜇0 2𝐼….. (20)
∮⁡⁡𝐵
2𝜋𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟

Magnetic Field Due to Current Through a Very Long Circular

Consider an infinitely long cylinder with axis 𝑋𝑌 and a radius 𝑅. Let's assume I current is flowing through the cylinder. Due to current
flowing through the cylinder, a magnetic field is generated in the form of circular magnetic lines of force, the centres of which lie on the
cylinder's axis. These force lines run parallel to the cylinder's length.

Case No. 1: Outside the cylinder is Point 𝑃. Let 𝑟 be the perpendicular distance between point P and the cylinder axis, where r > R. Let 𝐵 ⃗
denote the induction of the magnetic field at 𝑃. It is acting in the direction of the magnetic line of force at 𝑃, which is directed into the paper.
⃗ and 𝑑𝑙 are acting in the same direction in this case.
𝐵
Using the Ampere circuital rule, we've arrived at
⃗ = 𝜇0 Ior⁡ ∮⁡⁡Bdℓcos⁡ 0∘ = 𝜇0 I
⃗ ⋅ 𝑑ℓ
∮⁡⁡𝐵
or ∮⁡⁡Bdℓ = 𝜇0 IorB2𝜋r = 𝜇0 I

Case No. 2: Here 𝑟 < 𝑅. so have two possibilities.

I. If the current only flows along the cylinder's surface, as it does if the conductor is a cylindrical sheet of metal, current via the closed
route 𝐿 is zero. 𝐵 = 0 is obtained using the Ampere circular law.
II. If the current is evenly distributed over the conductor's cross section, the current through closed route 𝐿 is given by
I Ir 2
I′ = 2 × 𝜋r 2 = 2
𝜋R R
108
Applying Ampere's circuital law, we have
𝜇 𝜇 Ir 2
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜇r I, ⁡ or ⁡2𝜋rB = 𝜇0 𝜇r I′ = 0 r
⃗ ⋅ dℓ
∮⁡⁡𝐵
R2
𝜇0 𝜇r Ir
B= i. e. , B ∝ r
2𝜋R2
For a current flowing through a solid cylinder, if we draw a graph between magnetic field induction B and distance from the axis of the
cylinder, we get a curve of the type illustrated in figure.

Graph Between Magnetic Field Induction B and Distance from the Axis of the Cylinder.
The magnetic field induction is greatest for a point on the surface of a solid cylinder carrying current and is zero for a point on the cylinder's
axis.

Force Between Two Parallel Conductors Carrying Current

Consider two infinitely long straight conductors, 𝐶1 𝐷1 and 𝐶2 𝐷2 , that carry currents 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 in the same direction. In the plane of paper,
they are kept parallel to each other at a distance of 𝑟. The magnetic field is created by current flowing through each conductor in the picture.
Because each conductor is in the magnetic field created by the other, each conductor is subjected to a force.

Force Between Two Parallel Current Carrying Conductors.

Due to current 𝐼1 flowing through 𝐶1 𝐷1, magnetic field induction at a point P on conductor 𝐶2 𝐷2 is given by
𝜇0 2I1
B1 =
4𝜋 r
The magnetic field 𝐵1 is perpendicular to the plane of paper and directed inwards, according to the right hand rule. Because the current-
carrying conductor 𝐶2 𝐷2 is located in the magnetic field 𝐵1 (created by the current via 𝐶1 𝐷1 ), the unit length of 𝐶2 𝐷2 will be subjected to a
force.
F2 = B1 I2 × 1 = B1 I2
Putting the value of 𝐵1 , we have
𝜇0 2I1 I2
F2 = ⋅
4𝜋 r
It indicates that two parallel linear conductors carrying currents in the same direction are attracted to one another.
One ampere is defined as the amount of current that, when flowing through two parallel uniform long linear conductors positioned one
meter apart in free space, attracts or repels each other with a force of 2 × 10−7 𝑁 N per metre of their length.

The Solenoid

A solenoid is made out of an insulated long wire that is tightly wrapped into a helix shape. When compared to its diameter, it has a relatively
long length.

Magnetic Field Due to a Solenoid

109
Consider a circular cross-sectioned long straight solenoid. Each of the solenoid's two turns is insulated from the other. When current is
passed through the solenoid, each turn may be seen of as a current-carrying circular loop, and therefore a magnetic field is produced. The
magnetic fields owing to neighbouring loops oppose each other at a location outside the solenoid, whereas the magnetic fields inside the
solenoid are in the same direction. The effective magnetic field outside the solenoid weakens as a result, but the magnetic field within the
solenoid becomes strong and homogeneous, operating along the solenoid's axis.
Let's use Ampere's circuital law now.
Let n be the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid, I be the current flowing through it, and the solenoid's turns be densely packed.
Figure 1 shows a rectangular amperian loop PQRS at the middle of the solenoid.

Diagram showing A Rectangular Amperian Loop PQRS at the Middle of the Solenoid.
⃗ over the closed path PQRS is:
The line integral of magnetic field induction 𝐵
𝑄 𝑅 𝑆 𝑃
⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗
∮⁡⁡𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 𝐵 ⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = ∫ 𝐵 ⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 + ∫ 𝐵 ⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 + ∫ 𝐵 ⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 + ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙
𝑃 𝑄 𝑅 𝑆
Here,
𝑄 𝑄
⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗
∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = ∫ 𝐵𝑑𝑙cos⁡ 0∘ = 𝐵𝑑𝑙
𝑃 𝑃
and,
𝑅 𝑅 𝑃
⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗
∫ 𝐵 ⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = ∫ 𝐵𝑑𝑙cos⁡ 90∘ = 0 = ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙
𝑄 𝑄 𝑆
Also,
𝑆
⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = 0⁡(∵ outside the solenoid, B = 0)
⁡∫ 𝐵
𝑅
⃗ = BL + 0 + 0 + 0 = BL … . . (1)
⃗ ⋅ dℓ
∮⁡⁡PQRS 𝐵
From Ampere's circuital law
∮⁡⁡ ⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 × total current through the rectangle PQRS
𝐵
𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆
⁡= 𝜇0 × no. turns in rectangle × current
⁡= 𝜇0 𝑛𝐿𝐼
From (1) and (2), we have
BL = 𝜇0 nLIorB = 𝜇0 nI
The magnetic field induction at a location well within the solenoid may be calculated using this equation. The magnetic field induction at a
𝐼
location near the end of a solenoid is determined to be 𝜇0 𝑛 .
2

Toroid

The toroid is a hollow circular ring on which are tightly coiled a large number of insulated turns of a metallic wire. A toroid is, in reality, an
infinite solenoid in the shape of a ring.

Toroid

110
Magnetic Field Due to Current in an Ideal Toroid
Let I be the current flowing through the toroid and n be the number of rotations per unit length. The coil turns of an ideal toroid are round
and tightly wrapped. Inside the toroid's turns, a magnetic field of constant magnitude is created in the form of concentric circular magnetic
field lines. The tangent to the magnetic field line at a particular place determines the direction of the magnetic field there. We create three
circular amperian loops of radii 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , and 𝑟3 to be traversed in a clockwise way, as shown in the figure by dashed circles, such that the
points 𝑃, 𝑆, and 𝑄 might lie on them. The toroid is split in half by the circular region defined by loops 2 and 3. The loop 2 cuts each turn of
current-carrying wire once, and the loop 3 cuts it twice. Let 𝐵1 be the magnetic field magnitude along loop 1. Line integral of magnetic field
𝐵1 along the loop 1 is
∮⁡⁡ 𝐵 ⃗ = ∮⁡⁡
⃗ 1 ⋅ dℓ B1 dℓcos⁡ 0∘ = B1 2𝜋r1
loop 1 loop1
There is no current in Loop 1.
Ampere's circuital law states that
⃗ = 𝜇0 × current enclosed by loop1 = 𝜇0 × 0 = 0
⃗ 1 ⋅ dℓ
∮⁡⁡loop 1 𝐵
or ⁡B1 2𝜋r1 = ⁡0orB1 = 0
Let 𝐵3 be the magnetic field magnitude along loop 3.
The magnetic field 𝐵3 's line integral along loop 3 equals
∮⁡⁡ 𝐵 ⃗ = ∮⁡⁡
⃗ 3 ⋅ dℓ B3 dℓcos⁡ 0∘ = B3 2𝜋r3
𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝3 loop 3
We can see from the sectional cut in figure that the current leaving the plane of paper is exactly negated by the current entering it. As a
result, the total current contained within loop 3 is zero.
Ampere's circuital law states that
∮⁡⁡ ⃗ 3 ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 × total current through loop3
𝐵
loop 3
or 𝐵3 2𝜋𝑟3 = 𝜇0 × 0 = 0 or 𝐵3 = 0
Let 𝐵 be the magnetic field magnitude along the loop. 2. The magnetic field line integral along loop 2 is
∮⁡⁡ 𝐵 ⃗ = B2𝜋r2
⃗ ⋅ dℓ
𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝2
Current enclosed by the loop 2 = number of turns × current
in each turn = 2𝜋𝑟2 𝑛 × 𝐼
Ampere's circuital law states that
∮⁡⁡ 𝐵⃗ ⋅ 𝑑 ⃗ℓ = 𝜇0 × total current
loop⁡ 2
or
𝐵(2𝜋𝑟2 ) = 𝜇0 (2𝜋𝑛𝑟2 ℓ)
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛ℓ

Magnetism and Matter

The Bar Magnet

It's the most popular type of artificial magnet on the market. When we place a sheet of glass above a short bar magnet and sprinkle iron
filings on it, the filings rearrange themselves as illustrated in figure. The pattern implies that attraction is greatest at the bar magnet's two
ends. The magnet's poles are the opposite ends.

Magnetic Field Due to Bar Magnet

1. The earth has a magnetic field.

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 2. Each magnet attracts tiny particles of magnetic materials such as iron, cobalt, nickel, and steel.
3. When a magnet is held freely using an unspun thread, it comes to rest along the north-south axis.
4. Poles that are similar repel one other, whereas poles that are dissimilar attract each other.
5. The attraction or repulsion force 𝐹 between two magnetic poles with strengths 𝑚1 and m2 separated by a distance 𝑟 is proportional
to the product of pole strengths and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres, i.e.
m1 m2 m1 m2
F∝ orF F = K , where K is magnetic force constant.
r2 r2
𝜇0
In SI units, K = = 10−7 WbA−1 m−1
4𝜋
where 𝜇0 is absolute magnetic permeability of free space (air/vacuum)
𝜇 m m
∴ ⁡F = 0 1 2 2…(1)
4𝜋 r
Coulomb's law of magnetic force describes this. K, on the other hand, has a value of 1 in the cgs system.
SI Unit of Magnetic Pole Strength
Suppose
𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚( say )
𝑟 = 1𝑚 and 𝐹 = 10−7 N
From equation (1),
(m)(m)
10−7 = 10−7 × orm ⁡2 = 1 orm = ±1 ampere meter (Am)
12
When a magnetic pole repels an equal and comparable pole when put in vacuum (or air) at a distance of one meter from it with a
force of 10−7 N, it is said to be one ampere-metre strong.
6. Magnetic poles are always found in pairs. Magnetic monopoles do not exist.

Direction of Magnetic Field at Point P

Magnetic Field Lines

The magnetic field line is an imaginary curve whose tangent at any point determines the direction of magnetic field B at that location.
Imagine a magnet surrounded by a bunch of tiny compasses, due to the magnetic field, each compass needle is subjected to a torque. The
torque operating on a compass needle aligns it with the magnetic field's direction.
The magnetic field line is the route along which the compass needles are oriented.

Properties of Magnetic Field Lines

1. A magnet's magnetic field lines (or the magnetic field lines of a current-carrying solenoid) create closed continuous loops.
2. Magnetic field lines extend from the north pole to the south pole outside the magnet's body.
3. The direction of the net magnetic field (B) at any given place is represented by the tangent to the magnetic field line.
4. The number of magnetic field lines travelling properly through the unit area surrounding a place represents the amount of the
magnetic field at that point. As a result, lines that are densely packed represent a high magnetic field, whereas lines that are
sparsely packed represent a weak magnetic field.
5. There can be no crossing of magnetic field lines.

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 Diagram Showing the Two Directions of the Magnetic Field at a Single Point P.

Magnetic Dipole

A magnetic dipole is made up of two poles that are diametrically opposed and separated by a short distance.
A bar magnet, a compass needle, and other magnetic dipoles are examples. A current loop will be shown to behave like a magnetic dipole.
Due to electrons circling around the nucleus, an atom of a magnetic substance acts as a dipole.
The north pole and south pole of a magnetic dipole (or magnet) are always of equal intensity and are of opposing nature. Furthermore,
such two magnetic poles always exist in pairs and cannot be separated.
The magnetic length of a bar magnet is defined as the distance between its two poles. It is denoted by 2𝑙 and is a vector that runs from a
magnet's S-pole to its N-pole.
The product of the strength of either pole (𝑚) and the magnetic length (2𝑙 ) of the magnet is the magnetic dipole moment.
⃗⃗ is the symbol for it.
𝑀
The magnetic dipole moment is equal to the strength of either pole multiplied by the magnetic length.
⃗)
⃗⃗ = m(2ℓ
𝑀
The magnetic dipole moment is a vector quantity that runs from the magnet's south pole to its north pole, as shown in figure.

We shall show that the SI unit of M is joule/tesla or ampere Metre ⁡2

∴ Sl unit of pole strength is Am.

Bar Magnet as an Equivalent Solenoid

A current loop is known to function as a magnetic dipole.
All magnetic phenomena, according to Ampere's idea, may be described in terms of circulating currents. Magnetic field lines for a bar
magnet and a current-carrying solenoid are quite similar in figure. As a result, a bar magnet, like a solenoid, may be conceived of as a huge
number of circulating currents. A bar magnet is similar to a solenoid in that it may be cut. Two smaller solenoids with lesser magnetic
characteristics are delivered. The magnetic field lines stay continuous, coming from one solenoid's face and entering the second solenoid's
face. If we move a tiny compass needle between a bar magnet and a current-carrying solenoid, we will see that the deflections of the needle
are identical in both situations.
Calculate the axial field of a finite solenoid carrying the current to illustrate resemblance of a current-carrying solenoid to a bar magnet.

Assume a = solenoid radius and 2 = solenoid length with the centre in the diagram. O
n is the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid, and I is the current intensity that passes through it.
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We must determine the magnetic field at any point P on the solenoid's axis, where OP = r. Consider a tiny solenoid element with a thickness
of dx and a distance of x from O.
The element's number of turns is equal to n dx.
The magnitude of the magnetic field at P owing to this current element may be calculated using equation.
𝜇0 ia2 (ndx)
dB =
2[(r − x)2 + a2 ]3/2
If 𝑃 lies at a very large distance from 𝑂, i.e., 𝑟 ≫ a and 𝑟 ≫ 𝑥, then
[(r − x)2 + a2 ]3/2 ≈ r 3
𝜇0 ia2 ndx
dB = … (1)
2r 3
Because the range of 𝑥 is from 𝑥 = −I to x = +I, the amplitude of the total magnetic field at 𝑃 owing to the current-carrying solenoid is
also from 𝑥 = −1 to 𝑥 = +1 … (2)
If M is the solenoid's magnetic moment, then M = total number of turns 𝑥 current x cross section area
M = n(2ℓ) × i × (𝜋a2 )
𝜇0 2M
⁡∴ ⁡B = … (3)
4𝜋 r 3
The magnetic field on the axial line of a short bar magnet is expressed in this way.
As a result, the axial field of a current-carrying finite solenoid is identical to that of a bar magnet. As a result, a finite solenoid carrying
current is functionally equal to a bar magnet.

Potential Energy of a Magnetic Dipole in a Magnetic Field

A magnetic dipole's potential energy in a magnetic field is the energy that the dipole has owing to its specific location in the field.
The magnitude of the torque operating on a magnetic dipole of moment 𝑀 ⃗⃗ is when it is maintained at an angle with the direction of a
uniform magnetic field 𝐵.
𝜏 = MBsin 𝜃 … (1)

This torque causes the dipole to align in the field's direction. Work must be done to rotate the dipole against the torque's action. This work
is stored as dipole potential energy in the magnetic dipole.
Now, the dipole is rotated via a tiny angle d against the restoring torque with a modest amount of effort.
dW = 𝜏d𝜃 = MBsin⁡ 𝜃d𝜃
Total work done in rotating the dipole from 𝜃 = 𝜃1 to⁡ 𝜃 = 𝜃2 is
∴ Potential energy of the dipole is
U = W = −𝑀𝐵(cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1 ) … . . (2)
When 𝜃1 = 90∘, and 𝜃2 = 𝜃, then
U = W = −MB(cos⁡ 𝜃 − cos⁡ 90∘ )
W = − MBcos 𝜃 … . . (3)
In vector notation, we may rewrite (3) as
U = −𝑀 ⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝐵
⃗ … (4)

Diagram Showing the Angle Between Magnetic Field and Surface Normal.

Magnetism and Gauss Law

Gauss's law for magnetism is one of the four Maxwell's equations that underlie classical electrodynamics. It states that the magnetic
field B has divergence equal to zero, in other words, that it is a solenoidal vector field. It is equivalent to the statement that magnetic
monopoles do not exist. Rather than "magnetic charges", the basic entity for magnetism is the magnetic dipole. (If monopoles were ever
found, the law would have to be modified, as elaborated below.)

114
Gauss's law for magnetism can be written in two forms, a differential form and an integral form. These forms are equivalent due to
the divergence theorem.

The name "Gauss's law for magnetism" is not universally used. The law is also called "Absence of free magnetic poles". It is also referred to
as the "transversality requirement" because for plane waves it requires that the polarization be transverse to the direction of propagation.

Gauss law in magnetism states that the magnetic flux through a closed surface is zero. The integral form of gauss law is given by

Where S is any closed surface.

Earth’s Magnetism

Magnetic Declination
The angle between the magnetic meridian and the geographic meridian at a given location is known as magnetic declination.

Magnetic Declination
Magnetic Dip or Magnetic Inclination
The angle formed by the direction of overall intensity of the earth's magnetic field and a horizontal line in the magnetic meridian is known
as magnetic dip or magnetic inclination.

Horizontal Component
It is the horizontal component of the overall strength of the earth's magnetic field in the magnetic meridian. H. is the one who represents
it.

The entire intensity of the earth's magnetic field is represented by AK in the diagram, ∠BAK = 𝛿
The resulting intensity R along AK is broken down into two rectangles:
Along AB, the horizontal component is:
AL = H = Rcos 𝛿 … (1)
Vertical component along 𝐴𝐵 is
AM = V = Rsin 𝛿 … (2)
(1) and (2) are squared, and they are added.
H2 + V 2 = R2 (cos2 ⁡ 𝛿 + sin2 ⁡ 𝛿) = R2
⁡∴ 𝑅 = √𝐻 2 + 𝑉 2 … (3)
Dividing (1) by (2), we get
Rsin V V
= or ⁡tan = …….(4)
Rcos H H
The value of the horizontal component H = Rcos⁡ 𝛿 varies depending on where you look. 𝛿 = 90∘ at the magnetic poles
∴ H = Rcos⁡ 90∘ = zero
At the magnetic equator, 𝛿 = 0∘
∴ H = Rcos⁡ 0∘ = R
Both a vibration magnetometer and a deflection magnetometer can be used to measure the horizontal component (H).
The value of H at a given location on the earth's surface is on the order of 3.2 × 10−5 tesla.

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Magnetic Properties of Matter

We define the following words to explain the magnetic characteristics of materials, which should be understood well.

Magnetic Permeability
The capacity of a material to allow the passage of magnetic lines of force through it, i.e., the degree or extent to which a magnetic field may
penetrate or permeate it, is referred to as relative magnetic permeability. It's symbolized as 𝜇𝑟
The ratio of the number of magnetic field lines per unit area (i.e., flux density B) in a material to the number of magnetic field lines per unit
area that would be present if the medium were replaced by vacuum is known as relative magnetic permeability. (i.e., 𝐵0 flux density)
B
𝜇r =
B0
The ratio of magnetic permeability of the material (𝜇) to magnetic permeability of empty space (𝜇0 ) may also be used to determine relative
magnetic permeability of a material.
𝜇
∴ ⁡𝜇r = or ⁡𝜇 = 𝜇r 𝜇0
𝜇0
We know that 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 weber /amp − metre⁡(WbA−1 m−1 )
⁡∴ ⁡ Sl units of permeability are
Hm−1 = WbA−1 m−1 = (Tm2 )A−1 m−1 = TmA−1
Hm−1 = WbA−1 m−1 = (Tm2 )A−1 m−1 = TmA−1 ⁡ Magnetic Intensity (𝑯 ⃗⃗⃗ )
⃗
The magnetising force or magnetise intensity (𝐻 ) of a magnetic field is a measure of its ability to magnetise a substance.

Magnetisation or Intensity of Magnetisation ‘I’

When a specimen is placed in a magnetising field, it shows how much it is magnetised. A magnetic substance's magnetisation is described
quantitatively as the magnetic moment per unit volume of the material.
Magnetic moment m
(M) = =
volume V
There are SI units for I that are identical to SI units for H.
The ratio of the intensity of magnetisation (I) generated in the material to the magnetising force (H) put on it is described as magnetic
susceptibility (𝜒𝑚 ) of a magnetic material. Magnetic susceptibility is denoted by 𝜒𝑚 .
𝐼
Thus 𝜒𝑚 =
𝐻

Relation Between Magnetic Permeability and Magnetic Susceptibility

A magnetic substance becomes magnetised when it is put in a magnetising field of magnetising strength H. The total magnetic induction 𝐵
in the material is equal to the sum of the magnetic induction 𝐵0 in vacuum caused by the magnetic intensity and the magnetic induction
𝐵𝑚 caused by the material's magnetisation.
Therefore,
𝐵 = 𝐵0 + 𝐵𝑚
But 𝐵0 = 𝜇0 𝐻 and 𝐵𝑚 = 𝑚0 𝐼, where l is the magnetic material's induced magnetisation intensity. As a result of the foregoing,
B = 𝜇0 H + 𝜇0 I = 𝜇0 (H + I)
i.e., B = 𝜇0 (H + I)
I
Now as 𝜒m = ⁡ ∴ I = 𝜒m H
H
From above, B = 𝜇0 (H + 𝜒m H) = 𝜇0 H(1 + 𝜒m )
But 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻
𝜇
∴ ⁡𝜇H = 𝜇0 H(1 + 𝜒m ) or = 1 + 𝜒m
𝜇0
or 𝜇r = 1 + 𝜒m
This is the relationship between the material's magnetic susceptibility and its relative magnetic permeability.

Classification of Magnetic Materials

On Earth, there are many different elements and compounds.

In the laboratory, new elements, alloys, and compounds have been created. These compounds were categorised by Faraday into three
groups based on their magnetic properties:
(i) Diamagnetic materials, (ii) Paramagnetic materials, and (iii) Ferromagnetic materials

Their main characteristics are discussed below:

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Diamagnetic Substances
Individual atoms/molecules/ions in diamagnetic substances have no net magnetic moment on their own. When such substances are
exposed to an external magnetising field, they become weakly magnetised in the opposite direction.
These compounds have a tendency to migrate from stronger regions of the magnetic field to weaker sections when exposed to a non-
uniform magnetic field.
When a diamagnetic material specimen is placed in a magnetising field, the magnetic field lines choose not to pass through it.
The relative magnetic permeability of diamagnetic materials is never more than one.
From the relation 𝜇r = (1 + 𝜒m ), a𝜇r < 1, 𝜒m is negative
As a result, diamagnetic susceptibility has a tiny negative value.
A magnet repels a superconductor, and the magnet repels the superconductor.
The Meissner effect refers to the occurrence of complete diamagnetism in superconductors. Magnetically levitated speedy trains have been
run using superconducting magnets.

Paramagnetic Substances
Paramagnetic substances are those in which each atom, molecule, or ion has its own net non-zero magnetic moment. When such materials
are exposed to an external magnetic field, they become weakly magnetised in the direction of the field.
They tend to migrate from weaker areas of the field to stronger sections when placed in a non-uniform magnetic field.
When a paramagnetic material specimen is placed in a magnetising field, the magnetic field lines prefer to travel through the specimen
rather than through the air.
From the SI relation, 𝜇r = 1 + 𝜒m , as𝜇r > 1, therefore, 𝜒𝑚 must be positive.
As a result, the susceptibility of paramagnetic materials is positive, albeit modest.
1
The susceptibility of paramagnetic substances changes inversely with their temperature, i.e., 𝜒𝑚 ∝ , i.e. they lose their magnetic property
𝑇
as the temperature rises.

Ferromagnetic Substances
In contrast to paramagnetic substances, ferromagnetic substances have a non-zero magnetic moment for each individual atom, molecule,
or ion.
When such materials are exposed to an external magnetic field, they become highly magnetised in the field's direction.
All of the characteristics of paramagnetic materials are present in ferromagnetic materials, but to a considerably higher extent. For example
• They are highly magnetised in the direction of the external field they are in.
• Ferromagnetic materials have a very high relative magnetic permeability (≈ 103 to 105 )
• Ferromagnetic materials have a very high susceptibility (∵ 𝜒𝑚 = 𝜇𝑟 − 1)
• As a result, they are easily and powerfully magnetised.
• Ferromagnetic susceptibility diminishes as temperature rises. The transition from ferromagnetics to paramagnetics occurs at a
particular temperature. The temperature at which this transition occurs is known as the curie temperature. Curie temperature of iron,
for example, is around 1000 K.

Curie Law in Magnetism

The intensity of magnetisation (I) of a magnetic material is I directly proportional to magnetic induction (B) and (ii) inversely proportional
1
to the material's temperature (𝑇) according to Curie's law, i.e. 𝐼 ∝ 𝐵,and 𝐼 ∝
𝑇
𝐵
Combining these factors, we get 𝐼 ∝
𝑇
As 𝐵 ∝ 𝐻, magnetising intensity
𝐵 1
⁡∴ ⁡I ∝ or ∝
T T
𝐼
But = 𝜒𝑚
𝐻
1 C
⁡∴ ⁡𝜒m ∝ or ⁡𝜒m =
T T
C stands for the Curie constant, which is a proportionality constant.

Hysteresis Curve

The hysteresis curve depicts the relationship between a ferromagnetic material's magnetic induction 𝐵 ⃗ (or intensity of magnetization 𝐼 )
⃗
and the magnetising force or magnetic intensity 𝐻 . The hysteresis curve's form is seen in figure. It depicts the behaviour of the material as
it goes through a magnetization cycle.
⃗ = 0 and 𝐻𝐻
Assume that the material is initially unmagnetized, i.e. 𝐵 ⃗ = 0. The origin is used to denote this condition. We put the material
⃗
in a solenoid and progressively raise the current through it. 𝐻 enhances the magnetising force. As seen in the curve oa, the magnetic
117
 ⃗ in the material rises and saturates. This behaviour indicates that the domains of ferromagnetic material are aligning and
induction 𝐵
⃗ enhancement is feasible. As a result, increasing solenoid current and hence magnetic strength beyond this point
merging until no more 𝐵
is pointless.

Graph Between Intensity of Magnetization and H/T

⃗ is then reduced until it reaches zero. The curve follows the route ab, indicating
The solenoid current, and therefore magnetic strength 𝐻
⃗ ⃗
that when 𝐻 = 0, 𝐵 ≠ 0. As a result, some magnetism remains in the specimen.
When the magnetising force is decreased to zero, the value of magnetic induction 𝐵 ⃗ remaining in the specimen is called Retentivity,
Remanence, or Residual magnetism of the material.
Even after the magnetising force is eliminated, the domains are not entirely randomised. The current in the solenoid is then reversed and
gradually raised.
The net magnetic induction B within is lowered to zero by flipping some domains. The curve 𝑏𝑐 is a representation of this. To reduce
residual magnetism or retentivity to zero, a magnetising force = OC in the opposite direction must be applied. The coercivity of a substance
is the value of its magnetising force.
We get saturation in the reverse direction at 𝑑 as the amplitude of the reverse current in the solenoid increases. The curve cd is used to
depict variation. The solenoid current is then decreased (curve de), reversed, and raised (curve ea). The cycle continues to repeat itself.
The saturated magnetic induction BS is of the order of 1.5 T, and the coercivity is on the order of −90Am−1 .
It is evident from the preceding explanation that when a magnetic material specimen is subjected to a cycle of magnetisation, the intensity
of magnetisation (I) and magnetic induction (𝐵) lag behind the magnetising force (𝐻). As a result, even if the magnetising force H is reduced
to zero, the values of I and B do not decrease to zero, indicating that the specimen retains its magnetic characteristics.
Hysteresis is the occurrence of I or B trailing behind H when a magnetic material specimen is exposed to a cycle of magnetisation.
The hysteresis loop for soft iron, for example, is narrow and big, whereas the hysteresis loop for steel is wide and short, as seen in figure.

Hysteresis Curve for Soft Iron and Steel

The hysteresis loops of soft iron and steel indicate that.

Soft iron's retentivity is larger than steel's retentivity,
i. soft iron is more strongly magnetised than steel, and
ii. soft iron's coercivity is lower than steel's coercivity. It indicates that soft iron loses its magnetic faster than steel.
iii. Hysteresis loss in soft iron is less than hysteresis loss in steel because the area of the I-H loop for soft iron is smaller than the size of
the I-H loop for steel.

Permanent Magnets
Permanent magnets are materials that keep their ferromagnetic characteristics for a long period at room temperature.

118
The selected material should have
i. A high retentivity so that the magnet is strong, and
ii. A high coercivity so that the magnetisation is not erased by stray magnetic fields, temperature changes, or mechanical damage due
to rough handling, among other things.
iii. High permeability, allowing for easy magnetisation.
Permanent magnets are often made of steel.

Electromagnets
Electromagnets have ferromagnetic materials at their core, which have a high permeability and low retentivity.
Soft iron is a good choice for this project. When a soft iron rod is inserted into a solenoid and a current is sent through it, the solenoid's
magnetic is multiplied by a thousand. Because the retentivity of soft iron is relatively low, when the solenoid current is turned off, the
magnetism is immediately eliminated. Electric bells, loudspeakers, and telephone diaphragms all employ electromagnets. Cranes utilize
massive electromagnets to raise machines and other items.

Hall Effect

The Hall effect is the phenomenon of creating a transverse emf in a current-carrying conductor by introducing a magnetic field
perpendicular to the current direction.
We may use the Hall effect to determine the kind and quantity of charge carriers in a conductor.
Consider a conductor with current carriers that are electrons.
The electrons travel with a drift velocity of v in the opposite direction of current flow.

Hall Effect
⃗
Force acting on electron Fm = −e(𝑣 × 𝐵). This force works along the x-axis, causing electrons to migrate towards face (2), making it
negatively charged.

Standard Cases for Force on Current-Carrying Conductors

Case 1:
When an arbitrary current-carrying loop is put in a magnetic field ( ⊥ to the loop's plane), each element of the loop is subjected to a
magnetic force, causing the loop to stretch and open into a circular loop, with tension developing in each section.

Force Experienced by An Arbitrary Current Carrying Loop In A Magnetic Field.

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Specific example
In the above circular loop tension in parts A and B. In the balanced condition of small part AB of the loop is shown below

Force Experienced by A Small Part (Ab) Of an Arbitrary Current Carrying Loop In A Magnetic Field.
d𝜃 d𝜃
2 Tsin = dF = Bid ℓ ⇒ 2 Tsin = BiRd 𝜃
2 2
d𝜃 d𝜃 d𝜃
If 𝑑𝜃 is small so, sin⁡ ≈ ⇒ 2 T ⋅ = BiRd⁡ 𝜃
2 2 2
BiL
T = BiR, if 2𝜋R = LsoT =
2𝜋
Note: Even if there is no magnetic field, the loop will still widen into a circle because the current in its neighbouring sections is in the
opposite direction, and opposing currents resist each other.

Case 2: Equilibrium of a current-carrying conductor: A finite-length current-carrying wire can suspend freely in air when kept parallel to
another infinite-length current-carrying wire.
𝜇0 2i1 i2
For 𝑋𝑌 equilibrium in both circumstances, downward weight = upward magnetic force, i.e., 𝑚𝑔 = ⋅ ⋅ℓ
4𝜋 h
Note: If wire 𝑋𝑌 is slightly moved from its equilibrium position in the first example, SHM is executed, and the time duration is given by
h
𝐓 = 2𝜋√
g

Case 3: If a current-carrying straight wire is put in the magnetic field of a current-carrying circular loop, it creates a current-carrying
circular loop.
Due to the coil in its centre, the wire is positioned in a perpendicular magnetic field, causing it to feel maximum force
𝜇0 i 1
F = Biℓ = × i2 ℓ
2r
The wire is positioned parallel to the coil's axis, resulting in a magnetic field that is parallel to the wire. As a result, it will not be subjected
to any force.

Case 4: When current is passed through a spring, the spring contracts because the current flows in the same direction through all of the
turns.
If current is allowed to flow through the spring, it will shrink and the weight will rise.

Case 5: Tension-free strings: What is the value and direction of current via the conductor 𝑋𝑌 in the accompanying diagram such that the
strings are tension-free?
If the weight of the conductor 𝑋𝑌 is balanced by magnetic force, the strings become tensionless (𝐹𝑚 )
As a result, the current is flowing from 𝑋 to 𝑌 and is in a balanced state.
mg
Fm = mg ⇒ Biℓ = mg ⇒ i =
Bℓ

Case 6: A current-carrying conductor floating in air at an angle to the magnetic field's direction, while both the magnetic field and the
conductor are on a horizontal plane.
mg
In equilibriummg = Biℓsin⁡ 𝜃 ⇒ i =
Bℓsin⁡ 𝜃

Case 7: Conducting rod sliding on inclined rails: When a conducting rod slides on inclined rails, it is said to be sliding.
If a conducting rod (𝑋, 𝑌) moves at a constant velocity in the following condition, Fcos⁡ 𝜃 = mgsin⁡ 𝜃 ⇒ Biℓcos⁡ 𝜃 = mgsin⁡ 𝜃 ⇒ B =
mg
tan⁡ 𝜃
iℓ

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 Multiple Choice Questions
1. A toroid of n turns means radius R and cross-sectional radius a carries current I. It is placed on a horizontal table taken as x-y plane.
Its magnetic moment m
A. is non-zero and points in the z-direction by symmetry. B. points along the axis of the tortoid (𝑚 = 𝑚Φ ).
1
C. is zero, otherwise there would be a field falling as at D. is pointing radially outwards
𝑟3
large distances outside 𝑟3 the toroid.
Answer: C
Explanation
For any point inside the empty space surrounded by toroid and outside the toroid, the magnetic field B is zero because the net current
enclosed in these spaces is zero.

2. The magnetic field of Earth can be modelled by that of a point dipole placed at the centre of the Earth. The dipole axis makes an angle
of 11.3° with the axis of Earth. At Mumbai, ‘declination is nearly zero. Then,
A. the declination varies between 11.3° W to 11.3° E. B. the least declination is 0°.
C. the plane defined by dipole axis and Earth axis passes D. declination averaged over Earth must be always
through Greenwich. negative.
Answer: C
Explanation
Since the axis of the magnetic dipole placed at the centre of earth makes an angle of 11.3° with the axis of earth, the two possibilities arise as shown in
given figure. Hence, the declination varies between 11.3°W to 11.3°E.

3. In a permanent magnet at room temperature.

A. magnetic moment of each molecule is zero. B. the individual molecules have non-zero magnetic
moment which are all perfectly aligned.
C. domains are partially aligned. D. domains are all perfectly aligned.
Answer: C
Explanation
At room temperature, the permanent magnet retains ferromagnetic property for a long period of time.

4. Consider the two idealized systems:

(i) a parallel plate capacitor with large plates and small separation and
(ii) a long solenoid of length L » R, radius of cross-section.
In (i) E is ideally treated as a constant between plates and zero outside.
In (ii) magnetic field is constant inside the solenoid and zero outside. These idealised assumptions, however, contradict fundamental
laws as below:
A. case (i) contradicts Gauss’s law for electrostatic fields. B. case (ii) contradicts Gauss’s law for magnetic fields.
C. case (i) agrees with ∫ E.dl = 0. D. case (ii) contradicts ∫ H.dl = Ien
Answer: B
Explanation:
The electrostatic field lines do not form a continuous closed path, while the magnetic field lines form the closed paths.

5. The primary origin(s) of magnetism lies in

A. Pauli exclusion principle. B. polar nature of molecules.
C. intrinsic spin of electron. D. None of these.
Answer: D
Explanation:
The primary origin of magnetism lies in the fact that the electrons are revolving and spinning about the nucleus of an atom.

6. A long solenoid has 1000 turns per meter and carries a current of 1 A. It has a soft iron core of μr = 1000. The core is heated beyond
the Curie temperature, Tc.
A. The H field in the solenoid is (nearly) unchanged but B. The H and B fields in the solenoid are nearly
the B field decreases drastically. unchanged.
C. The magnetisation in the core reverses direction. D. The magnetisation in the core does not diminishes.
Answer: A
Explanation:
At normal temperature, a solenoid behaves as a ferromagnetic substance and at the temperature beyond the Curie temperature, it behaves
as a paramagnetic substance.
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7. Essential difference between electrostatic shielding by a conducting shell and magnetostatic shielding is due to:
A. electrostatic field lines cannot end on’ charges and B. lines of B can also end but conductors cannot end them.
conductors do not have free charges.
C. lines of B cannot end. on any material and perfect D. shells of high permeability materials cannot be used to
shielding is not possible. divert lines of B from the interior region.
Answer: C
Explanation:
As magnetostatic shielding is done by using an enclosure made of a high permeability magnetic material to prevent a static magnetic field
outside the enclosure from reaching objects inside it or to confine a magnetic field within the enclosure

8. Let the magnetic field on earth be modelled by that of a point magnetic dipole at the centre of earth. The angle of dip at a point on the
geographical equator
A. is always zero. B. can be zero at specific points.
C. cannot be positive or negative. D. is not bounded.
Answer: B
Explanation:
As the angle of dip at a point on the geographical equator is bounded in a range from positive to negative value.

9. A magnetic needle is kept in a non-uniform magnetic field. It experiences

A. a torque but not a force. B. neither a force nor a torque.
C. a force and a torque. D. a force but not a torque.
Answer: C
Explanation:
As magnetic needle experiences both torque and force in a non-uniform magnetic field, because unequal and non-linear forces are exerted
on its poles.

10. A 25 cm long solenoid has radius 2 cm and 500 total number of turns. It carries a current of 15 A. If it is equivalent to a magnet of the
same size and magnetisation M̅ , then |M
̅ | is
A. 3𝜋Am −1
B. 30000𝜋Am−1
C. 300Am −1
D. 30000Am−1

Answer: D
Explanation:
Magnetic moment
̅ | ⁡=
|M
Volume
𝑁𝐼𝐴
(d) Magnetisation ⁡=
𝐴𝑙
15 × 500
⁡=
25 × 10−2
⁡= 30000Am−1

11. A magnetic needle suspended parallel to a magnetic field requires 3 J of work to turn it through 60∘. The torque needed to maintain
the needle in this position will be
A. 2√3 J B. 3 J
3
C. √3 J D.
2

Answer: C
Explanation:
𝑊 ⁡= −𝑀𝐵(cos⁡ 𝜃2 − cos⁡ 𝜃1 )
⁡= −𝑀𝐵(cos⁡ 60∘ − cos⁡ 0∘ )
Since,
𝑀𝐵
⁡= = √3 J
2

1
12. At a certain place on earth, 𝐵𝐻 = 𝐵𝑉 angle of dip at this place is:
√3
A. 60∘ B. 30∘
C. 45∘ D. 90∘
Answer: A
Explanation:
𝐵𝑉
(a) Since, tan⁡ 𝛿 = = √3
𝐵𝐻
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⇒ ⁡𝛿 = 60∘

13. Which among the following is not attracted by magnets?

A. Iron B. Cobalt
C. Copper D. Nickel
Answer: C
Explanation:
A magnet is a material that has both attractive and directive properties. It attracts small pieces of iron, nickel, cobalt, etc. This property of
attraction is called magnetism. Going by these criteria, copper is not attracted by magnets.

14. Identify the direction in which a thin long piece of magnet comes to rest when suspended freely.
A. East-west B. North-south
C. Northeast-southeast D. Northwest-southwest
Answer: B
Explanation:
When suspended freely, a thin long piece of magnet comes to rest nearly in the geographical north-south direction. When placed in a non-
uniform magnetic field, it tends to move from weaker to stronger magnetic field.

15. Give the SI unit of magnetic dipole moment.

A. 𝐴−2 𝑚 B. Am−2
C. 𝐴2 𝑚 D. Am2

Answer: D
Explanation:
The magnetic dipole moment of a magnetic dipole is defined as the product of its pole strength and magnetic length. The SI unit of magnetic
dipole moment is ampere meter ⁡2 (Am2 ). Magnetic dipole moment is a vector quantity and is directed from south to north pole of the
magnet.

16. What is the torque exerted by a bar magnet on itself due to its field?
A. Maximum B. Zero
C. Minimum D. Depends on the direction of the magnetic field
Answer: B
Explanation:
A bar magnet does not exert a force or torque on itself due to its field. But an element of a current-carrying conductor experiences forces
due to another element of the conductor. So, the torque exerted by a bar magnet on itself is zero.

17. Which among the following is the source of the magnetic field (magnetism)?
A. Mechanical origin B. Electrical origin
C. Chemical origin D. Potential origin
Answer: B
Explanation:
Magnetism is of electrical origin. The electrons revolving in an atom behave as tiny current loops and these current loops give rise to
magnetism. An electric current produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field can be visualized as a pattern of circular field lines circling a
wire.

18. The line of force in a magnetic field represents the direction at each point that a magnetic needle placed at the point takes up. Do they
also represent the direction of the force on a moving charge at each point?
A. Not possible B. Represent circular motion
C. Represent tangential motion D. Represents translatory motion
Answer: A
Explanation:
No. The force on a charge is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field at each point.
F = q (v × B).
It is inappropriate to call magnetic field lines as lines of force.

19. Which among the following is denoted by δ?

A. Horizontal component B. Magnetic meridian
C. Magnetic declination D. Magnetic inclination
Answer: B

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Explanation:
Magnetic dip or inclination at a place is defined as the angle made by the Earth’s magnetic field with the horizontal in the magnetic meridian.
It is denoted by δ.
Magnetic declination at a place is defined as the angle between the geographic meridian and magnetic meridian.

20. Pick out the expression for intensity of magnetization from the following.
𝑀2 𝑀
A. 𝐼= B. 𝐼=
𝑉 𝑉2
𝑉 𝑀
C. I= D. 𝐼=
𝑀 𝑉
Answer: D
Explanation:
Intensity of magnetization is defined as the magnetic moment developed per unit volume, when a magnetic specimen is subjected to the
𝑀
magnetizing field. Intensity of magnetization is denoted by I. The expression is given by: I =
𝑉

21. Which of the following is another term for magnetization?

A. Magnetic neutrality B. Magnetic polarization
C. Magnetic power D. Magnetic moment
Answer: B
Explanation:
Magnetization is also termed as magnetic polarization. Magnetic polarization is basically a balance between the magnetic flux density in a
space which is devoid of matter and the magnetic flux density in a space with matter, i.e., in a material.

22. Find the Correct Option

A. Magnetic intensity is a vector quantity. B. Induced magnetization is a process where you can
magnetize a non-magnetic material.
C. Magnetic intensity and intensity of magnetization are D. Total intensity is the measurement from the
the same. magnetometer after a model of the earth’s normal
magnetic field is removed.
Answer: C
Explanation:
The statement magnetic intensity and intensity of magnetization are the same is the false one. They are not the same. When a magnet is
entering a magnetic field, then the poles of the magnet experiences certain forces. Magnetic intensity refers to the measure of these forces.
But, the intensity of magnetization explains the change in the magnetic moment of a magnet as a function of volume. All the other
statements are valid.

23. Identify the expression for magnetic induction from the following.
A. 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝐻 + I) B. 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝐻 × 1)
C. 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝐻 − l) D. B = 𝜇0 ( )
𝐻
𝐼
Answer: A
Explanation:
Magnetic induction (B) is defined as the number of magnetic lines of induction crossing per unit area normally through the magnetic
substance, and is given by:
𝐵 = 𝜇0 (H + l)
The SI unit of magnetic induction is Tesla ( 𝑇).

24. Which among the following is true about magnetic susceptibility?

A. It is the ratio of magnetic intensity to intensity of B. The SI unit of magnetic susceptibility is Tesla (T)
magnetization
C. It is the ratio of intensity of magnetization to magnetic D. It is the ratio of magnetic moment to volume
intensity
Answer: C
Explanation:
Magnetic susceptibility of a magnetic substance is defined as the ratio of the intensity of magnetization ( I) to the magnetic intensity (H).
The expression is given by:
χ_m=I/H
Magnetic susceptibility measures the aptness of a magnetic substance to acquire magnetism. It is a unit less constant of magnetic substance.

25. Pick out the unit of magnetic permeability.

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 A. TmA B. Tm/A
C. A/T D. Am/T
Answer: B
Explanation:
Magnetic permeability (μ) of a magnetic substance is defined as the ratio of its magnetic induction (B) to the magnetic intensity (H). The
expression for magnetic permeability is given as: μ=B/H
Magnetic permeability is the ability of a magnetic substances to permit magnetic field lines to pass through it. The SI unit for this quantity
is Tm/A.

26. Which one of the following is feebly repelled by a magnet?

A. Diamagnetic materials B. Paramagnetic materials
C. Ferromagnetic materials D. Ferrimagetic materials
Answer: A
Explanation: Diamagnetic materials are those which when placed in a magnetizing field are feebly magnetized in a direction opposite to
that of the magnetizing field. Therefore, it is feebly repelled by a magnet. Example: zinc, gold, etc.

27. Which one of the following, when suspended freely, slowly sets itself parallel to the direction of the magnetic field?
A. Ferromagnetic materials B. Diamagnetic materials
C. Paramagnetic materials D. Ferrimagnetic materials
Answer: C
Explanation:
Paramagnetic materials are those when suspended freely inside the magnetic field, it slowly sets itself parallel to the direction of the
magnetic field. When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, it tends to move from weaker to a stronger magnetic field.

28. Which among the following has a relative permeability much larger than 1?
A. Diamagnetic materials B. Ferromagnetic materials
C. Paramagnetic materials D. Ferrimagnetic materials
Answer: B
Explanation: The relative permeability of ferromagnetic materials is much larger than 1. Ferromagnetic substances are those, which when
placed in a magnetic field are strongly magnetized in the direction of the magnetizing field, i.e., it is strongly attracted by a magnet.

29. Pick out the temperature at which iron becomes paramagnetic?

A. 800∘ C B. 700∘ C
C. ∘
600 C D. 500∘ C
Answer: A
Explanation:
Iron is a ferromagnetic material. Ferromagnetism decreases with a rise in temperature, and above a certain temperature called "Curie's
temperature," ferromagnets become paramagnets. For iron, it is approximately, 800∘ C.

30. Pick out the material that cannot be used to make permanent magnets.
A. Copper B. Aluminum
C. Steel D. Zinc
Answer: D
Explanation:
Permanent magnets are made up of materials having high retentivity, high coercivity, and high permeability such as steel. Other suitable
materials for making permanent magnets are alnico (an alloy of iron, aluminum, nickel, copper, and cobalt), cobalt steel, and ticonal. That
leaves zinc as the one that cannot be used to make permanent magnets.

Question /Answer
Very Short
1. A small magnetic needle pivoted at the center is free to rotate In a magnetic meridian. At what place will the needle be vertical?
Answer: At the potes

2. What is the angle of dip at a place where the horizontal and vertical components of the earth’s magnetic field are equal?
Answer: 450

3. How does the intensity of a paramagnetic sample vary with temperature?

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Answer: It decreases with the increase in temperature.

4. What should be the orientation of a magnetic dipole in a uniform magnetic field so that its potential energy is maximum?
Answer: It should be anti-parallel to the applied magnetic field.

5. What is the value of angle of dip at a place on the surface of the earth where the ratio of the vertical component to the horizontal
1
component of the earth’s magnetic field is ?
√3
𝐵𝑉 1
Answer: Using the expression tan⁡ 𝛿 = =
𝐵𝐻 √3

6. Where on the surface of the earth is the angle of dip 90°?

Answer: Poles.

7. Where on the surface of the earth is the angle dip zero?

Answer: Magnetic equator

8. What are permanent magnets? Give one example.

Answer: It is an arrangement that has a permanent dipole moment, e.g. bar magnet.

9. At a place, the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field is B, and the angle of dip is 60°. What is the value of the horizontal
component of the earth’s magnetic field at the equator?
Answer: Zero.

10. Is the steady electric current the only source of the magnetic field? Justify your answer.
Answer: No, the magnetic field is also produced by alternating current.

Short Questions
1. (a) Define the term magnetic susceptibility and write its relation in terms of relative magnetic permeability.
(b)Two magnetic materials A and B have relative magnetic permeabilities of 0. 96 and 500. Identify the magnetic materials A and B.
Answer:
(a) It refers to the ease with which a substance can be magnetized. It is defined as the ratio of the intensity of magnetization to the
magnetizing field. The required relation is µr = 1 + χm
(b) A: Paramagnetic, B: Ferromagnetic

2. A magnetic needle free to rotate in a vertical position orient itself with its axis vertical at a certain place on the earth. What are the
values of?
a. the angle of dip and
b. the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field at this place? Where will this place be on the earth?
Answer: The angle of dip is 90° and the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field is zero. This place is the magnetic pole of the
earth.

3. Out of the two magnetic materials ‘A’ has relative permeability slightly greater than unity while ‘B’ has less than unity. Identify the
nature of the material’s ‘A’ and ‘B’. Will their susceptibilities be positive or negative? (CBSE Delhi 2014)
Answer:
• A’ is paramagnetic and ‘B’ is diamagnetic.
• ‘A’ will have positive susceptibility while
• ‘B’ will have negative susceptibility.

4. A magnetic needle free to rotate in a vertical plane parallel to the magnetic meridian has its northern tip down at 60° with the
horizontal. The horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field at the place is known to be 0.4 G. Determine the magnitude of the
earth’s magnetic field at the place. (CBSE Delhi 2011)
Answer: Given δ = 30°, BH = 0.4 G, B = ?
Using the expression
BH = Bcos δ we have

BH 0.4 0.4 0.8

B= = = = G
cos⁡ δ cos⁡ 30∘ √3/2 √3

126
5. The susceptibility of a magnetic material is -0.085. Identify the type of magnetic material. A specimen of this material is kept in a non-
uniform magnetic field. Draw the modified field pattern.
Answer: The material is a diamagnetic material as diamagnetic materials have negative susceptibility. The modified field pattern is as
shown below.

6. A uniform magnetic field gets modified as shown below when two specimens X and Y are placed in it.

a. Identify the two specimens X and Y.

b. State the reason for the behavior of the field lines in X and Y.
Answer: (a) X is a diamagnetic substance and Y is a paramagnetic substance.
(b) This is because the permeability of a diamagnetic substance is less than one and that of a paramagnetic substance is greater than one.

7. Three identical specimens of magnetic materials nickel, antimony, and aluminum are kept in a non-uniform magnetic field. Draw the
modification in the field lines in each case. Justify your answer.
Answer: Nickel is ferromagnetic, antimony is diamagnetic, and aluminium is paramagnetic. Therefore, they will show the behaviour as
shown in the following figures.

8. Define neutral point. Draw lines of force when two identical magnets are placed at a finite distance apart with their N-poles facing each
other. Locate the neutral points.
Answer: It is a point near a magnet where the magnetic field of the earth is completely balanced by the magnetic field of the magnet. The
figure is as shown below.

127
The cross indicates the neutral point.

Long Questions
1. Write the expression for the magnetic dipole moment for a closed current loop. Give its SI unit. Derive an expression for the torque
experienced by a magnetic dipole in a uniform magnetic field.
Answer: The required expression is m = nIA.
It is measured in A m².
Consider a uniform magnetic field of strength B. Let a magnetic dipole be suspended in it such that its axis makes an angle 6 with the field
as shown in the figure below. If ‘m’ is the strength of each pole, the two poles experience two equal and opposite force ‘B’ each. These forces
constitute a couple that tends to rotate the dipole. Suppose the couple exerts a torque of magnitude τ.

Then,
τ = either force × arm of the couple
= mB × AN = mB × 2 L sin θ
Or Since m × 2L is the magnetic dipole moment of the magnet.
Therefore τ = MB sin θ in vector form
we have τ⃗ = ⃗M
⃗⃗ × B
⃗

2. (a)State Gauss’s law for magnetism. Explain Its significance.

(b)Write the four Important properties of the magnetic field lines due to a bar magnet.
Answer:
(a) Gauss’s Law for magnetism states that “The total flux of the magnetic field, through any closed surface, is always
⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
zero, i.e., ∮⁡B dL = 0
This law implies that magnetic monopoles do not exist” or magnetic field lines form closed loops.
(b) Four properties of magnetic field lines are as follows:
• Magnetic field lines always form continuous closed loops.
• The tangent to the magnetic field line at a given point represents the direction of the net magnetic field at that point.
• The larger the number of field lines crossing per unit area, the stronger is the magnitude of the magnetic field.
• Magnetic field lines do not intersect.

128
 Chapter – 6 Electromagnetic Induction
Introduction

Imagine a world where there are no electric lights, no trains, no telephones, and no personal computers. It was life before the
discovery of electromagnetic induction. A Revolutionary invention as a result of the experiments of Michael Faraday and Joseph
Henry. In this chapter, we will study the experiments of electromagnetic induction and their applications.

The Experiments of Faraday and Henry

The figure shows a coil C1 connected to a galvanometer G. When the North-pole of a bar magnet is pushed towards the coil, the
pointer in the galvanometer deflects, indicating the presence of electric current in the coil. The galvanometer does not show any
deflection when the magnet is held stationary. When the magnet is pulled away from the coil, the galvanometer shows deflection
in the opposite direction, which indicates a reversal of the current’s direction.

Moreover, when the South-pole of the bar magnet is moved towards or away from the coil, the deflections in the galvanometer
are opposite to that observed with the North-pole for similar movements. Further, the deflection is found to be larger when the
magnet is pushed towards or pulled away from the coil faster. Instead, when the bar magnet is held fixed and the coil C1 is moved
towards or away from the magnet, the same effects are observed. It shows that it is the relative motion between the magnet and
the coil that is responsible for the generation of electric current in the coil.

Magnetic Flux

Like electric flux, magnetic flux is proportional to the number of magnetic field lines passing through a surface. It is denoted by
ΦB . It is a scalar quantity.
Mathematically, ϕB = ⃗B⃗A = BAcos⁡ θ

SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb)(1 Wb = 1 tesla-m⁡2 ). C.G.S. unit of magnetic flux is maxwell. The dimensional formula of
magnetic flux is [ML2 T −2 A−1 ]

129
Faraday’s Law of Induction

a) First law
According to this law, "The magnitude of the induced emf in a closed loop is equal to the time rate of change of magnetic flux
through the loop."
−dϕ
ε=
dt
In case of a coil of N turns, induced emf
dϕ
ε = −N
dt

b) Second Law (Lenz's Law)

Δ𝜙
𝐸𝑚𝑓 = −𝑁 ( )
Δ𝑡
Where, Emf is the induced voltage (also known as electromotive force).
𝑁 is the number of loops.
Δ𝜙 Change in magnetic flux.
Δ𝑡 Change in time.

Lenz’s Law and Conservation of Energy

Lenz's law is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy. As the induced current opposes the change in flux, work has
to be done against the opposition offered by the induced current in changing the flux. The work done appears as electrical energy
in the loop.

Induced Electric Field

An electric field is induced in any region of space in which a magnetic field is changing with time. The induced electric field and
magnetic field are at right angles to each other.

Consider a particle of charge q0 moving around the ring in a circular path. The work done by the induced electric field in one
revolution is W = q0ε, where ε is the induced emf.

Also work done.

W = ∫ ⃗F ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗
dl
W = q0 ∫ E ⃗⃗⃗
⃗ ⋅ dl
q0 ε = q0 ∫ E ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗
⃗ dl
⃗⃗⃗
⃗ ⋅ dl
ε = ∫E

By Faraday's law
−dϕB
ε=
dt
−dϕB
∴ ∫E ⃗⃗⃗ =
⃗ ⋅ dl
dt
Eddy Current

Even when bulk pieces of conductors are subjected to changing magnetic flux, induced currents are produced in them, these
currents are called eddy currents.

130
Eddy currents are undesirable since they heat up the core and dissipate electrical energy in the form of heat. Eddy currents are
minimized by using laminations of metal to make a metal core. This arrangement reduces the strength of the eddy currents.

Eddy currents are used to advantage in certain applications like:

1. Magnetic braking in trains: Strong electromagnets are situated above the rails in some electrically powered trains. When
the electromagnets are activated, the eddy currents induced in the rails oppose the motion of the train.

2. Electromagnetic damping: Certain galvanometers have a fixed core made of non-magnetic metallic material. When the coil
oscillates, the eddy currents generated in the core oppose the motion and bring the coil to rest quickly.

3. Induction furnace: Induction furnace can be used to produce high temperatures. A high-frequency alternating current is
passed through a coil that surrounds the metals to be melted. The eddy currents generated in the metals produce high
temperatures sufficient to melt them.

4. Electric power meters: The shiny metal disc in the electric power meter rotates due to the eddy currents. Electric currents
are induced in the disc by magnetic fields produced by sinusoidally varying currents in a coil.

Self-Inductance

Self-inductance is the property of a coil, by which an induced emf is developed in itself due to a change in the strength of the
current flowing through the coil itself.
Let a current 'i' flow through the inductor. Due to this current, a flux Φ is linked with it such that.

ϕ∝i
ϕ = Li

L is called the inductance of self-inductance of the coil.

The induced emf is given by.

−dϕ
ε=
dt

−Ldi
ε=
dt

SI unit of inductance is henry (H).

131
a) Self-Inductance of a solenoid
Let a current 'i' be flowing through the solenoid. There is a uniform magnetic field.
B = μ0 ni in its core. The total flux linked with the solenoid is.
ϕ = (μ0 ni) × A × N
ϕ = μ0 ni × πr 2 × (nl)
ϕ = μ0 n2 πr 2 l × i
L = μ0 n2 πr 2 l … … . [ϕ = Li]

b) Energy Stored in an Inductor

Like a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electric field, an inductor stores energy in the form of a magnetic field. Let a
current 'i' be flowing through an inductor of inductance L. As the current increase a rate
𝑑𝑖
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Power = 𝑉𝑖
𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑖
= (𝐿 ) 𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐿𝑖𝑑𝑖
1
𝑊 = 𝐿𝑖 2
2

Mutual Inductance

The phenomenon by which an induced emf is produced in one coil due to a change in the strength of the current flowing through
another coil is called mutual induction.
When a current i flows through one of the coils, a flux Φ is linked with another coil such that.

𝜙∝𝑖
𝜙 = 𝑀𝑖

The constant M is called the coefficient of mutual inductance between the coils.
−𝑑𝜙
𝜀=
𝑑𝑡

−𝑀𝑑𝑖
𝜀= … . . [𝜙 = 𝑀𝑖]
𝑑𝑡

SI unit of mutual inductance is henry (H).

AC Generator

An ac generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

It consists of a coil mounted on a rotor shaft. The axis of rotation of the coil is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.
The coil (called the armature) is mechanically rotated in the uniform magnetic field by some external means. The rotation of the
coil causes the magnetic flux through it to change, so an emf is induced in the coil. The ends of the coil are connected to an external
circuit by means of slip rings and brushes.
132
When the coil is rotated with a constant angular speed 𝜔, the angle 𝜃 between the magnetic field vector B and the area vector A
of the coil at any instant t is 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡. As a result, the effective area of the coil exposed to the magnetic field lines changes with time,
and the flux at any time t is.
𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴cos⁡ 𝜃
𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴cos⁡ 𝜔𝑡

From Faraday’s law, the induced emf for the rotating coil of N turns is, then,
𝑑𝜙𝐵
𝜀 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝜀 = −𝑁𝐵𝐴 (cos⁡ 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

Thus, the instantaneous value of the emf is.

𝜀 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡
If we denote NBAω as 𝜀0
𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡
The direction of the current changes periodically and therefore the current is called alternating current (ac).

133
 Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following factors is the induced charge in an electromagnetic induction independent of?
A. Time B. Resistance of the coil
C. Change of flux D. None of the above
Answer: A
Explanation:
The induced charge in an electromagnetic induction is independent of time.

2. Which of the following states that an emf is induced whenever there is a change in the magnetic field linked with electric
circuits?
A. Lenz’s Law B. Ohm’s Law
C. Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction D. None of the above
Answer: C
Explanation:
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction states that an emf is induced whenever there is a change in the magnetic field linked
with the electric circuit’s changes.

3. Which of the following gives the polarity of the induced emf?

A. Biot-Savart Law B. Lenz’s Law
C. Ampere’s circuital Law D. Fleming’s right-hand Rule
Answer: B
Explanation:
Lenz’s Law gives the polarity of the induced emf.

4. Electrical Inertia is the measure of:

A. Self-Inductance B. Mutual Inductance
C. Impedance D. None of the above
Answer: A
Explanation:
Electrical Inertia is the measure of self-inductance.

5. Which of the following laws is the consequence of the Law of conservation of energy?
A. Lenz’s Law B. Ohm’s Law
C. Archimedes Law D. All of the above
Answer: A
Explanation:
Lenz’s Law is the consequence of the Law of conservation of energy.

6. Which of the following apparatus construction uses electromagnetic induction?

A. Voltmeter B. Galvanometer
C. Generator D. Electric Motor
Answer: C
Explanation:
The construction of the generator uses the principle of electromagnetic induction.

7. Which of the following factors is the self-inductance associated with a coil is independent of?
A. induced voltage B. current
C. time D. coil resistance
Answer: D
Explanation:
The self-inductance associated with a coil is independent of coil resistance.

8. Which of the following rules is used to identify the direction of the current induced in a wire moving in a magnetic field?
A. Ampere’s Rule B. Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule
C. Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule D. None of the above
Answer: B
Explanation:
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Fleming’s Left Hand Rule is used in identifying the direction of the current induced in a wire moving in a magnetic field.

9. Which of the following statements is true?

A. A metal plate can be heated by passing either a B. A metal plate can be heated by placing it in a time-
direct current or an alternating current through invariant magnetic field.
the plate.
C. A metal plate can be heated by placing it in a time- D. Both (a) and (c)
variant magnetic field.
Answer: D
Explanation:
A metal plate can be heated by passing either a direct current or an alternating current through the plate or placing it in a time-
variant magnetic field.

10. When a metal rod of length ∣ is placed normal to a uniform magnetic field 'B' and moved with a velocity ' 𝑣 ' perpendicular to
the field, the induced emf (called motional emf -electromotive forces) across its ends is
A. 𝐵Bl2 B. BI/V
C. 𝐵/(lv) D. Blv
Answer: D
Explanation:
When a metal rod of length I is placed normal to a uniform magnetic field 'B' and moved with a velocity ' 𝑣 ' perpendicular to the
field, the induced emf (called motional emf -electromotive forces) across its ends is Biv.

11. Consider two, single turn, co-planar, concentric coils of radii 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 with 𝑅1 >> 𝑅2 . The mutual inductance between the
two coils is proportional to
A. 𝑅1 /𝑅2 B. R 2 /R1
C. R 2 /R1
2
D. R2 ⁡1 /R 2
Answer: C
Explanation:
The magnetic field across a loop of radius R 2
𝜇0 𝐼
B12 =
2𝜋𝑅1
Magnetic flux is given by:
𝜙12 = B12 ⋅ A
𝜇0 𝐼
= ⋅ 𝜋𝑅22
2𝜋𝑅1
= M12 ⁡𝐼
So, Mutual Inductance,
𝜇0 𝑅22
M12 =
2𝑅1

12. Electromagnetic induction is related to?

A. Bohr B. Faraday
C. Doppler D. Dalton
Answer: B
Explanation:
The fundamental law of electromagnetism known as Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, or simply "Faraday's law," aids
in predicting how an electric circuit and a magnetic field would interact to produce an electromotive force (EMF).

13. Weber is the unit of __________.

A. electric conductance B. magnetic flux
C. magnetic flux density D. capacitance
Answer: B
Explanation:
• Magnetic flux is a measurement of the total magnetic field which passes through a given area.
• Magnetic flux is the product of the average magnetic field times the perpendicular area that it penetrates.
• The SI unit of magnetic flux is Weber (Wb).

135
14. A metallic rod of length I is tied to a string of length 2 l and made to rotate with angular speed 𝜔 on horizontal table with
one end of the string fixed. If the induced emf across the ends of the rod is e, then the vertical magnetic field in the region
is.

2𝑒 𝑒
A. B.
5𝑙 2 𝜔 5𝑙 2 𝜔
2𝑒 2𝑒
C. D.
3𝑙 2 𝜔 𝑙2𝜔
Answer: A
Explanation:
Given, the length of the rod = 𝐿, length of the string = 2𝐿, induced emf across the ends of the rod = 𝑒
Then 𝐿1 = 2𝐿, 𝐿2 = 2𝐿 + 𝐿 = 3 L
Let the vertical magnetic field in the region is 𝐵, then from equation 1,

𝐿2
𝑒=∫ 𝐵𝑟𝜔𝑑𝑟
𝐿1
3𝐿
⇒𝑒=∫ 𝐵𝑟𝜔𝑑𝑟
2𝐿
2𝑒
⇒𝐵=
5𝑙 2 𝜔

15. If the number of turns per unit length of a solenoid is doubled, its self-inductance will:
A. be halved B. be doubled
C. remain constant D. become four times
Answer: D
Explanation:
𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐴
The formula for the coefficient of self-inductance, 𝐿 =
2𝜋𝑅
From the above expression, the coefficient of Self-inductance is directly proportional to the square of the number of turns in the
coil, 𝐿 ∝ 𝑁 2 .

16. The number of magnetic field lines passing through a surface area normally is called-
A. Magnetic field B. Magnetic flux
C. Electric flux D. Electric field
Answer: B
Explanation:
The number of magnetic field lines passing through a surface area normally is called magnetic flux.

17. If we apply law of conversion of energy to electromagnetic induction, electrical energy induced in a conductor comes from
A. Potential energy B. Heat energy
C. Kinetic energy D. Radiation energy
Answer: C
Explanation:
The work done by moving coil (Change in kinetic energy) induces the electrical energy in the conductor.
This principle is used in electric generators.

18. The device used to produce electric current is known as:

A. motor B. generator

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 C. ammeter D. galvanometer
Answer: B
Explanation:
AC generator works on the principle of Faraday's Law.
AC generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
The generated energy is in the form of a sinusoidal waveform (alternating current).

19. How eddy current can be produced in a bulk piece of conducting material?
A. By placing it under a changing electric field. B. By a changing magnetic field in the conductor.
C. By placing it under a uniform magnetic field. D. By rotating conducting material.
Answer: B
Explanation:
Eddy currents are the currents induced in solid metallic masses when magnetic flux threading through them changes.
Eddy current is also known as"Focault current".
Eddy current also opposes the change in magnetic flux, so there is given by Lenz's law.

20. Weber per square meter is:

A. henry B. ampere
C. tesla D. ohm
Answer: C
Explanation:
Since magnetic flux (𝜑) = B A
The SI unit of magnetic flux = SI unit of magnetic field × Sl unit of area = tesla. meter⁡2 = 𝑇 m2
Since 1 Weber = 1Tm2
So 1 weber /m2 = 1 Tesla

21. An E.M.F. can be induced by _________.

A. Change in the magnetic field only B. Change in the area of cross section only
C. Change in angle between magnetic field and area D. Change in the magnetic field, area or angle
only between them
Answer: D
Explanation:
emf=-d 𝜙/dt. We know 𝜙 flux is the dot product of magnetic field vector and area vector.
𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴cos⁡(𝜃)Hence if either of the three, that is, magnetic field, area or angle changes, the emf will change, flux changes due to
which emf can be induced.

22. What happens to the current in a coil while accelerating a magnet inside it?
A. Increases B. Decreases
C. Remains constant D. Reverses
Answer: A
Explanation:
A change in the magnetic field induces an emf. When there is an emf, there has to be current. Hence, when the magnet is moved
inside a coil, the current in it increases.

23. What is the consequence of motor effect?

A. Current B. Voltage
C. Electromagnetic induction D. EMF
Answer: C
Explanation:
Motor effect is when a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force, hence its consequence is
electromagnetic induction.
24. The total number of magnetic field lines passing through an area is termed as?
A. Voltage B. EMF
C. Magnetic flux D. Magnetic flux density
Answer: C
Explanation:
The number of magnetic field lines passing through an area is magnetic flux.

25. The formula for induced emf if magnetic field, length and velocity of conductor all are mutually perpendicular is __________.
137
 A. 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝐵2 l B. 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝐵𝑖𝑙
C. emf=Blv D. 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝐵2 𝑣
Answer: C
Explanation:
The formula for induced emf is emf=Blv, where B is the magnetic field, l is the length of the conductor and v is the velocity with
which it is moving in the magnetic field and all three quantities are mutually perpendicular to each other.

26. If a conductor 0.2m long moves with a velocity of 0.3m/s in a magnetic field of 5T, calculate the emf induced if magnetic
field, velocity, and length of conductor are mutually perpendicular to each other.
A. 0.3V B. 0.03V
C. 30V D. 3V
Answer: A
Explanation:
The formula for induced emf is: emf=Blv if B,l,v are perpendicular to each other. Substituting the values of B, l and v from the
question, we get emf=0.3V.

27. Find the length of a conductor which is moving with a velocity 0.4m/s in a magnetic field of 8T, inducing an emf of 20V if
magnetic field, velocity, and length of conductor are mutually perpendicular to each other.
A. 50m B. 5m
C. 6.25m D. 0.5m
Answer: C
Explanation:
The formula for induced emf is: emf=Blv if B, l, v are perpendicular to each other. Substituting the values of B, emf and v from the
question, we get l=6.25m.

28. Find the strength of the magnetic field in a conductor 0.5m long moving with a velocity of 10m/s, inducing an emf of 20V if
magnetic field, velocity and length of conductor are mutually perpendicular to each other.
A. 1T B. 2T
C. 3T D. 4T
Answer: D
Explanation:
The formula for induced emf is: emf=Blv if B, l, v are perpendicular to each other. Substituting the values of l, emf and v from the
question, we get B=4T.

29. What does emf stand for?

A. Electronic magnetic force B. Electromotive force
C. Electromagnetic force D. Electro mated force
Answer: B
Explanation:
Emf stands for electromotive force. It is the voltage developed by any source of electrical energy.

30. What is emf?

A. Force B. Voltage
C. Current D. Flux
Answer: B
Explanation:
Electromotive force is not actually a force. It is basically a voltage. It is the voltage developed by any source of electrical energy.

Question/Answer
Very Short
1. What is the function of a step-up transformer?
Answer: The function of a step-up transformer is to step-up the alternating voltage.

2. State Lenz’s law.

Answer: It states that the direction of induced emf is such that it opposes the cause of its production.

138
3. How can the self-inductance of a given coil having ‘N’ number of turns, area of cross-section of ‘A’ and length T
be increased?
Answer: By inserting a core of high permeability inside the coil.

4. How does the mutual inductance of a pair of coils change when:

a. the distance between the coils is increased and
b. the number of turns in the coils is increased.
Answer:
(a) decreases
(b) increases.

5. The motion of the copper plate is damped when it is allowed to oscillate between the two poles of a magnet.
What is the cause of this damping?
Answer: Production of eddy current.

6. Why is the core of a transformer laminated?

Answer: To reduce the effects of eddy currents.

7. A metallic piece gets hot when surrounded by a coil carrying a high frequency alternating current. Why?
Answer: Due to the production of eddy current which generates heat.

8. Name any two applications where eddy currents are used to advantage.
Answer:
• Electromagnetic damping
• Induction furnace.

9. A long straight current-carrying wire passes normally through the centre of the circular loop. If the current
through the wire increases, will there be an induced emf in the loop? Justify.
Answer: Yes, as there will be a change in magnetic flux.

10. Predict the polarity of the capacitor in the situation described below.

Answer: The upper plate will be positive with respect to the lower plate in the capacitor.

Short Questions
1. An induced current has no direction of its own, comment.
Answer: Yes, it is perfectly correct to say that an induced current has no fixed direction of its own. The direction of induced
current depends upon the change in magnetic flux because in accordance with Lenz’s law the induced current always opposes
the change in magnetic flux.

2. How are eddy currents produced? Mention two applications of eddy currents?
Answer: Eddy currents are the currents induced in the body of a thick conductor when the magnetic flux linked with the
conductor changes. When a thick conductor is moved in a magnetic field, magnetic flux linked with it changes. In situations like
these, we can have induced currents that circulate throughout the volume of a material.
Because their flow patterns resemble swirling eddies in a river, therefore they are called eddy currents.
• Electromagnetic braking, and
• Induction furnace.

3. Name and define the unit used for measuring the coefficient of mutual inductance. State the relation of this unit with the
units of magnetic flux and electric current.
Answer: In SI the unit of mutual inductance is henry (H). Now from the expression
dϕ dl
ε=− = −M
dt dt
dl
we have M = ε ∣ .
dt
Let ε = 1 volt and dl/dt = 1As − 1, then
139
M = 1 volt /1 As- 1 = 1 henry.
The mutual inductance of a coil is said to be 1 henry if a rate of change of current of 1 ampere per sec in the neighbouring coil
induces in at an emf of 1 volt.

4. What are eddy currents? Write any two applications of eddy currents.
Answer: Eddy currents are the currents induced in the body of a thick conductor when the magnetic flux linked with a bulk
piece of conductor changes.
• Dead Beat Galvanometer, and
• Induction furnace.

5. (a) Obtain the expression for the magnetic energy stored in a solenoid in terms of the magnetic field B, area A and length l
of the solenoid.
(b) How is this magnetic energy per unit volume compared with the electrostatic energy per unit volume stored in a
parallel plate capacitor?
1
Answer: The magnetic field stored in a solenoid is given by the expression U = − Ll2 .
2
But for a solenoid B = μ0 nl
or I = B/μ0 n
Substituting in the above exprestion we have
1 B 2
U = × (μ0 n2 AI) ( ) as L = μ0 n2 AI
2 μ0 n
1 B2 Al
U=
2 μ0
We know that the energy stored per unit volume in a parallel plate capacitor is,
1
UE = ε0 E2
2
It is clear that in both cases the energy stored per unit volume is proportional to the square of the field intensity.

6. State Lenz’s Law.

A metallic rod held horizontally along the east-west direction is allowed to fall under gravity. Will there be an emf induced
at its ends? Justify your answer.
Answer: Lenz’s law states that the polarity of the induced emf is such that it tends to oppose the cause of its production.
Yes, as it will cut the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field.

7. Starting from the expression for the energy W = 1/2Ll2, stored in a solenoid of self-inductance L to build up the current l,
obtain the expression for the magnetic energy in terms of the magnetic field B, area A and length l of the solenoid having n
number of turns per unit length. Hence show that the energy density is given by 8z/2m0.
(a) The magnetic energy is.
(b) The magnetic energy per unit volume is.
Answer:
1 1 B 2
U = LL2 = L ( ) since B = μ0 n ∣
2 2 μ0 n
Now L = μ0 ∩2 Al, therefore we have
1 B 2 1 2
UB = (μ0 ∩ 2AI) ( ) = B Al
2 μ0 n 2μ0
(ii)
UB UB B2
∪B = = =
V Al 2μ0

8. Define mutual inductance. A pair of adjacent coils has a mutual inductance of 1.5 H. If the current in one coil changes from 0
to 20 A in 0.5 s, what is the change of flux linkage with the other coil?
Answer: Mutual inductance is numerically equal to the magnetic flux linked with a coil when the unit current passes through
the neighbouring coil.
Given M = 1.5H, dl = 20 − 0 = 20A,
dt = 0.5s, Φ =?
dl
Φ = −M
dt
20
Or Φ = −1.5 × = −60Wb
0.5

140
Long Questions
1. 11 kW of electric power can be transmitted to a distant station at (i) 220 V or (ii) 22,000 V. Which of the two modes of
transmission should be preferred and why? Support your answer with possible calculations.
Answer:
• Consider that 11000 watts of energy has to be transmitted. First at 220 V and then at 22000 V. When the power is transmitted
at 220 V then the current flowing through the wires is 11000/220 = 50 A
• When power is transmitted at 22000 V then the current through the wires is 11000 / 22000 = 0.5 A. If R is the resistance of
the line wire, then the energy dissipated in the two cases is 2500R joule per sec and 0.25R. joule per sec.
This shows that if energy is transmitted at low voltages there is more loss in energy than when it is transmitted at high
voltages. Furthermore, if power is to be transmitted at low voltage, then the resistance of the line wire should be low, as such
thick wires will be required. To support these thick wires strong poles situated close to each other will be needed. This will
increase the cost of transmission. But at high voltages, even thin wires will do.

2. A coil A is connected to a voltmeter V and the other coil B to an alternating current source D. If a large copper sheet C is
placed between the two coils, how does the induced emf in coil A change due to current in coil B. Justify your answer.

Answer: In the absence of sheet C, an induced emf is set up in coil due to mutual induction phenomenon when an alternating
current is passed through coil B.

However, when induced copper sheet C is placed, eddy currents are set up in the sheet due to a change in flux. Thus, now coil A
has a positive effect due to coil B and a negative effect due to eddy currents in C. Consequently, the flux of coil A and hence the
induced emf in coil A is decreased, i.e., the reading of voltmeter V is reduced.

141
 Chapter – 7 Alternating Current
Introduction

An alternating current can be defined as a current that changes its magnitude and polarity at regular intervals of time. It can also
be defined as an electrical current that repeatedly changes or reverses its direction opposite to that of Direct Current or DC, which
always flows in a single direction as shown below.

From the graph, we can see that the charged particles in AC tend to start moving from zero. It increases to a maximum and then
decreases back to zero completing one positive cycle. The particles then reverse their direction and reach the maximum in the
opposite direction after which AC again returns to the original value completing a negative cycle. The same cycle is repeated and
again.

Alternating currents are also accompanied usually by alternating voltages. Besides, alternating current is also easily transformed
from a higher voltage level to a lower voltage level.
Alternating current can be produced or generated by using devices that are known as alternators. However, alternating current
can also be produced by different methods where many circuits are used. One of the most common or simple ways of generating
AC is by using a basic single coil AC generator, which consists of two-pole magnets and a single loop of wire having a rectangular
shape.

In this setup, the AC generator follows Faraday’s principle of electromagnetic induction where it converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
Meanwhile, AC is supplied to pieces of equipment using 3 wires. They are as follows.
• Power is transmitted by the hot wire.
• The neutral wire which is connected to the earth provides a return path for the current in the hot wire.
• The third wire that is also connected to the earth is linked to the metallic parts of the equipment to mainly eliminate electric
shock hazards.

AC is the form of current that is mostly used in different appliances. Some of the examples of alternating current include audio
signal, radio signal, etc. An alternating current has a wide advantage over DC as AC is able to transmit power over large distances
without great loss of energy.

Application of Alternating Current

AC is used mostly in homes and offices mainly because the generating and transporting of AC across long distances is a lot easier.
Meanwhile, AC can be converted to and from high voltages easily using transformers. AC is also capable of powering electric
motors that further convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. Due to this, AC also finds its use in many large appliances
like refrigerators, dishwashers and many other appliances.

The alternating current

The magnitude of alternating current changes continuously with time and its direction is reversed periodically. It is represented
by
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡 or 𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos⁡ 𝜔𝑡
2𝜋
𝜔= = 2𝜋𝑣
𝑇

Average Value of Alternating Current

The mean or average value of alternating current over any half cycle is defined as that value of steady current which would send
the same amount of charge through a circuit in the time of half cycle (i.e.T/2) as is sent by the alternating current through the
same circuit, in the same time.
To calculate the mean or average value, let an alternating current be represented by 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡 … (1)

If the strength of current is assumed to remain constant for a small time, dtdt, then small amount of charge sent in a small time
dt is
𝑑𝑞 = 𝐼𝑑𝑡 … (2)
142
Let q be the total charge sent by alternating current in the first half cycle (i.e. 0→T/2).
𝑇/2
𝑞=∫ 𝐼𝑑𝑡
0
𝑇/2
cos⁡ 𝜔𝑡 𝑇/2
𝑈sing⁡(1), we get, 𝑞 = ∫ 𝐼0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡 ⋅ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼0 [− ]
0 𝜔 0
𝐼0 𝑇
= − [cos⁡ 𝜔 − cos⁡ 0∘ ]
𝜔 2
10
= − [cos⁡ 𝜋 − cos⁡ 0∘ ](∵ 𝜔𝑇 = 2𝜋)
𝜔
𝐼0 2𝐼0
𝑞 = − [−1 − 1] = … (3)
𝜔 𝜔
If Im represents the mean or average value of alternating current over the 1 st half cycle.

AC Circuit Containing Resistance Only

Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to a pure resistance R, Figure. Suppose the alternating e.m.f. supplied is represented
by
𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡 … (1)
Let 𝐼 be the current in the circuit at any instant 𝑡. The potential difference developed across 𝑅 will be 𝐼. This must be equal to
e.m.f. applied at that instant, i.e., IR = 𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡
𝐸0
or 𝐼 = sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡
𝑅
where 𝐼0 = 𝐸0 /𝑅, maximum value of current.
This is the form of alternating current developed.

Comparing 𝐼0 = 𝐸0 /𝑅 with Ohm's law equation, viz. current = voltage/resistance, we find that resistance to a.c. is represented by
R-which is the value of resistance to dd.c. Hence behaviour of 𝑅 in d.c. and a.c. circuit is the same, 𝑅 can reduce a.c. as well as d.c.
equally effectively.

Comparing (2) and (1), we find that 𝐸 and I are in phase. Therefore, in an a.c. circuit containing 𝑅 only, the voltage and current
are in the same phase, as shown in figure.

Phasor Diagram
In the a.c. circuit containing 𝑅 only, current and voltage are in the same phase. Therefore, in figure, both phasors 𝐼⃗0 and 𝐸⃗⃗0 are in
the same direction making an angle (𝜔𝑡) with 𝑂𝑋. This is so for all times. It means that the phase angle between alternating
voltage and alternating current through 𝑅 is zero. 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡 and 𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡

AC Circuit Containing Inductance

In an a.c circuit containing 𝐿 only alternating current 𝐼 lags behind alternating voltage 𝐸 by a phase angle of 90∘, i.e., by one fourth
of a period. Conversely, voltage across 𝐿 leads the current by a phase angle of 90∘.
Figure (b) represents the vector diagram or the phasor diagram of a.c. circuit containing 𝐿 only. The vector representing 𝐸⃗⃗0 makes
an angle (𝜔𝑡) with OX. As current lags behind the e.m.f. by 90∘, therefore, phasor representing 𝐼⃗0 is turned clockwise through 90∘
from the direction of
𝜋 𝑣0
𝐸⃗⃗0 . 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin⁡ (𝜔𝑡 − ) , 𝐼0 = , 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿
2 𝑥𝐿
A pure inductance offers zero resistance to dc. It means a pure inductor cannot reduce dc. The units of inductive reactance
1 1 1
𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 ⇒ ( henry ) = = 𝑜ℎ𝑚
sec sec amp⁡/𝑠𝑒𝑐
The dimensions of inductive reactance are the same as those of resistance.

AC Circuit Containing Capacitance

Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to a capacitor only of capacitance 𝐶, figure. Suppose the alternating e.m.f. supplied
is
𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡 … (1)

143
The current flowing in the circuit transfers charge to the plates of the capacitor. This produces a potential difference between the
plates. The capacitor is alternately charged and discharged as the current reverses each half cycle. At any instant 𝑡, suppose 𝑞 is
the charge on the capacitor. Therefore, potential difference across the plates of capacitor 𝑉 = 𝑞/𝐶.
At every instant, the potential difference 𝑉 must be equal to the e.m.f. applied i.e.,
𝑞
𝑉 = = 𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡
𝐶
Or 𝑞 = 𝐶𝜀0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡
If 𝐼 is instantaneous value of current in the circuit at instant 𝑡, then
𝑑𝑞 𝑑
𝐼= = (𝐶𝜀0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐼 = 𝐶𝐸0 (cos⁡ 𝜔𝑡)𝜔
𝐸0
𝐼= sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋/2)⁡ … (2)
1/𝜔𝐶

The current will be maximum i.e.,

𝐼 = 𝐼0 , when sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋/2) = maximum = 1
𝐸0
∴ ⁡ From (2), 𝐼0 = × 1⁡ … (3)
1/𝜔𝐶
Put in (2), 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋/2)⁡ … (4)

This is the form of alternating current developed.

Comparing (4) with (1), we find that in an a.c. circuit containing 𝐶 only, alternating current leads the alternating e.m.f. by a phase
angle of 90∘. This is shown in figure (b) and (c). The phasor diagram or vector diagram of a.c. circuit containing 𝐶 only in shown
in figure (b). The phasor 𝐼⃗0 is turned anticlockwise through 90∘ from the direction of phasor 𝐸⃗⃗0 . Their projections on 𝑌𝑂𝑌 ′ give
the instantaneous values 𝐸 and 𝐼 as shown in figure (b). When 𝐸0 and 𝐼0 rotate with frequency 𝜔, curves in figure (c). are
generated.

Comparing (3) with Ohm's law equation, viz current = voltage/resistance, we find that (1/𝜔𝐶) represents effective resistance
offered by the capacitor. This is called capacitative reactance and is denoted by 𝑋𝑐 ,
1 1
Thus, 𝑋𝐶 = =
𝜔𝐶 2𝜋𝑉𝐶
The capacitative reactance limits the amplitude of current in a purely capacitative circuit in the same way as the resistance limits
the current in a purely resistive circuit. Clearly, capacitative reactance varies inversely as the frequency of a.c. and also inversely
as the capacitance of the condenser.

In a d.c. circuit, 𝑣 = 0, ∴ 𝑋𝐶 = ∞
1 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑋𝑐 = = sec =
𝜔𝐶 farad coulomb
volt
volt⁡sec.
𝑋𝑐 = = 𝑜ℎ𝑚
amp.sec

AC Circuit Containing Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance and Series

Phasor Treatment
Let a pure resistance 𝑅, a pure inductance 𝐿 and an ideal capacitor of capacitance 𝐶 be comnected in series to a source of
alternating e.m.f. figure. As 𝑅, 𝐿, 𝐶 are in series, therefore, current at any instant through the three elements has the same
amplitude and phase. Let it be represented by 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡
However, voltage across each element bears a different phase relationship with the current. Now,

(i) The maximum voltage across 𝑅 is

⃗⃗𝑅 = 𝐼⃗0 𝑅
𝑉
In figure, current phasor 𝐼⃗0 is represented along 𝑂𝑋.
As 𝑉⃗⃗𝑅 is in phase with current, it is represented by the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴, along 𝑂𝑋
⃗⃗𝐿 = 𝐼⃗0 𝑋𝐿
(ii) The maximum voltage across 𝐿 is 𝑉
As voltage across the inductor leads the current by 90∘, it is represented by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 along OY, 90∘ ahead of 𝐼⃗0.
(iii) The maximum voltage across 𝐶 is 𝑉⃗⃗𝐶 = 𝐼⃗0 𝑋𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ rotated clockwise through 90∘
As voltage across the capacitor lags behind the alternating current by 90∘, it is represented by 𝑂𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
from the direction of 𝐼⃗0 ⋅ 𝑂𝐶 is along 𝑂𝑌 ′

144
Series RLC Circuit

Let a pure resistance 𝑅, a pure inductance 𝐿 and an ideal condenser of capacity 𝐶 be connected in series to a source of alternating
e.m.f. Suppose the alternating e.m.f. supplied is
𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡⁡ … (1)
At any instant of time 𝑡, suppose
𝑞 = charge on capacitor
𝐼 = current in the circuit
𝑑𝐼
= rate of change of current in the circuit
𝑑𝑡
𝑞
potential difference across the condenser =
𝐶
𝑑𝐼
potential difference across inductor = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
potential difference across resistance = 𝑅𝐼
∴ The voltage equation of the circuit is
𝑑𝐼 𝑞
𝐿 + 𝑅𝐼 + = 𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡⁡ … (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝐼 𝑑2𝑞
As 𝐼 = , therefore, =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
∴ The voltage equation becomes
𝑑2 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞
𝐿 2 +𝑅 + = 𝐸0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡⁡ … (3)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶

This is like the equation of a forced, damped oscillator. Let the solution of equation (3) be
𝑞 = 𝑞0 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝑑𝑞
∴ = 𝑞0 𝜔cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝑑𝑡
2
𝑑 𝑞
= −𝑞0 𝜔2 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝑑𝑡 2
Substituting these values in equation (3), we get
𝐿[−𝑞0 𝜔2 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)] + 𝑅𝑞0 𝜔cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝑞0
sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) = 𝐸0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡
𝐶
1
𝑞0 𝜔 [𝑅cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) − 𝜔𝐿sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) + sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)] = 𝜔𝑡
𝜔𝐶
1
As 𝜔𝐿 = 𝑋𝐿 and = 𝑋𝐶 , therefore
𝑂𝐶
𝑞0 𝜔[𝑅cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)] = 𝐸0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡
Multiplying and dividing by,
𝑍 = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2 , we get
𝑅 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿
𝑞0 𝜔𝑍 [ cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) + sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)] = 𝐸0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡⁡ … (4)
𝑍 𝑍
𝑅 𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿
Let = cos⁡ 𝜙 and = sin⁡ 𝜙⁡ … (5)
𝑍 𝑍
𝑋𝑐 −𝑋𝐿
So that tan⁡ 𝜙 = ⁡ … (6)
𝑍
∴ 𝑞0 𝜔𝑍[cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)cos⁡ 𝜙 + sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)sin⁡ 𝜙] = 𝐸0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡
or
𝑞0 𝜔𝑍cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 − 𝜙) = 𝐸0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐸0 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜋/2)
Comparing the two sides of this equation, we find that 𝐸0 = 𝑞0 𝜔𝑍 = 𝐼0 𝑍, where 𝐼0 𝑞0 𝜔⁡ … (8)
and 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 − 𝜙 = 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜋/2
−𝜋
∴𝜃−𝜙=
2
−𝜋
or 𝜃 = + 𝜙⁡ … (9)
2
145
Current in the circuit is
𝑑𝑞 𝑑
𝐼= = [𝑞0 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)] = 𝑞0 𝜔cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)⁡using (8)
Using (9), we get, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 − 𝜋/2)
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)⁡ … (10)
(𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿 )
From}(6), 𝜙 = tan−1 ⁡ ⁡ … (11)
𝑅
As cos2 ⁡ 𝜙
+ sin2 ⁡ 𝜙
=1
𝑅 2 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 2
∴( ) +( ) =1
𝑍 𝑍
𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 ) = 𝑍 2
2

𝑍 = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2 ⁡ … (12)

AC circuit containing resistance & inductance

Let a source of alternating e 𝑚𝑓 be connected to an ohmic resistance 𝑅 and a coil of inductance 𝐿, in series as shown in figure.

𝑍 = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2
We find that in RL circuit, voltage leads the current by a phase angle 𝜙, where
𝐴𝐾 𝑂𝐿 𝑉𝐿 𝐼0 𝑋𝐿
tan⁡ 𝜙 = = = =
𝑂𝐴 𝑂𝐴 𝑉𝑅 𝐼0 𝑅
𝑋𝐿
tan⁡ 𝜙 =
𝑅

AC Circuit Containing Resistance and Capacitance

Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to an ohmic resistance 𝑅 and a condenser of capacity 𝐶, in series as shown in figure.

𝑍 = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2
Figure represents phasor diagram of 𝑅𝐶 circuit. We find that in RC circuit, voltage lags behind the current by a phase angle 𝜙,
where
𝐴𝐾 𝑂𝐶 𝑉𝐶 𝐼0 𝑋𝐶
tan⁡ 𝜙 = = = =
𝑂𝐴 𝑂𝐴 𝑉𝑅 𝐼0 𝑅
𝑋𝐶
tan⁡ 𝜙 =
𝑅

Energy Stored in an Inductor

When a.c. is applied to an inductor of inductance 𝐿, the current in it grows from zero to maximum steady value 𝐼0 If 𝐼 is the current
at any instant 𝑡, then the magnitude of induced e m.f. developed in the inductor at that instant is,
𝑑𝐼
𝐸 = 𝐿 ⁡ … (1)
𝑑𝑡
The self-induced e.m.f. is also called the back e.m.f., as it opposes any change in the current in the circuit.
Physically, the self inductance plays the role of inertia. It is the electromagnetic analogue of mass in mechanics. Therefore, work
needs to be done against the back e.m.f. 𝐸. in establishing the current. This work done is stored in the inductor as magnetic
potential energy.

For the current 𝐼 at an instant 𝑡, the rate of doing work is,

𝑑𝑊
= 𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑡
If we ignore the resistive losses, and consider only inductive effect, then
𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝐼
Using (1), = 𝐸𝐼 = 𝐿 × 𝐼 or 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐿𝐼𝑑𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Total amount of work done in establishing the current 𝐼 is,
1 1
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫0 𝐿𝐼𝑑𝐼 = 𝐿𝐼2
2
Thus, energy required to build up current in an inductor = energy stored in inductor,

146
 1
𝑈𝐵 = 𝑊 = 𝐿𝐼2
2

Electric resonance

Series Resonance Circuit

A circuit in which inductance 𝐿, capacitance 𝐶 and resistance 𝑅 are connected in series, and the circuit admits maximum current
corresponding to a given frequency of a.c., is called series resonance circuit.
The impedance (𝑍) of an RLC circuit is given by

1 2
𝑍 = √𝑅2 + (𝜔𝐿 − ) ⁡ … (1)
𝜔𝐶
At very low frequencies, inductive reactance 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 is negligible, but capacitive reactance (𝑋𝐶 = 1/𝜔𝐶) is very high.
As frequency of alternating e.m.f. applied to the circuit is increased, 𝑋1 goes on increasing and 𝑋𝑐 goes on decreasing. For a
particular value of 𝜔(= 𝜔𝑡 , say ) 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝑐
1 1
i.e., 𝜔𝑟 𝐿 = or 𝜔𝑟 =
𝜔𝑟 𝐶 √𝐿𝐶
1 1
2𝜋𝑣𝑟 = or 𝑣𝑟 =
√𝐿𝐶 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
At this particular frequency 𝑣𝑓 as 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝑐 , therefore, from (1)
𝑍 = √𝑅2 + 0 = 𝑅 = minimum
𝐸0 𝐸0
i.e. impedance of RLC circuit is minimum and hence the current 𝐼0 = = becomes maximum. This frequency is called series
𝑍 𝑅
resonance frequency.
The 𝑄 factor of series resonant circuit is defined as the ratio of the voltage developed across the inductance or capacitance at
resonance to the impressed voltage, which is the voltage applied across 𝑅.
i.e.,
voltage across 𝐿 or 𝐶
i.e. ⁡𝑄 =
applied voltage ( = voltage across 𝑅)
(𝜔𝑟 𝐿)𝐼 𝜔𝑟 𝐿
𝑄= =
𝑅𝐼 𝑅
Or
(1/𝜔𝑟 𝐶)𝐼 𝐼
𝑄= =
𝑅𝐼 𝑅𝐶𝜔𝑟
1
Using 𝜔𝑟 = , we get
√𝐿𝐶

𝐿 1 1 𝐿
𝑄= = √
𝑅 √𝐿𝐶 𝑅 𝐶
1√𝐿𝐶 1 𝐿
or 𝑄 = = √
𝑅𝐶 𝑅 𝐶

1 𝐿
Thus 𝑄 = √ ⁡ … (1)
𝑅 𝐶

𝜔𝑟
The quantity ( ) is regarded as a measure of the sharpness of resonance, i.e., 𝑄 factor of the resonance circuit is the ratio of
2Δ𝜔
resonance angular frequency to bandwidth of the circuit (which is a difference in angular frequencies at which power is half the
maximum power or current is 𝐼0 /√2.

Note:
The relation (3) is applicable to all a.c. circuits. cos⁡ 𝜙 and 𝑍 will have appropriate values for different circuits.
For example:
𝑅
(i) In PL circuit, 𝑍 = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2 and cos⁡ 𝜙 =
𝑍
𝑅
(ii) 𝐼𝑛⁡𝑅𝐶 circuit, 𝑍 = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2 and cos⁡ 𝜙 =
𝑍
(iii) In LC circuit, 𝑍 = 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐 and 𝜙 = 90∘
𝑅
(iv) In RLC circuit, 𝑍 = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 and cos⁡ 𝜙 =
𝑍
𝐸𝑣
In all a.c. circuits, 𝐼𝑣 =
𝑍

Power Factor of an AC Circuit

We have proved that average power/cycle in an inductive circuit is
147
𝑃 = 𝐸𝑣 𝐼𝑣 cos⁡ 𝜙⁡ … (1)
Here, 𝑃 is called true power, (𝐸𝑉 , 𝐼𝑉 ) is called apparent power or virtual power and cos⁡ 𝜙 is called power factor of the circuit.

true power (𝑃)

Thus, Power factor = = cos⁡ 𝜙⁡ … (2)
apparent power (𝐸𝑣 𝐼𝑣 )
𝑅
= ⁡⁡ [from impedance triangle]
√𝑅2 +(𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶 )2
Resistance
Power factor = cos⁡ 𝜙 =
Impedance
In a non-inductance circuit, 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
𝑅 𝑅
∴ Power factor = cos⁡ 𝜙 = = = 1, 𝜙 = 0∘
√𝑅2 𝑅
This is the maximum value of the power factor. In a pure inductor or an ideal capacitor, 𝜙 = 90∘ .
Power factor = cos⁡ 𝜙 = cos⁡ 90∘ = 0.
Average power consumed in a pure inductor or ideal a capacitor, 𝑃 = 𝐸𝑣 𝐼𝑦 cos⁡ 90∘ = Zero. Therefore, current through pure 𝐿 or
pure 𝐶, which consumes no power for its maintenance in the circuit is called Idle current or Watt less current.

In actual practice, we do not have an ideal inductor or ideal capacitor. Therefore, there does occur some dissipation of energy.
However, inductance and capacitance continue to be most suitable for controlling current in a.c. circuits with minimum loss of
power.

AC Generator or AC Dynamo

An a.c. generator/dynamo is a machine that produces alternating current energy from mechanical energy. It is one of the most
important applications of the phenomenon.
of electromagnetic induction. The generator was designed originally by a Yugoslav scientist, Nikola Tesla. The word generator is
a misnomer because nothing is generated by the machine. In fact, it is an alternator converting one form of energy into another.

Principle
An a.c. generator/dynamo is based on the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, i.e., whenever the amount of magnetic flux
linked with a coil changes, an e.m.f. is induced in the coil. It lasts so long as the change in magnetic flux through the coil continues.
The direction of the current induced is given by Fleming's right-hand rule.

Construction
The essential parts of an a.c. dynamo is shown in the figure.
1 Armature: 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is a rectangular armature coil. It consists of a large number of turns of insulated copper wire wound over a
laminated soft iron core, I. The coil can be rotated about the central axis.
2 Field Magnets: 𝑁 and 𝑆 are the pole pieces of a strong electromagnet in which the armature coil is rotated. Axis of rotation is
perpendicular to the magnetic field lines. The magnetic field is of the order of 1 to 2 tesla.
3 Slip Rings: 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are two hollow metallic rings, to which two ends of armature coil are connected. These rings rotate with
the rotation of the coil.
4 Brushes: 𝐵1 and 𝐵2 are two flexible metal plates or carbon rods. They are fixed and are kept in light contact with 𝑅1 and 𝑅2
respectively. The purpose of brushes is to pass on current from the armature coil to the external load in resistance 𝑅.

Theory and Working:

As the armature coil is rotated in the magnetic field, angle 𝜃 between the field and normal to the coil changes continuously.
Therefore, magnetic flux linked with the coil changes. An e.m.f. is induced in the coil.

To start with, suppose the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the plane of the paper in which magnetic field is applied, with 𝐴𝐵
at front and 𝐶𝐷 at the back, figure (a). The amount of magnetic flux linked with the coil in this position is maximum. As the coil is
rotated anticlockwise (or clockwise), 𝐴𝐵 moves inwards and 𝐶𝐷 moves outwards. The amount of magnetic flux linked with the
coil changes. According to Fleming's right-hand rule, current induced in 𝐴𝐵 is from 𝐴 to 𝐵 and in 𝐶𝐷, it is from 𝐶 to 𝐷. In the
external circuit, current flows from 𝐵2 to 𝐵1 , figure (a).

After half the rotation of the coil, 𝐴𝐵 is at the back and 𝐶𝐷 is at the front, figure. Therefore, on rotating further, 𝐴𝐵 moves outwards
and 𝐶𝐷 moves outwards and 𝐶𝐷 moves inwards. The current induced in 𝐴𝐵 is from 𝐵 to 𝐴 and in 𝐶𝐷, it is from 𝐷 to C. Through
external circuit, current flows from 𝐵1 to 𝐵2 ; figure (b). This is repeated. Induced current in the external circuit changes direction
after every half rotation of the coil. Hence the current induced is alternating in nature.

To calculate the magnitude of e.m.f. induced, suppose

148
𝑁 = number of turns in the coil,
𝐴 = area enclosed by each turn of the coil
⃗⃗ = strength of magnetic field
𝐵
𝜃 = angle which normal to the coil makes with 𝐵 ⃗⃗ at any instant t, figure.
Magnetic flux linked with the coil in this position
𝜙 = 𝑁(𝐵⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝐴⃗) = 𝑁𝐵𝐴cos⁡ 𝜃 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴cos⁡ 𝜔𝑡⁡ … (1)
where 𝜔 is angular velocity of the coil.
As the coil is rotated, 𝜃 changes; therefore, magnetic flux 𝜙 linked with the coil changes and hence an e.m.f. is induced in the coil.
At the instant 𝑡, if 𝑒 is the e.m.f. induced in the coil, then
−𝑑𝜙 𝑑
𝑒= = − (𝑁𝐴𝐵cos⁡ 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑒 = −𝑁𝐴𝐵 (cos⁡ 𝜔𝑡) = −𝑁𝐴𝐵(−sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡)𝜔
𝑑𝑡
𝐸 = 𝑁𝐴𝐵𝜔sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡⁡ … (2)
The induced e.m.f. will be maximum, when
sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡 = maximum = 1
emax = 𝑒0 = 𝑁𝐴𝐵𝜔 × 1⁡ … (3)
Put in (2), 𝑒 = 𝑒0 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡⁡ … (4)
The variation of induced e.m.f. with time (i.e. with position of the coil) is shown in figure.

Transformer

A transformer which increases the a.c. voltage is called a stepup transformer. A transformer which decreases the a.c. voltages are
called a step-down transformer.

Principle
A transformer is based on the principle of mutual induction, i.e., whenever the amount of magnetic flux linked with a coil changes,
an e.m.f. is induced in the neighbouring coil.

Construction
A transformer consists of a rectangular soft iron core made of laminated sheets, well insulated from one another, figure. Two
coils 𝑃1 𝑃2 (the primary coil) and 𝑆1 𝑆2 (the secondary coil) are wound on the same core, but are well insulated from each other.
Note that both the coils are also insulated from the core. The source of alternating e.m.f. (to be transformed) is connected to the
primary coil 𝑃1 𝑃2 and a load resistance 𝑅 is connected to the secondary coil 𝑆1 𝑆2 through an open switch 𝑆. Thus, there can be no
current through the secondary coil so long as the switch is open.
For an ideal transformer, we assume that the resistances of the primary and secondary windings are negligible.
Further, the energy losses due to magnetic hysteresis in the iron core is also negligible. Well-designed high capacity transformers
may have energy losses as low as 1%.

Theory and Working

Let the alternating e.m.f. supplied by the a.c. source connected to primary be,
𝐸𝑝 = 𝐸0 sin 𝜔𝑡 … (1)

As we have assumed the primary to be a pure inductance with zero resistance, the sinusoidal primary current 𝐼𝑝 lags the primary
voltage 𝐸𝑝 by 90∘. The primary's power factor, cos⁡ 𝜙 = 90∘ = 0. Therefore, no power is dissipated in primary. The alternating
primary current induces an alternating magnetic flux 𝜙𝐵 in the iron core. Because the core extends through the secondary
winding, the induced flux also extends through the turns of the secondary.

According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. the induced e.m.f. per turn (𝐸tro ) is same for both, the primary and
secondary. Also, the voltage 𝐸𝑝 across the primary is equal to the e.m.f. induced in the primary, and the voltage 𝐸𝑠 across the
secondary is equal to the e.m.f. induced in the secondary. Thus,
𝑑𝜙𝐵 𝐸𝑝 𝐸𝑠
𝐸𝑡𝑢𝑚 = = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑛𝑝 𝑛𝑠
Here, 𝑛𝑝 ; 𝑛𝑠 represent total number of tums in primary and secondary coils respectively:
𝑛𝑎
𝐸𝑎 = 𝐸𝑝 ⁡ … (2)
𝑛𝑝

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If 𝑛𝑠 > 𝑛𝑝 ; 𝐸𝑠 > 𝐸𝑝 , the transformer is a step up transformer. Similarly, when 𝑛𝑠 < 𝑛𝑝 ; 𝐸𝑠 < 𝐸𝑝 . The device is called a step down
𝑛𝑠
transformer. = 𝐾 represents transformation ratio.
𝑛𝑝
Now, the rate at which the generator/source transfer energy to the primary = 𝐼𝑝 𝐸𝑝 . The rate at which the primary then transfers
energy to the secondary (via the alternating magnetic field linking the two coils) is 𝐼𝑠 𝐸𝑠 .
As we assume that no energy is lost along the way, conservation of energy requires that
𝐼𝑝 𝐸𝑝 = 𝐼𝑠 𝐸𝑠
𝐸𝑝
∴ 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑝
𝐸𝑠
From (2),
𝐸𝑝 𝑛𝑝
=
𝐸𝑠 𝑛𝑠
𝑛𝑃 𝐼𝑝
∴ 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑝 = ⁡ … (3)
𝑛𝑠 𝐾

For a step up transformer, 𝐸𝑠 > 𝐸𝑝 ; 𝐾 > 1 ∴ 𝐼𝑠 < 𝐼𝑝 i.e. secondary current is weaker when secondary voltage is higher, i.e.,
whatever we gain in voltage, we lose in current in the same ratio.
The reverse is true for a step-down transformer.
𝑛 𝐸𝑠 𝑛
From eqn. (3) 𝐼𝑝 = 𝐼𝑠 ( 𝑠 ) = ( 𝑠)
𝑛𝑝 𝑅 𝑛𝑝
1 𝑛 𝑛
Using equation (2), we get 𝐼𝑝 = ⋅ 𝐸𝑝 ( 𝑠 ) ( 𝑠 )
𝑅 𝑛𝑝 𝑛𝑝
2
1 𝑛𝑠
𝐼𝑝 = ( ) 𝐸𝑝 ⁡ … (4)
𝑅 𝑛𝑝
𝑛 2
resistance 𝑅𝑒𝑞 is 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = ( ) 𝑅⁡ … (5)
𝑝
𝑛𝑠

Thus 𝑅𝑒𝑞 is the value of load resistance as seen by the source/generator, i.e., the source/generator produces current 𝐼𝑝 and
voltage 𝐸𝑝 as if it were connected to a resistance 𝑅𝑒𝑞
−1 Efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output to the input

power.
Output power 𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝑠
i.e., 𝜂 = =
Input power 𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝
In an ideal transformer, where there is no power loss, 𝜂 = 1 (i.e. 100% ). However, practically there are many energy losses.
Hence the efficiency of a transformer in practice is less than one (i.e. less than 100% ).

Energy Losses in a Transformer

Following are the major sources of energy loss in a transformer:
1. Copper loss is the energy loss in the form of heat in the copper coils of a transformer. This is due to Joule heating of
conducting wires. These are minimized using thick wires.
2. Iron loss is energy loss in the form of heat in the iron core of the transformer. This is due to the formation of eddy currents
in the iron core. It is minimised by taking laminated cores.

3. Leakage of magnetic flux occurs in spite of the best insulations. Therefore, the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with
each turn of 𝑆1 𝑆2 is less than the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with each turn of 𝑃1 𝑃2 It can be reduced by winding
the primary and secondary coils one over the other.

4. Hysteresis loss. This is the loss of energy due to repeated magnetisation and demagnetisation of the iron core when a.c. is
fed to it. The loss is kept to a minimum by using a magnetic material that has a low hysteresis loss.

5. Magnetostriction, i.e., humming noise of a transformer.

6. Therefore, the output power in the best transformer may be rough 90% of the input power.

Consequences of Displacement Current

The discovery of displacement current is of great importance as it has established a symmetry between the laws of electricity
and magnetism. Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction states that the magnitude of the emf induced in a coil is equal to the
rate of change of magnetic flux linked with it. Since, the emf between two points 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the measure of maximum work done
in taking a unit charge from point 𝐴 to 𝐵, therefore, the existence of an emf shows the existence of an electric field. It is due to
this fact, Faraday concluded that a changing magnetic field with time gives rise to an electric field.
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Maxwell's concept is that a changing electric field with time gives rise to displacement current which also produces a magnetic
field similar to that of conduction current. It is in fact, a symmetrical counterpart of Faraday's concept, which led Maxwell to
conclude that the displacement current is also a source of the magnetic field. It means the time-varying electric and magnetic
fields give rise to each other. From these concepts, Maxwell concluded the existence of electromagnetic waves in a region where
electric and magnetic fields were changing with time.

Maxwell's Equations and Lorentz Force

In the absence of any dielectric or magnetic material, the four Maxwell's equations are given below?
(i). This equation is Gauss's Law in electrostatics.
The electric lines of force do not form a continuous closed path.
⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑠⃗ = 0. This equation is Gauss's Law in magnetostatics.
(ii) ∮⁡ 𝐵
𝑠
The magnetic lines of force always form closed paths.
⃗⃗ = − 𝑑 ∫ 𝐵
(iii) ∮⁡𝐸⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑑⃗ℓ ⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑠⃗. This equation is Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
𝑑𝑡
The line integral of electric field around any closed path (i.e., the emf) is equal to the time rate of change of magnetic flux
through the surface bounded by the closed path.
⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐼 + 𝜇0 ∈0 𝑑 ∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑠⃗. This equation is generalised form of Ampere's law as Modified by Maxwell and is also
⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑑ℓ
(iv) ∮⁡𝐵
𝑑𝑡
known as Ampere-Maxwell law.

The electromagnetic waves are those wave in which there are sinusoidal variation of electric and magnetic field vectors at right
angles to each other as well as at right angles to the direction of wave propagation.
1
𝑐= … (10)
√𝜇0 𝜖0
where 𝜇0 and are permeability and permittivity of the free space respectively-
We know, 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑊𝑏𝐴𝐴−1 𝑚−1
Putting these values in (10), we have 𝑐 = 3.00 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 where 𝜇 ∈ are the absolute permeability and absolute permittivity of
the medium. We also know that 𝜇 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 and where are the relative permeability and relative permittivity of the medium.
1 𝑐
Therefore, ⁡𝑣 = =
√𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝜖0 𝜖𝑟 √ 𝜇𝑟 𝜖 𝑟
1
[∵ 𝑐 = ]
√𝜇0 𝜖0
Maxwell also concluded that electromagnetic wave is transverse in nature and light is electromagnetic wave.

Intensity of Electromagnetic Wave

The intensity of electromagnetic wave at a point is defined as the energy crossing per second per unit area normally around
that point during the propagation of the electromagnetic wave.
Consider the propagation of electromagnetic waves with speed 𝑐 along the 𝑋-axis. Take an imaginary cylinder of the area of
cross-section 𝐴 and length c Δ𝑡, so that the wave crosses the area A normally. Figure. Let 𝑢𝑑𝑣 be the average energy density of
electromagnetic wave.

The energy of electromagnetic wave (𝑈) crossing the area of crosssection at 𝑃 normally in time Δ𝑡 is the energy of wave contained
in a cylinder of length 𝑐Δ𝑡 and area of cross-section 𝐴. It is given by 𝑈 = 𝑢𝑚 (𝑐Δ𝑡)𝐴 The intensity of electromagnetic wave at 𝑃 is,
𝑈
𝐼=
𝐴Δ𝑡
𝑢𝑤 𝑐Δ𝑡𝐴
=
𝐴Δ𝑡
= 𝑢𝑎𝑣 𝑐
1
In terms of maximum electric field, 𝑢𝑥𝑣 = ∈0 𝐸02
2
1 𝐵02
So, In terms of maximum magnetic field, 𝑢𝑎𝑣 =
2 𝜇0
1 𝐵02
so 𝐼 = 𝑐
2 𝜇0
1 2
= 𝐵𝜋𝑥𝑠 𝑐
𝜇0

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Electromagnetic spectrum

After the experimental discovery of electromagnetic waves by Hertz, many other electromagntic waves were discovered by
different ways of excitation.

The orderly distribution of electromagnetic radiations according to their wavelength or frequency is called the electromagnetic
spectrum.

The electromagnetic spectrum has much wider range with wavelength variation 10−14 𝑚 to 6 × 102 𝑚. The whole electromagnetic
spectrum has been classified into different parts and subparts in order of increasing wavelength, according to their type of
excitation. There is overlapping in certain parts of the spectrum, showing that the corresponding radiations can be produced by
two methods. It may be noted that the physical properties of electromagnetic waves are decided by their wavelengths and not by
the method of their excitation.

The table given below shows the various parts of the electromagnetic spectrum with approximate wavelength range, frequency
range, their sources of production and detections.

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 Multiple Choice Questions
1. If 𝐸𝑜 be the peak e.m.f. of alternating voltage, then root mean square e.m.f. will be:
A. √𝐸𝑜 B. 𝐸𝑜 √2
C. 𝐸𝑜 /2 D. 𝐸𝑜 /√2
Answer: D
Explanation:
From above it is clear that, the relation between the peak value of alternating e.m.f. value of current (𝐸0 ) and r.m.s. value of e.m.f.
𝑬𝒐
is 𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 = .
√𝟐

𝜋
2. A circuit element ' 𝑋 ' when connected to peak voltage of 200𝑉, a peak current of 5𝐴 flows which lags behind the voltage by .
2
A circuit element 𝑌 when connected to same peak voltage, same peak current flows which is in phase with the voltage. Now 𝑋
and 𝑌 are connected in series with same peak voltage. The rms value of current through the circuit will be:
A. 5𝐴 B.
5
𝐴
√2
C. 2.5𝐴 D. 5√2𝐴
Answer: C
Explanation:
Let Voltage 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 Sin⁡(𝑤𝑡)
𝑉 = 200Sin⁡(𝑤𝑡)
When connected to "X",
𝜋
The current flowing lags "⋁" by
2
𝜋
= 5Sin⁡ (𝑤𝑡 − )
2
𝜋
Since the current lags "𝑉" by , the element "𝑋" would be the inductor.
2
Then reactance "X" would be = 200/5 = 40 ohm
The reactance "𝑋" = 40𝑗.
When connected to "𝑌", the current 5𝐴 is in phase with the voltage.
So, the "𝑌" will be a resistor.
Resistance "Y" = 200/5 = 40 ohm.
The "𝑋" and "𝑌" are connected in series to the same applied voltage.
The net impedance would be = 40 + 40𝑗
The current I' flowing, when connected in series, will be,
200
𝐼′ =
40 + 40𝑗
200
𝐼′ =
(√(402 + 402 ))
5
Peak Value of 𝐼′ =
√2
𝐼′
The RMS value of I' will be =
√2
5
=
2
= 2.5𝐴.

3. Alternating current cannot be measured by d.c ammeter because:

A. d.c ammeter get damaged B. average value of current over a complete cycle is zero
C. a.c cannot pass through d.c ammeter D. a.c changes directions periodically
Answer: B
Explanation:
In a dc ammeter, a coil is free to rotate in the magnetic field of a fixed magnet. If an alternating current is passed through such a
coil, the torque will reverse its direction each time the current changes direction, and the average value of the torque will be zero.
Hence, the average current value over a complete cycle is zero and the alternating current cannot be measured by the DC
ammeter.

4. An alternating emf is given by 𝑉 = 400sin⁡(100𝜋𝑡) volt. The rms value of the emf is:
A. 400𝑉 B. 200√2𝑉
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 C. 200𝑉 D. 100√2𝑉
Answer: B
Explanation:
Given, 𝑉 = 400sin⁡(100𝜋𝑡)
Comparing given equation from equation 1,
Then, Peak current V0 = 400, frequency 𝜔 = 100𝜋
𝑉0
The rms value of the emf is 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
400
⇒ 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 200√2
√2

5. The ratio of the mean value over half cycle to the r.m.s. value of an AC of:
A. 2: 𝜋 B. 2√2: 𝜋
C. √2: 𝜋 D. √2: 1
Answer: B
Explanation:
RMS means Root-Mean-Square of instantaneous current,
𝐼0
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ⋯ (1)
√2
The mean value or average value of a half cycle of an ac source,
2𝐼0
𝐼mean = ⋯ (2)
𝜋
From equations (1) and (2), the ratio of the mean value over half cycle to the r.m.s. value is
2𝐼0
𝐼mean
⇒ = 𝜋
𝐼rms 𝐼0
√2
𝐼mean 2√2
⇒ =
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝜋

6. In Alternating Current (AC), the direction and magnitude of the current varies
A. Randomly B. Periodically
C. Exponentially D. Do not vary
Answer: B
Explanation:
In Alternating Current (AC), the direction and magnitude of the current vary periodically.

7. An ac voltage 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑚 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡 applied to a capacitor drives a current in the capacitor, 𝑖 = _______.

A. 𝑖𝑚 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜋/2) B. 𝑖𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜋)
C. 𝑖𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋) D. 𝑖𝑚 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋/2)
Answer: D
Explanation:
From the above explanation, we can see that for a pure capacitance circuit if AC
voltage of 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑚 sinwt then the driven current in the capacitor will be
𝐼 = 𝑖𝑚 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
Now as mentioned for pure inductor phase angle will be lagging by 90∘ or 𝜋/2.
i.e., 𝜙 = 𝜋/2 ⇒ 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋/2)

8. Value of current in an A.C. circuit is 𝐼 = 2cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃). The value of 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 is:
A. √2𝐴 B. 1/√2𝐴
C. 2𝐴 D. 1/2𝐴
Answer: A
Explanation:
Given – I = 2cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
The value of I will be maximum when cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) is maximum,
The maximum value of cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) = 1
Therefore,
⇒ 𝐼0 = 2𝐴
So,

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 𝐼𝑜 2
⇒ 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = √2𝐴
√2 √2

9. The peak value of an A.C. is 2√2𝐴, its rms value will be:
A. 1𝐴 B. 2𝐴
C. 4𝐴 D. Zero
Answer: B
Explanation:
Given that:
Peak current (𝐼0 ) = 2√2𝐴
𝐼𝑜
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
2√2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 2𝐴
√2
The rms value is 2𝐴.

10. A DC voltmeter is capable of measuring a maximum of 300 volts. If it is used to measure the voltage across a device operating
at 220 volt AC supply, the reading of the voltmeter will be:
A. 0 volt B. 330 volts
C. 110 volts D. 220 volts
Answer: B
Explanation:
C voltmeter can not measure AC voltages. When used in AC circuits, DC Voltmeter gives zero reading because the average value
of alternating voltage over a full cycle is zero. So, the reading of the voltmeter will be 0 volts, as a DC voltmeter cannot be used
for measuring AC potential difference as it is current direction oriented.

11. AC power is expressed as __________. (Where 'i'm amplitude of the AC current and 'R' is circuit resistance)
A. 𝑖𝑚2 𝑅2 𝑖 ⁡2 𝑅
B. 𝑚
2

C.
𝑖𝑚 𝑅 2 D. 𝑖𝑚 𝑅2
2
Answer: B
Explanation:
From the above explanation, we can see that power decapitated by any circuit can be expressed as
𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = = 𝐼2 𝑅
𝑅
Whereas for A.C current the above expression can be expressed as
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝑉𝑚 𝑖𝑚 𝑖𝑚 ⁡2 𝑅
𝑃= × = … (∵ 𝑉𝑚 = 𝑖𝑚 𝑅)
√2 √2 2

12. The frequency of an alternating current is 50 Hz. In how much time does it reverse its direction?
1 1
A. second B. second
10 100
C. 10 second D. 100 second
Answer: B
Explanation:
Given that:
Frequency (𝑣) = 50𝐻𝑧
Time period (𝑇) = 1/𝑣 = 1/50𝑠𝑒𝑐
So the time taken to complete one oscillation = 1/50𝑠𝑒𝑐

155
Since this time is the time for one complete oscillation, but the current changes its direction at midpoints (half-wave) itself.
So time for reverse the direction = 𝑇/2 = 1/100𝑠𝑒𝑐

13. If an alternating current is represented by 𝑖 = 10sin⁡ 314𝑡, where 𝑡 is in seconds, then its frequency is around:
A. 40𝐻𝑧 B. 50𝐻𝑧
C. 60𝐻𝑧 D. 70𝐻𝑧
Answer: B
Explanation:
Given: eq ⁡𝑛 of 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑖 = 10sin⁡ 314𝑡
Compare it with the general equation of current
𝐼 = 𝐼0 Sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡
𝐼0 = 10𝐴, 𝜔 = 314
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
so,
2𝜋𝑓 = 314
2 × 3.14𝑓 = 314
𝑓 = 100/2 = 50𝐻𝑧
𝑓 = 50𝐻𝑧

14. An AC of 50 Hz is flowing through a conducting wire. How many times the current becomes zero in one second?
A. 25 B. 75
C. 100 D. 125
Answer: C
Explanation:
Frequency, f = 50 Hz
This means that there are 50 cycles in each second. Since each cycle will have two points of zero value, the number of times the
current becomes zero in one second = 2 × number of cycles in one second = 2 × 50 = 100 times.

15. The current measured by an ammeter connected in an a.c. circuit is 20𝐴, the value of maximum current is:
A. 10√2𝐴 B. 10/√2𝐴
C. 20√2𝐴 D. 20 × 1.11𝐴
Answer: C
Explanation:
Given - r.m.s. current (𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) = 20𝐴
The relation between the peak value of a.c. value of current (𝐼0 ) and r.m.s. value of the current is given as
𝐼𝑜
⇒ 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
⇒ 𝐼0 = 20√2

16. What is impedance's reciprocal?

A. Admittance B. Filter circuit
C. Hysteresis D. Flux leakage
Answer: A
Explanation:
Admittance is an indicator of the ease with which a connection or mechanism permits a current to pass. Impedance is the
resistance presented by a connection to a flow when a value is given. Comparing admittance and impedance, admittance is the
opposite (inverse) of impedance. Consequently, it serves the opposite purpose of resistance. Consequently, admittance is
described as the inverse of impedance, similar to how conductivity and resistance are described.

17. Why is the DC ammeter incapable of measuring alternating current?

A. AC is incompatible with DC ammeters B. AC modifies its course
C. AC is virtual D. Zero is the average value of a whole cycle.
Answer: D
Explanation:
A.C. current has alternating values, the average amount of current for a whole period is zero, and actual speeds are between 50
and 60 hertz, meaning it switches indications more than 100 times per sec, which isn't really apparent on D.C. ammeters.
An alternating current is a cyclic current, which implies that its cycle resumes after a fixed amount of time. Occasionally, or after
a fixed amount of space, its polarity is reversed. The alternating current has a positive electrical charge during the first half cycle
and negative polarity during the second half cycle. The maximum integer figure in both orientations is the same. Consequently,
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the mean result of an alternating current phase is usually zero.

18. What is the wavelength aka frequency of India's AC Mains?

A. 30 Hz B. 50 Hz
C. 90 Hz D. 40 Hz
Answer: B
Explanation:
The primary reason for the Indian power supply norm of 220-250 Volts and 50 Hz is because the Indian temperature is greater
and high intensity might heat cabling, etc. In the mountainous region in the north, the weather is low. However, we cannot alter
the wavelength of the energy to 60Hz since we would also need to update the specifications for all electronic systems.

19. Alternating current may be generated by a:

A. Current B. Dynamo
C. Frequency D. Self-induction
Answer: B
Explanation:
Alternators and dynamos are the two most common forms of electromagnetic converters. Dynamos employ commutators to
generate pulsing direct energy. The basic practicable generator consists of a revolving rectangular coil in a magnetic force of
constant intensity. A persistent magnet typically supplies the magnetic field. When a wire coil spins inside a magnetic force,
magnetic energy passes through it. As a result, the generated potential changes with each half revolution, producing an
alternating current.

20. What tends to happen to the inductive reactance whenever the Ac mains frequency increases?
A. Decreases B. Increases
C. Neutral D. Constant
Answer: A
Explanation:
In accordance with Lenz's law, an inductor resists the passage of power through it by generating a generated emf. The generated
voltage has an orientation that maintains the actual value of the stream. If the current is dropping, the produced emf will have
the opposite polarity to raise the flow, and vice versa. As the induced emf is proportionate to the pace of variation of current, it
will give stronger reactance to the flow of electricity when the rate of shift is quicker, i.e., when the frequency is larger. Hence,
the reactance of inductance is equal to the wavelength.

21. What tends to happen to the Quality (Q) factor when the resistance of an LCR circuit is continued to increase?
A. Increases B. Decreases
C. Neutral D. None of the above
Answer: B
Explanation:
The Q factor is the ratio of energy conserved each cycle to energy lost per cycle. The greater the Q factor, the more electricity can
be retained. The quality factor regulates oscillation dampening. Underdamping occurs when the Q factor is less than 50 per cent.
The quality factor in an LCR loop measures the crispness of an LCR circuit. It is a number without dimensions. The greater the
resonance's intensity, the finer the Q factor. In a series-connected circuitry, recurrence happens when the source frequency
equalises the voltage between the inductor and capacitor.

22. Capacitive reactance in an alternating current circuit is:

A. effective resistance due to capacity B. effective wattage
C. effective voltage D. None of these
Answer: A
Explanation:
Similar to resistance, capacitive reactance is evaluated in ohms of the resistor and is dependent on the rate of the voltage source
and the capacitor's magnitude. In an AC circuit, the capacitor is continually charged and released. The capacitor loads and releases
as the Ac source voltage rises and falls. We are aware that the power flowing through a capacitor opposes the rate of increase of
the input load. Similar to a resistive, the capacitance in an AC circuit provides resistance to the passage of electricity.

23. Which of the following describes the power factor?

A. Impure resistor B. Resistor
C. Pure resistor D. None of the above
Answer: C
Explanation:
157
When an alternating current flows through an electrical system, a phase mismatch between the voltage and stream develops.
This phase shift is contingent upon the sort of load linked to the circuit. This phase difference is reflected by the power factor.
Consequently, the active power is only the cosine of the ratio between volts and flow. If an alternating circuit consists of a single
pure resistor, it is a completely resistive connection. No matter whether the form of energy (AC or DC) is provided to a completely
resistive circuitry, the current will always move in phase with the input signal since the resistor exhibits the same properties for
both types of supply.

24. Energy is lost in the LCR circuit by:

A. L only B. C only
C. R only D. All of the above
Answer: C
Explanation:
There is always an energy loss in RLC circuits dependent on the nature of the components and the operating electrical
parameters. In an LCR circuitry, energy is dissipated only via the resistance since the phase shift between the current and volts
is zero. A resistor is a mechanism that resists the passage of current through it, and resistance includes the conversion of electrical
potential into thermal energy. The decline in resistance is equivalent to the stream and, thus, to the power dissipation on the
transistor.

25. An acceptor circuit is:

A. Series resonant circuit B. Parallel resonant circuit
C. LCR circuit D. None of these
Answer: A
Explanation:
The series resonant circuit is often referred to as an 'acceptor' circuit. By providing the lowest possible resistance to the stream
at the harmonic resonance, it is able to choose or accept one specific frequency above others. Because during resonance, the
circuit's resistivity is at its lowest. Therefore, merely take the flow whose frequency corresponds to its frequency range, or we
may say that it operates mostly at equilibrium.
At its frequency responsiveness, the acceptor circuit gives the highest responsiveness
to currents. As a sequential resonance circuit, the only purpose of radiation characteristics and acceptor circuit resistance is
minimal, but the voltage may be amplified.

26. In parallel resonant circuit:

A. Impedance is very high B. The current is very high
C. Voltage is very high D. None of these
Answer: A
Explanation:
An inductor and capacitors are connected to one another in a parallel resonant circuit. Additionally, a generator of alternating
current is connected to this concurrent combination of attributes. High resistance in the parallel resonant circuitry has the impact
of causing the circuitry to deny the wavelength of the incoming ac voltage that is identical to the resonant frequency.
This occurs when the wavelength of the input ac electrical equals the resonant frequency. Due to the fact that this attribute may
be used to both enable and disable the passage of current at a certain frequency across a circuitry, this circuit is utilised as a
rejector loop.

27. Transformer functions on the principle of:

A. Convertor B. Invertor
C. Mutual induction D. Self-induction
Answer: C
Explanation:
The Voltage Transformer is an electrical element, as opposed to an electrical component. A converter is essentially a static (or i
mmobile) passive electromagnetic electronic appliance. Using Faraday's rule of induction, this device converts electrical power
from one number to another.
The transformer does this by connecting two or more electronic circuits through a time-varying magnetic circuit formed by the
generator itself. The operation of a transformer is based on electromagnetic induction in the manner of Mutual Induction.
Mutual induction is the technique by which one wire coil magnet generates a voltage
into a nearby coil. Therefore, transformers operate in the "magnetic field." Transformers are so-called because they "change"
one voltage or flow level into another.

28. The phase difference between the alternating current and emf is TE/2. Which ofthe following cannot be the constituent of the
circuit?
158
 A. C alone B. L alone
C. L and C D. R and L
Answer: C
Explanation:
When both L and C components are there then phase difference could be zero, less than or greater than π/2.

29. In an LCR-series ac circuit, the voltage across each of the component L, C and R is 50 V. The voltage across the LC-combination
will be:
A. 50 V B. 50√2 V
C. 100 V D. Zero
Answer: D
Explanation:
The voltage across L and C are out of phase. Hence the voltage across the LC combination is zero.

30. In an LCR circuit, capacitance is charged from C to 2C. For resonant frequency to remain unchanged, the inductance should
be changed from L to:
A. L B. 2 L
C. L/2 D. L/4
Answer: C
Explanation:
Since, Resonance frequency,
1
𝑣𝑟 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
when 𝐶 is changed 2𝐶, 𝐿 should be change to 𝐿/2.

Question/Answer
Very Short
1. The instantaneous current flowing from an ac source is l = 5 sin 314 t. What is the rms value of current?
Answer:
5
The rms value of current is
√2

2. The instantaneous emf of an ac source is given by E = 300 sin 314 t. What is the rms value of emf?
Answer:
300
The rms value of voltage is
√2

3. Give the phase difference between the applied ac voltage and the current in an LCR circuit at resonance.
Answer: The applied ac voltage and the current in an LCR circuit at resonance are in phase.
Hence phase difference = 0.

4. What is the phase difference between the voltage across the inductor and the capacitor in an LCR circuit?
Answer: The phase difference is 180°.

5. What is the power factor of an LCR series circuit at resonance?

Answer: The power factor is one.

6. In India, the domestic power supply is at 220 V, 50 Hz, while in the USA it is 110 V, 50 Hz. Give one advantage and one
disadvantage of 220 V supply over 110 V supply.
Answer:
Advantage: less power loses
Disadvantage: more fatal.

7. Define the term ‘wattles current’.

Answer: It is the current at which no power is consumed.

8. In a series LCR circuit, VL = VC ≠ VR. What is the value of the power factor?
Answer: One.
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9. Define capacitor reactance. Write its SI units.
Answer: It is the opposition offered to the flow of current by a capacitor. It is measured in ohm.

10. Define quality factor in series LCR circuit. What is its SI unit?
Answer: The quality factor is defined as the ratio of the voltage developed across the capacitor or inductor to the applied voltage.
It does not have any unit.

Short Questions
1. State the phase relationship between the current flowing and the voltage applied in an ac circuit for (i) a pure resistor (ii) a
pure inductor.
Answer:
(i) Electric current and voltage applied in a pure resistor are in same phase, i.e., Φ = 0°
(ii) Applied voltage leads electric current flowing through pure inductor in an ac circuit by phase angle of π/2.

2. A light bulb is in turn connected in a series (a) across an LR circuit, (b) across an RC circuit, with an ac source. Explain, giving
the necessary mathematical formula, the effect on the brightness of the bulb in case (a) and (b), when the frequency of the
ac source is increased.
Answer:
a) The current in LR circuit is given by
V
∣=
√R + ω2 L2
2

When the frequency of ac source ω increases, 1 decrease, and hence brightness decreases.
(b) The current in RC circuit is given by,
V
I=
√R2 + 21 2
ω C
When the frequency of ac source ω increases, 1 increase, and hence brightness increases.

3. An air-core solenoid is connected to an ac source and a bulb. If an iron core is inserted in the solenoid, how does the
brightness of the bulb change? Give reasons for your answer.
Answer: Insertion of an iron core in the solenoid increases its inductance. This in turn increases the value of inductive reactance.
This decreases the current and hence the brightness of the bulb.

4. A bulb and a capacitor are connected in series to an ac source of variable frequency. How will the brightness of the bulb
change on increasing the frequency of the ac source? Give reason.
Answer: When the frequency of the ac is increased, it will decrease the impedance of the circuit as Z = √R2 + (1/2πfC)2 . As a
result, the current and hence the brightness of the bulb will increase.

5. An ideal inductor is in turn put across 220 V, 50 Hz, and 220 V, 100 Hz supplies. Will the current flowing through it in the
two cases be the same or different?
V V
Answer: The current through the inductor is given by ∣= = . The current is inversely proportional to the frequency of
XL 2πfL
applied ac.

6. State the condition under which the phenomenon of resonance occurs in a series LCR circuit, plot a graph showing the
variation of current with a frequency of ac source in a series LCR circuit.
Answer: The phenomenon occurs when the inductive reactance becomes equal to the capacitive reactance., i.e., XL − X C
1
⁡⇒ ωL =
ωC
1
⁡⇒ ω =
√LC
The graph is as shown below.

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7. Give two advantages and two disadvantages of ac over dc.
Answer:
Advantages of ac:
• The generation and transmission of ac are more economical than dc.
• The alternating voltage may be easily stepped up or down as per need by using suitable transformers.
• Disadvantages of ac:
o It is more fatal than dc.
o It cannot be used for electrolysis.

8. In a series, LCR circuit connected to an ac source of variable frequency and voltage v = vm sin ωt, draw a plot showing the
variation of current (l) with angular frequency (ω) for two different values of resistance R1 and R2 (R 1 > R2). Write the
condition under which the phenomenon of resonance occurs. For which value of the resistance out of the two curves, a
sharper resonance is produced? Define the Q-factor of the circuit and give its significance. (CBSE Delhi 2013C)
Answer:
The plot is as shown.

Resonance occurs in an LCR circuit when,

XL = XC .
The smaller the value of R sharper is the resonance. Therefore, the curve will be sharper for R 2 . It determines the sharpness of
the resonance. The larger the value of Q sharper is the resonance.

Long Questions
1. Prove mathematically that the average power over a complete cycle of alternating current through an Ideal inductor is zero.
Answer:
Let the instantaneous value of voltage and current in the ac circuit containing a pure inductor are,
V = Vm sin ωt and
l = lm sin (ωt – π/2) = – lm cos ωt
where π/2 is the phase angle by which voltage Leads currently when ac flows through an inductor. Suppose the voltage and
current remain constant for a small-time dt. Therefore, the electrical energy consumed in the small-time dt is dW = V l dt
The total electrical energy consumed in one time period of ac is given b
T T
W = ∫0 VIdt = −∫0 Vm sin⁡ ωt. Im cos⁡ ωtdt
T
⁡= −Vm Im ∫0 sin⁡ ωtcos⁡ ωtdt
Im Vm T
or W = − ∫0 2sin⁡ ωtcos⁡ ωtdt
2
Im Vm T
or W = − ∫0 sin⁡ 2ωtdt
2
Im Vm cos⁡(2ωt) T
or W = − [− ] =0
2 2ω 0
Therefore, the total electrical energy consumed in an ac circuit by a pure inductor is W = 0
Now average power is defined as the ratio of the total electrical energy consumed over the entire cycle to the time of the cycle,
therefore,

Hence, the average power consumed in an ac circuit by a pure inductor is P av = 0

Thus, a pure inductor does not consume any power when ac flows through it. Whatever energy is used in building up current is
returned during the decay of current.

2. Draw the phasor diagram of a series LCR connected across an ac source V= Vo sin ωt. Hence, derive the expression for the
impedance of the circuit. Obtain the conditions for the phase angle under which the current is:

161
 (i) maximum and
(ii) minimum.
Answer: The voltages across the various elements are drawn as shown in the figure below.

From the diagram, we observe that the vector sum of the voltage amplitudes V R, VL, and VC equals a phasor whose length is the
maximum applied voltage Vm, where the phasor Vm makes an angle φ with the current phasor lm. Since the voltage phasors, V L
and VC are in opposite direction, therefore, a difference phasor (VL - VC) is drawn which is perpendicular to the phasor VR.
Adding vectorially we have

Vm ⁡= √VR2 + (VL − VC )2

⁡= √(Im R)2 + (Im XL − Im X C )2

2
or Vm = Im √R2 + (XL − XC )2
where XL = ωL and XC = 1/ωC, therefore, we can express the maximum current as
Vm
Im =
√R + (XL − XC )2
2

The impedance Z of the circuit is defined as Z = √R2 + (XL − XC )2

For maximum lm, Z should be minimum (Z = R) or XC = XL = 0 and Φ = 0
For (Im )minΦ → 90∘ (|XC − XL | > R)Z → ∞

162
 Chapter - 8 Electromagnetic Waves
Introduction

• Let us discuss electromagnetic waves, their properties and characteristics, and also their practical uses in our everyday life.
• One of the most important applications of electromagnetic waves is in the field of communication.
• Some of the important applications of electromagnetic waves are as follows:
❖ We are able to see everything surrounding us because of electromagnetic waves.
❖ These waves help in aircraft navigation and help the pilot for smooth take-off and landing of aero-planes. They also help
to evaluate the speed of aero-planes.
❖ In the medical field, these waves have very important applications. For instance, in laser eye surgery and in x-rays.
❖ Radio and television broadcasting signals are transmitted with the help of electromagnetic waves.
❖ Electromagnetic waves help in determining the speed of passing vehicles.
❖ They are utilized in electronic appliances like T.V. remotes, remote cars, LED TV, microwave ovens, etc.
❖ Voice transmission in mobile phones is made possible because of electromagnetic waves.

What are electromagnetic waves?

• Electromagnetic (EM) waves are the waves which are in relation to both electricity and magnetism.
• These waves are basically coupled time varying electric and magnetic fields which propagate in space.
• As these are waves associated with electricity and magnetism, they definitely would propagate in space.
• When electric and magnetic fields combine together and vary with time, they both give rise to electromagnetic waves.
• Electromagnetic equations are derived from Maxwell’s equations.
• Maxwell concluded that these EM waves have so many special properties which can be utilized for many practical purposes.
• Time varying electric field + Time varying magnetic field = Electromagnetic waves.

The given diagram above demonstrates a linearly polarized electromagnetic wave propagating in the z-direction with
oscillating electric field E in the x-direction and oscillating magnetic field B in the y-direction.

Maxwell’s experiments

• Maxwell claimed that time-varying electric fields can generate magnetic fields.
• On the other hand, Faraday-Lenz law claims that a time varying magnetic field generates an electric field.
• According to Faraday-Lenz law, an EMF is induced in a circuit whenever the amount of magnetic flux linked with that circuit
changes.
• As a result, electric current gets generated in the circuit which has an electric field associated with it.

Now, when Maxwell came across this, he claimed that the vice-versa must also be true, i.e., a time varying electric field must
also be able to generate a magnetic field.

Ampere’s circuital law

• According to Ampere’s circuital law, the line integral of the magnetic field over the length element is equal to μ0 times the
total current passing through the surface. Mathematically, ∫ dl = μ0 𝑙
• However, Maxwell found some inconsistencies in Ampere’s circuital law. Hence, Ampere’s circuital law was found to be
correct only for some cases but not always. If Ampere’s circuital law was correct, it must be applicable for all these 3 setups.
163
 Case 1: Maxwell considered a surface of radius r and the circumference of the surface, dl. According to Ampere’s circuital
law;
∫ B. d𝑙 = μ0 𝑙
⇒ B(2πr) = μ0 𝑙
μ0 𝑙
⇒B=
2πr

Case 2: Maxwell considered a surface, like a box with its lid open and applied the Ampere’s circuital law;

∫ B. d𝑙 = μ0 𝑙
Here, as there is no current flowing inside the capacitor, the current, I turned out to be zero.
∫ B. d𝑙 = 0

Case 3: Maxwell considered the surface between 2 plates of a capacitor as shown. In this case also I=0 and hence, B=0

• Clearly, at the same point but with different Amperial surfaces, Maxwell found that the values of magnetic field are not
the same, thus proving his claims on inconsistencies in the law.
• Maxwell pointed that there were some gaps in the Ampere’s circuital law. He rectified them and made Ampere’s circuital
law consistent in all the scenarios.

Ampere-maxwell law

• Since Maxwell was able to correct the shortcomings of the Ampere’s circuital law, the law came to be known as Ampere-
Maxwell law from then onwards.
• Current which arises due to the flow of charges is known as conduction current. It is denoted by 𝐼c .
• Current which arises due to change in the electric field is known as displacement current. It is denoted by 𝐼d
164
• Thus, total current is given by 𝐼 = 𝐼c + 𝐼d
• Ampere-Maxwell law stated that
∫ dl = μ0 (𝐼c + 𝐼d )
⇒ ∫ dl = μ0 Ic + μ0 ε0 (dΦE /dt)
• The above expression is known as modified Maxwell’s law or Ampere-Maxwell law.

Displacement current

• Consider a capacitor and that outside the plates of this capacitor, there is conduction current 𝐼C .
• In the region between the plates i.e., inside the capacitor, let there be a displacement current, 𝐼𝑑 .
• Physical behavior of displacement current is the same as that of induction current.
• Now, the difference between conduction current and displacement current is as given in the table below:

Conduction Current Displacement Current

It arises due to the fixed charges. It arises due to the change in electric field

• For static electric fields, 𝐼𝑑 = 0 whereas for time varying electric fields, 𝐼𝑑 ≠ 0
• There can be some scenarios where there would only be conduction current and in some other cases where there would only
be displacement current.
• However, outside the capacitor, there is only conduction current and no displacement current.
• Also, inside the capacitor there is only displacement current and no conduction current.
• But there can be some scenarios where both conduction as well as displacement current are present i.e., when 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝐼𝑑
• Now, applying modified Ampere-Maxwell law to evaluate the magnetic field at the same point of the capacitor considering
various Amperial loops, the result would be the same in all the cases.

Ampere – Maxwell law: Consequences

• Case 1: Magnetic field is given by

∫ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑐
⇒ ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑐 /2𝜋𝑟

• Case 2: Magnetic field is given by

∫ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑑
⇒ ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑑 /2𝜋𝑟

Maxwell’s equations

• Maxwell's equations describe how an electric field can generate a magnetic field and vice-versa. These equations describe
the relationship and behavior of electric and magnetic fields.
• Maxwell gave a set of four equations which are known as Maxwell’s equations. They are:

1. ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑄/𝜀0
(Gauss’s Law for electricity)
165
 2. ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝐴 = 0
(Gauss’s Law for magnetism)

−𝑑𝜙𝐵
3. ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 =
𝑑𝑡
(Faraday’s Law)

𝑑𝜙𝐸
4. ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑖𝑐 + 𝜇0 𝜀0
𝑑𝑡
(Ampere-Maxwell Law)

• According to Maxwell equations;

❖ A flow of electric current will generate a magnetic field and if the current varies with time, magnetic field will also give
rise to an electric field.
❖ The first equation (1) describes the surface integral of an electric field.
❖ The second equation (2) describes the surface integral of a magnetic field.
❖ The third equation (3) describes the integral line of an electric field.

❖ The fourth equation (4) describes the line integral of the magnetic field.

• Maxwell was the first to conclude that the speed of propagation of EM waves is the same as the speed of light. Experimentally,
it was found that
1
𝑐=
√𝜇0 𝜀0
Where,
𝜇0 is the permeability;
𝜀0 is the permittivity;
c is the velocity of light.

• Maxwell’s equations show that the electricity, magnetism and ray optics are all inter-related to each other.

Electromagnetic waves

• Electromagnetic waves refer to the coupled time varying electric and magnetic fields that propagate in space.
• Electric field is varying with time, and it will give rise to magnetic field; This magnetic field is varying with time and it further
gives rise to electric field and the process continues so on.
• These time-varying electric and magnetic fields, coupled with each other when propagating together in space give rise to
electromagnetic waves.
• In the figure given above, the red line represents the electric field and it varies in the form of a sine wave whereas the blue
line represents the magnetic field.
• The magnetic field is also a sine wave but in a perpendicular direction to the electric field.
• Both these fields give rise to electromagnetic fields.
• When the electric field is along the x-axis and the magnetic field along the y-axis, the wave propagates in the z-axis.
• Electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other as well as to the direction of wave propagation.

166
Sources of electromagnetic waves (em)

• Electromagnetic waves are generated when electrically charged particles oscillate (accelerating charges).
• The vibration of electric field associated with the accelerating charge generates a vibrating magnetic field.
• Both these vibrating electric and magnetic fields give rise to EM waves.
• When the charge is at rest, electric field associated with the charge would also be static. Hence, there would be no generation
of EM waves as electric field do not vary with time.
• When the charge is moving with uniform velocity, the acceleration is zero. The change in electric field with time is also
constant and as a result, again there would be no electromagnetic waves generated.
• This shows that only accelerated charges can generate EM waves.
• For example, consider an oscillating charge particle. It has an oscillating electric field which gives rise to an oscillating
magnetic field.
• This oscillating magnetic field further gives rise to an oscillating electric field and so on, this process continues.
• The regeneration of electric and magnetic fields is the same as propagation of the wave.
• Such a wave where all these phenomena occur is known as an electromagnetic wave.
• It is also to be noted that the frequency of an EM wave is always equal to the frequency of the oscillating particle which
generates it.

Nature of EM waves

• EM waves are transverse waves.

• Transverse waves are those in which direction of disturbance or displacement in the medium is perpendicular to that of the
propagation of wave.
• In such a wave, the particles of the medium move in a direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave.

• Suppose the EM wave propagates along the x-axis, then, electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the wave
propagation.
• This means that when wave propagation is → x-axis; electric field → y-axis and magnetic field→ z-axis.
• Clearly, EM waves are transverse waves in nature.
• Now, the electric field of an EM wave is given by,
𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
Where,
𝐸𝑦 = electric field along the y-axis and x is the direction of propagation of the wave.
• Wave number is given by,
𝑘 = (2𝜋/𝜔𝑡)
• Magnetic field of EM wave given by,
𝐵𝑧 = 𝐵0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
𝐵𝑧 = electric field along the z-axis and x is the direction of propagation of the wave.

Energy of EM wave

• When EM waves propagate, they carry energy. Because of this property, they have so many practical uses in our everyday
life.
167
• Energy in an EM wave is partly carried by an electric field and partly by a magnetic field.
• Mathematically,
Total energy stored per unit volume in EM wave, ET= Energy stored per unit volume by electric field + Energy stored per unit
volume stored in magnetic field.
1 1
⇒ 𝐸𝑇 = ( ) (𝐸 2 𝜀0 ) + ( ) (𝐵2 𝜇0 )
2 2
• Experimentally, it has been found that
Speed of the EM wave = Speed of the light
𝐸
⇒𝑐=
𝐵
⇒ 𝐵 = (𝐸/𝑐)
1 1
⇒ 𝐸𝑇 = ( ) (𝐸 2 𝜀0 ) + ( ) (𝐸 2 /𝑐 2 𝜇0 )
2 2
• Now, from Maxwell’s equations;
1
𝑐=
√𝜇0 𝜀0
1 1 𝐸 2 𝜇0 𝜀0
⇒ 𝐸𝑇 = ( ) (𝐸 2 𝜀0 ) + ( ) ( )
2 2 𝜇0
1 1
⇒ 𝐸𝑇 = ( ) (𝐸 2 𝜀0 ) + ( ) (𝐸 2 𝜇0 𝜀0 )
2 2
⇒ 𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸 2 𝜀0
This expression gives the amount of energy carried per unit volume by an EM wave.

Properties of EM waves

• Velocity of EM waves in free space or vacuum is a fundamental constant.

Experimentally, it was found that the velocity of EM waves is the same as the speed of light (𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠)
• c is a fundamental constant given by,
1
𝑐=
√ 0 𝜀0
𝜇

• No material medium is necessary for EM waves. However, they can propagate within a medium as well.
• EM waves need time-varying electric and magnetic fields to propagate.
• When there is medium present, then velocity is given by,
1
𝑣=
√𝜇𝜀
Where,
μ= permeability of the medium;
ε= permittivity of the medium.
For example, consider the case of spectacles; When light falls on the glass of a spectacles, light rays pass through this glass.
i.e., Light waves propagate through a glass medium.
• EM waves carry energy and momentum.
• Total energy stored per unit volume in EM waves is given by,
𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸 2 𝜀0 (Partly carried by electric field and partly by magnetic field).
• As EM waves carry energy and momentum, it becomes an important property for its practical purposes.
• EM waves are used for communication purposes, voice communication in mobile phones and telecommunication used in
radio.
• EM waves exert pressure. As they carry energy and momentum, they exert pressure. The pressure exerted by EM waves is
termed radiation pressure.

For example;
The sunlight which we get from the sun is in the form of visible light rays. These light rays are also a part of EM waves. If we
keep our palm in the sun, after some time, our palm becomes warm and starts sweating. This happens because the sunlight
is getting transferred in the form of EM waves and these EM waves carry energy.
Suppose total energy transferred to the hand =E;
Momentum =(E/c)
Now, as c is extremely high, the momentum turns out to be very small. As momentum is very less, pressure experienced is
also very less. This is the reason due to which the pressure exerted by the sun is not experienced by our palms.
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Electromagnetic spectrum

• Electromagnetic spectrum is the classification of EM waves with respect to their frequency or wavelength.
• Different categories of EM waves in decreasing order of their wavelength are as follows:
❖ Radio waves: > 0.1m
❖ Microwaves: 0.1 m−1mm
❖ Infra-Red: 1mm700nm
❖ Visible light: 700nm -- 400 nm
❖ Ultraviolet: 400 nm−1nm
❖ X-rays: 1nm10−3nm
❖ Gamma rays: <10−3nm
• These seven waves together constitute the electromagnetic spectrum.

Electromagnetic energy of each wave in Electromagnetic Spectrum

• The electromagnetic energy of electromagnetic waves can be described by frequency, wavelength or energy.
• Frequency - Both micro and radio waves are described in terms of frequencies.
• Frequency is the number of crests that pass a given point within one second.
• Consider a wave which has three crests which pass a point in one second. Therefore, its frequency=3Hz. Its SI unit is hertz
(Hz).
• Wavelength - Infrared and visible waves are generally described in terms of wavelength.
• Wavelength is the distance between consecutive crests or troughs.
• Wavelength can vary from a small value to a large value. Its S.I. unit is meter(m).

• Energy - X-rays and Gamma rays are described in terms of energies.

• An EM wave can be described in terms of energy. i.e., in units of eV.
• eV is the amount of kinetic energy needed to move one electron through a potential of one volt.
• Moving along the EM spectrum; energy increases as the wavelength decreases.
• Relation between wavelength and frequency is given by.
𝑐 = 𝑣𝜆
Where,
λ= wavelength;
ν= frequency;
⇒ 𝜆 = (𝑐/𝜈)
⇒ 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = (ℎ𝑐/𝜆)
⇒ 𝐸 ∝ 𝜈 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 ∝ (1/𝜆)
• Thus, EM spectrum in terms of decreasing order of wavelength →R, M, I, V, U, X and G
• Also, the spectrum in terms of increasing order of frequency →G, X, U, V, I, M, and R

Radio waves

• Radio waves are produced by the accelerated motion of charges in conducting wires.
• Important application of radio waves:
❖ Radio and television communication systems.
❖ Mobile phones for voice communication.
• In the electromagnetic spectrum, the wavelength (λ) of radio waves is >0.1m.
169
• Radio waves are further classified into different bands as follows:
❖ AM band (Amplitude Modulated) -530 kHz to 1710 kHz (lowest frequency band). They are similar to FM channels.
❖ Short wave band - up to 54MHz
❖ TV wave band - 54MHz to 890MHz
❖ FM band (Frequency Modulated) - 88MHz to 108MHz
❖ UHF band - Ultra high frequency (used for voice communication over cell phones)

Micro waves

• Micro waves are short wavelength radio waves.

• They are produced by special vacuum tubes (klystrons/magnetrons/Gunn diodes).
• They are used in microwave ovens and radar systems in aircraft navigation.
• RADAR Technology
RADAR - Radio detection and ranging.
Different applications of RADAR:
❖ Air traffic control: To manage air traffic. The pilot must know if any other aero plane is present nearby or not. The pilot
should also know the climatic conditions during take-off and landing.
❖ Radar plays a very important role in aircraft navigation.
❖ Speed detection: The instruments which are used to detect the speed of the vehicles which move on the roads utilize
radar technology.
❖ Military purposes: It helps to detect enemies and weapons.
❖ Satellite tracking: In order to track satellites, radar technology is utilized.

Why do radio waves use microwaves?

Microwave radio is used in broadcasting and telecommunication transmissions because, due to their short wavelength, highly
directional antennas are smaller and therefore more practical than they would be at longer wavelengths (lower frequencies).

Microwave ovens
Microwaves are very useful because:
• They have smaller wavelengths.
• They get absorbed by water, fats and sugar.

Working of microwave oven

• In order to heat anything uniformly, microwave ovens are utilized.
• Any food material would have water, sugar and fats in it.
• When we heat any food material inside the microwave, the microwaves penetrate inside the food.
• Thus, the microwaves get absorbed by the water and the fat molecules.
• The molecules of the food material would start moving randomly with some frequency.
• This is the same as providing some wave to the food material with the same frequency with which the molecules start
vibrating.
• This shows that the frequency of microwave matches with the frequency of the molecules.
• As all the molecules are set in random motion, temperature increases and the food material gets heated uniformly
throughout.
• Objects can be heated in two ways:
❖ Conduction of heat: It happens when anything is heated over a gas burner.
❖ Exciting the molecules: This technique is used in a microwave oven.

Infrared waves

• Known as heat waves as they are produced by hot bodies.

• Their wavelength is lesser than both radio and micro waves.
• They readily get absorbed by water.
• Applications: Infrared lamps/Infrared detector/LED in remote switches of electronic devices/Greenhouse effect.
For example:

170
 ❖ Fire gives out both visible light waves and infrared waves. The light rays are visible to us but the infrared waves cannot
be seen by us.
❖ Humans also generate some infrared waves.
• There are some special glasses which have infrared detectors to view infrared waves.
• Infrared lamps are used to heat food materials and sometimes washrooms.
• When we switch on the TV with the help of a remote, there is an LED both on the TV and on the remote. The signal gets
transferred from remote to TV via infrared waves.
• Greenhouse Effect: Greenhouse effect is an atmospheric heating phenomenon that allows incoming solar radiation to pass
through; but blocks the heat radiated back from the Earth’s surface.
• Consider that the sun gives radiation in the form of visible light to the earth.
• When the visible light reaches the earth’s surface, all the objects on the earth become hot.
• The visible light carries energy from sun and that energy gets transferred to all the objects present on the earth.
• As a result of heat transfer, all the objects get heated up.
• These hot objects transmit infrared waves.
• The earth will re-radiate the infrared waves.
• When these infrared waves try to go out of the atmosphere, they get trapped by greenhouse gases like CO 2, CH4 and water
vapor.
• As a result, heat gets trapped inside the earth, which results in an increase in temperature.
• The greenhouse effect makes earth warm because of which the temperature of the earth is suitable for the survival of life on
earth.
• However, global warming is due to an increase in temperature of the environment, due to pollution.

Visible or Light rays

• Light waves are the most common form of EM wave.

• Their wavelength range is 4 × 1014 𝐻𝑧 − 7 × 1014
• We are able to see everything because of light rays.
• The radiation which we get from the sun is in the form of visible light.
• Most of the insects have compound eyes due to which they see not only the visible light but also the ultraviolet rays.
• Snakes can even see the infrared rays.

Ultraviolet rays (UV rays)

• It covers wavelengths ranging from about 4 × 107 𝑚 (400𝑛𝑚) down to 6 × 1010 𝑚(0.6𝑛𝑚).
• The UV rays are produced by special lamps and very hot bodies like the sun.
• UV rays have harmful effects on humans.
• UV lamps are used to kill germs in water purifiers.
• For example, when UV rays fall on the skin of humans then it leads to the production of a pigment called melamine which
causes tanning of the skin.
• In order to protect from UV rays, glasses are used as the rays get absorbed by these glasses.
• UV rays help in LASER assisted eye surgery. As UV rays have very short wavelength, they can be focused into a narrow beam
of light.
• The ozone layer which is present outside the atmosphere protects us from the harmful UV rays.
• Ozone has a property of reflecting harmful UV rays. But due to the use of CFC (chlorofluorocarbon), the ozone layer is
depleting. So, when ozone layer gets depleted, humans would get exposed to harmful UV rays coming from the sun.

X-Rays

• X-Rays are produced by bombarding a metal target by high energy electrons.

• It is a very important diagnostic tool.
• X-Rays have lesser wavelengths when compared to all other waves.
• Because of this, X-Rays can easily penetrate inside the skin (low density material). It either gets reflected or absorbed by the
high-density material (like bone).
• In any X-Ray, bones look darker while skin looks lighter.

171
• It is also used for cancer treatment. In cancer there is unwanted growth of the cells. In order to treat cancer, the abnormal
growth of cells should be stopped. X-Rays have the ability to damage the living tissue. This is how it helps in the treatment of
cancer.

Gamma rays

• Gamma rays are produced during nuclear reactions and are also emitted by radioactive nuclei.
• These rays are also utilized in the treatment of cancer as they have very small wavelengths. Clearly, they help to kill the
growth of unwanted living cells which grow when the body is suffering from cancer.

172
 Multiple Choice Questions
1. What is the ratio of the speed of infrared and ultraviolet rays in a vacuum?
A. 1:5 B. 2:1
C. 1 D. 0
Answer: C
Explanation: Ratio = 1 because the speed of an electromagnetic wave in vacuum is independent of its wavelength or frequency.
Therefore, the ratio of speed of infrared and ultraviolet rays in a vacuum is one.

2. What is the velocity of electromagnetic wave in free space?

1
A. 𝑐 = √𝜇0 𝜀0 B. 𝑐 =
√𝜇0 𝜀0
1 D. 𝑐 = 𝜇0 𝜀0
C. 𝑐 =
𝜇0 𝜀0
Answer: B
Explanation: The value of c is the same for all types of electromagnetic waves because the constants 𝜇0 and 𝜀0 do not depend
on the frequency or wavelength of the electromagnetic waves. So, the velocity of electromagnetic wave in free space is given as:
1
𝑐 =
√𝜇0 𝜀0

3. Which basic oscillatory circuit is used these days to produce electromagnetic waves?
A. LC oscillatory circuit B. LCR circuit
C. Inductive circuit D. Capacitive circuit
Answer: A
Explanation: LC-oscillatory circuit is used these days to produce electromagnetic waves. It generates electromagnetic waves of
1
frequency, 𝑣 = . Therefore, the basic oscillatory circuit is used these days to produce electromagnetic waves is LC
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
oscillatory circuit.

4. Is the ratio of frequencies of UV rays and IR rays in the glass more than, less than or equal to 1?
A. Insufficient data B. Equal to 1
C. Less than 1 D. More than 1
Answer: D
Explanation: The ratio of frequencies of UV rays and IR rays in the glass is more than 1. This is because the frequency of UV
rays is greater than that of infrared rays. This situation is applicable in glass or vacuum or air.

5. For which frequency of light, the human eye is most sensitive?

A. 55.405 × 1014 Hz B. 95.405 × 1014 Hz
14
C. 5.405 × 10 Hz D. 79.405 × 1014 Hz
Answer: C
Explanation: Human eye is sensitive to light of wavelength ➔ λ =5550 angstrom.
c
So its frequency is v =
λ
108
v = 3 × × 10−10
5550
v = 5.405 × 1014 Hz

6. If the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is doubled, what will happen to the energy of photons?
A. Doubled B. Halved
C. Remains the same D. Becomes zero
Answer: B
Explanation: Energy of a photon,
hc
E = hv = .
λ
1
E ∝ .
λ
When the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is doubled, the energy of the photons is halved.

7. What is the time period of visible light for which human eye is most sensitive?
A. 1.85 × 1015 s B. 1.85 × 10−15 s
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 C. 3 × 108 s D. 5 × 1016 s
Answer: B
1
Explanation: T =
v
λ
T =
c
10−10
T = 5550 × × 108
3
T = 1.85 × 10−15 s.

8. On what basis is the classification of electromagnetic waves done?

A. Electromagnetic spectrum B. Electric field
C. Magnetic field D. Propagation constant
Answer: A
Explanation: The classification of electromagnetic waves done according to the frequency called the electromagnetic spectrum.
The basic difference between various type of electromagnetic waves lies in their wavelength or frequency since all of them
travel through vacuum at the same speed and also, the waves differ in their mode of interaction with matter.

9. Which among the following has a frequency range of 500 kHz to 1000 MHz?
A. Microwaves B. Infrared Waves
C. Radio Waves D. Gamma Rays
Answer: C
Explanation: Radio Waves are generally in the frequency range ➔ 500 kHz to 1000 MHz. Radio waves are used for long-
distance communication, such as in television, mobiles, and radios. These devices receive radio waves and convert them to
mechanical vibrations in the speaker to create sound waves.

10. What is the full form of UHF?

A. Under heavy frequency B. Ultra-high frequency
C. Ultra heavy frequency D. Under high frequency
Answer: B
Explanation: UHF stands for Ultra high frequency. Cellular phones used radio waves to transmit voice communication in the
Ultra high-frequency Band. The UHF band extends from 900 MHz to 5 x 109 Hz or 5000 MHz. Radio waves are produced by
oscillating circuits having an inductor and capacitor.

11. Which among the following is an application of microwaves?

A. Solar cells B. Ovens
C. Radiotherapy D. Burglar alarms
Answer: B
Explanation: Microwave ovens are an application of microwaves. In microwave ovens, the frequency of microwave produced is
matched with the natural frequency of water molecules so that resonance occurs and water molecules in the material vibrate at
the higher amplitude and transfer energy to nearby food molecules, results in heating the food.

12. Identify the electromagnetic wave which is also known as heatwaves.

A. Radio Waves B. Gamma Waves
C. X-Rays D. Infrared Waves
Answer: D
Explanation: Infrared waves are heat radiations also known as heatwaves. These waves are produced by hot bodies and
molecules. They do heating because water molecules present in most of the materials readily absorb infrared waves and their
thermal motion increases, so they heat themselves and also heat their surroundings.

13. Pick out the electromagnetic wave which is highly harmful to humans.
A. Radio waves B. Ultraviolet Rays
C. Microwaves D. Infrared Waves
Answer: B
Explanation: Ultraviolet (UV) radiations in large quantities are highly harmful to humans. These rays in solar radiation on
reaching earth are absorbed by the ozone layer in the atmosphere. UV rays are produced by special lamps such as mercury and
from arc lamps and by very hot bodies like the sun.

14. Monica wanted to take photographs of a monument. But since the surrounding is filled with smoke, she is not able to take
good photos. Which one of the following electromagnetic waves can be used in this situation to help Monica?
174
 A. X-rays B. Gamma rays
C. Ultraviolet rays D. Infrared waves
Answer: D
Explanation: Infrared waves can be used to take photographs during conditions of smoke, fog, etc. as these waves are scattered
less than visible rays and hence travel longer distances through the atmosphere. So, using infrared waves can help Monica out.

15. Which is the frequency range of gamma rays from the following?
A. 1 × 1018 to 3 × 1022 Hz B. 3 × 10−18 to 5 × 1022 Hz
18 22
C. 3 × 10 to 5 × 10 Hz D. 3 × 10−18 to 5 × 10−22 Hz
Answer: C
Explanation: The frequency range of Gamma rays is 3 × 1018 to 5 × 1022 Hz. These rays have a wavelength of
6 × 10−13 to 10−10 m. Gamma rays are produced in nuclear reactions and are also emitted by radioactive nuclei.

16. A radio can tune to any station in the frequency range from 2.5 MHz to 15 MHz bands. What is the corresponding
wavelength band?
A. 30 m to 130 m B. 40 m to 140 m
C. 20 m to 120 m D. 10 m to 110 m
Answer: C
Explanation: Maximum wavelength in the band will correspond to the lowest frequency:
c = fmin λmax
c 3 × 108
λmax = = = 120 m
fmin 2.5 × 106
Minimum wavelength in the band will correspond to the highest frequency:
c = fmax λmin
c 3 × 108
λmin = = = 20 m
fmax 15 × 106
Therefore, the corresponding wavelength band is 20 m to 120 m.

17. The speeds of microwaves, infrared waves, and ultraviolet waves are Vm, Vi, and Vu respectively. Identify the correct
combination showing the different waves in vacuum.
A. V m > Vi > Vu B. Vm = Vi = Vu
C. Vm < Vi < Vu
D. Vm > Vi < Vu
Answer: B
Explanation: The correct combination is ➔ Vm = Vi = Vu . This is because, in vacuum, all the electromagnetic waves in question
will travel at the same speed. The speed with which they travel in vacuum is the speed of light. (c = 3 × 108 m/s).

18. Electromagnetic radiation has an energy of 15 keV. Then this radiation belongs to which region of electromagnetic waves?
A. X rays B. Infrared rays
C. Gamma rays D. UV rays
Answer: A
Explanation: Given: Energy (E) = 15 keV
hc
The required equation ➔ λ(in Å) =
E(ineV)
12400
λ=
15 × 103
λ = 0.826 Å = 0.826 × 10−10 m
X rays cover wavelengths ranging from above 10−8 m to 10−13 m. Therefore, this electromagnetic radiation belongs to the
region of X rays.

19. Pick out the correct increasing order of energy of electromagnetic waves from the following.
A. Einfrared < Emicro < Evisible < Eultraviolet < B. Emicro < Einfrared < Evisible < Eultraviolet <
Egamma Egamma
C. Emicro < Einfrared < Evisible < Egamma < D. Emicro < Einfrared < Eultraviolet < Evisible <
Eultraviolet Egamma
Answer: B
Explanation: The energy of electromagnetic waves is directly proportional to the frequency of the electromagnetic waves. So
the order of frequency is given as:
𝐕micro < Vinfrared < Vvisible < Vultraviolet < Vgamma
175
Since E=hv ➔ E ∝ v
The order of energy is as follows:
𝐄micro < Einfrared < Evisible < Eultraviolet < Egamma

20. Which of the following cannot travel in vacuum?

A. Radio waves B. Gamma Waves
C. Infrared Waves D. Infrasonic waves
Answer: D
Explanation: Radio waves, gamma waves, and infrared waves are electromagnetic waves and due to this they do not need any
material medium to travel and hence, can travel in vacuum. Whereas, infrasonic waves are mechanical waves and so, they need a
material medium to travel. Therefore, infrasonic waves cannot travel in vacuum.

21. Which of the following colours is least scattered by fog?

A. Violet B. Blue
C. Red D. Yellow
Answer: 3
Explanation:
Scattering of light: The phenomenon in which the light ray is redirected in all other directions on passing through particles of
dimensions comparable to the wavelength of the light used is called scattering of light.

22. Which defect of vision is corrected using cylindrical lenses in spectacles ?

A. Mypia B. Hypermetropia
C. Astigmatism D. Loss of accommodation
Answer: 3
Explanation:
Astigmatism: The defect in the vision that causes blurred vision because of irregular curvature of eyes cornea or lens is called
astigmatism.

23. If a light ray travels from denser to rarer medium. Which of the following statement/s are correct?
(A) Energy increases
(B) Frequency remain same
(C) Phase changes by 90°
(D) Velocity increases
Choose the correct answer from the Answer:s given below :
A. (B) only B. (B) and (D) only
C. (D)and (C) only D. (D) only
Answer: B
Explanation:
When a light ray travels from a denser to a rarer medium, it undergoes refraction, and several properties of the light wave change.
The properties that change include the velocity, wavelength, frequency, and phase.

24. The magnetic field of a plane electromagnetic wave is given by Bx = 2 × 10−7 sin (0.6 × 103 y + 2 × 1011 t) T. An
expression for its electric field is :
A. Ex = 2 × 10−7 sin (0.6 × 103 y + 2 × B. Ey = 60 sin (0.6 × 103 y + 2 × 1011 t) V/M
11
10 t) V/M
C. Ez = 2 × 10−7 sin (0.6 × 103 y + 2 × D. Ez = 60 sin (0.6 × 103 y + 2 × 1011 t) V/M
11
10 t) V/M
Answer: B : Ey = 60 sin (0.6 × 103 y + 2 × 1011 t) V/M
Explanation:
Given,
The magnetic field in a plane electromagnetic wave, Bx = 2 × 10−7 sin (0.6 × 103 y + 2 × 1011 t) T.
Take, the speed of light, c = 3 × 108 ms−1
The relation between the magnitude of the electric field and the magnetic field is given as E0 = B0 c
E0 = 2 × 10−7 × 3 × 108
E0 = 60 V/m

25. Which of the following rays are used in doing LASIK (Laser - Assisted in Situ keratomileusis) eye surgery?
A. Ultraviolet rays B. Infrared rays
C. Gamma rays D. Micro waves
176
Answer: A
Explanation:
• LASIK (Laser-Assisted in Situ Keratomileusis) is a type of refractive surgery that uses a laser to correct vision problems.
• During the LASIK procedure, a surgeon uses a laser to reshape the cornea, which is the clear front part of the eye.
• The laser used in LASIK surgery is an ultraviolet excimer laser.
• Therefore, ultraviolet excimer laser rays are used in doing LASIK eye surgery.

26. What is the velocity of light in a diamond if the refractive index of diamond with respect to vacuum is 2.5?
A. 1.2 × 108 m/s B. 5 × 108 m/s
10
C. 1.2 × 10 m/s D. 2.5 × 108 m/s
Answer: A
Explanation:
Given that:
Refractive index of the diamond (µd)= 2.5
We know
The velocity of light in vacuum (c) = 3 × 108 m/s
To find the velocity of light in diamond (v)
Now,
𝑐 3×108 3×108
𝜇𝑑 = or, 2.5 = or,𝑣 = = 1.2 × 108 m/s
𝑣 𝑣 2.5

27. Colour vision in human eyes is the function of photoreceptor cells named
A. Rods B. Cones
C. Blind spot D. Fovea
Answer: B
Explanation:
Concept:-
• The human eye is one of the most valuable and sensitive sense organs.
• It uses light and enables us to see the colorful world around us.
• The human eye is more or less like a photographic camera.
• The eye's lens system forms an image of an object on a light-sensitive screen.
• The eyeball is almost spherical, having a diameter of about 23 mm.

28. Which of the following electromagnetic wave has maximum frequency?

A. Radio waves B. X-rays
C. Gamma rays D. Visible rays
Answer: C
Explanation:
CONCEPT:
• Electromagnetic spectrum: The complete range of light that exists in nature is called an electromagnetic spectrum.
• The waves that are created as a result of vibrations between an electric field and a magnetic field is called Electromagnetic
waves.
• The waves of the electromagnetic field, propagating through space and carrying electromagnetic radiant energy is called
electromagnetic radiation.
• It consists of radio waves, microwaves, infrared, light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays.

29. The thin membrane in the eye through which light enters is known as:
A. Iris B. Pupil
C. Cornea D. Aqueous humor
Answer: C
Explanation:
CONCEPT:
• The pupil is a hole through which light enters into our eye.
• It controls the amount of light entering the eye.
• Iris is a muscle in our eye that controls the size of the pupil. It dilates and contracts because of which size of the pupil varies.

30. The refraction index of a rare medium with respect to a denser medium is
A. 1 B. greater than 1
C. smaller than 1 D. negative
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Answer: C
Explanation:
• The medium having more refractive index compared to other medium is called the optically denser medium and the other
medium is optically rarer medium.
• As we know, the value of the refraction index of a rare medium is less than that of a denser medium. Therefore the refraction
index of a rare medium with respect to a denser medium is less than one.

Question/Answer
Very Short
1. Name the part of the electromagnetic spectrum which has the longest wavelength and write its one use.
Answer:
• In the electromagnetic spectrum, long radio waves have the longest wavelength.
• Radio waves are used in communication systems.

2. The small ozone layer on the top of the stratosphere is crucial for human survival. Why?
Answer: The ozone layer absorbs the ultraviolet rays, emitted by the sun, which are harmful to the living tissues of human beings.

3. Name the part of the electromagnetic spectrum which is used in the “greenhouse” to keep plants warm.
Answer: Infrared rays.

4. How are radio waves produced?

Answer: They are produced by rapid acceleration and decelerations of electrons in aerials.

5. How are X-rays produced?

Answer: By the transition of inner-shell electrons.

6. How are microwaves produced?

Answer: By using a magnetron.

7. A plane electromagnetic wave travels in a vacuum along the z-direction. What can you say about the direction of electric and
magnetic field vectors?
Answer: The electric and magnetic field vectors will be along the x and y directions.

8. What is the frequency of electromagnetic waves produced by the oscillating charge of frequency v?
Answer: The frequency of electromagnetic waves produced by the oscillating charge of frequency v is also v.

9. What are the directions of electric and magnetic field vectors relative to each other and relative to the direction of
propagation of electromagnetic waves?
Answer: The three are mutually perpendicular to one other.

10. Welders wear special goggles or face masks with glass windows to protect their eyes from electromagnetic radiation. Name
the radiations and write the range of their frequency.
Answer: UV radiations, 1015 to 1017 Hz.

Short Questions
1. Radio waves and gamma rays both are transverse in nature and electromagnetic in character and have the same speed in a
vacuum. In what respect are they different?
Answer: The radio waves have an atomic origin, while gamma rays have a nuclear origin. Further owing to their very small
wavelength, gamma rays are highly penetrating in comparison to radio waves.

2. Show that the average energy density of the electric field equals the average density of the magnetic field.
1
Answer: The average density of the electric field is given by Ue = ε0 E2 and the average energy density of the magnetic field is
2
B2 E 1 B2 E2 E2 1
given by UB = . But B = and C = , hence the above equation becomes UB = = UB = 1 = ε0 E2 . Hence
2μ0 c √μ0 ε0 2μ0 2μ0 c2 2μ0 × 2
μ0 σ0

the result.

178
3. State four properties of electromagnetic waves.
Answer:
(a) They do not require any material medium to travel.
(b) They are transverse in nature, i.e., electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other and also to the
direction of the propagation of the wave.
(c) The energy of the wave is divided equally amongst the electric and the magnetic field.
(d) They travel, in free space, with a velocity of 3 × 108 m s-1.

4. Electromagnetic radiations with wavelength

a. λ1 are used to kill germs in water purifiers.
b. λ2 are used in TV communication systems.
c. λ3 plays an important role in maintaining the earth’s warmth.
Name the part of the electromagnetic spectrum to which these radiations belong. Arrange these wavelengths in decreasing
order of their magnitude.
Answer:
(a) λ1 – Ultraviolet radiations.
(b) λ2 – Microwaves
(c) λ3 – Infrared rays
Their order is λ1 < λ3 < λ2.

5. Name the constituent radiation of the electromagnetic spectrum which?

a. is used in satellite communication.
b. is used for studying crystal structure.
c. is similar to the radiations emitted during the decay of a radioactive nucleus.
d. is absorbed from sunlight by the ozone layer.
e. produces an intense heating effect.
f. has its wavelength range between 390 nm and 770 nm.
Answer: (a) Microwaves.
(b) X-rays
(c) Gamma rays
(d) UV rays
(e) Infrared rays
(f) Visible light.

6. Name the radiations of the electromagnetic spectrum which are used in:
a. warfare to look through the haze.
b. radar and geostationary satellites
c. studying the structure and properties of atoms and molecules.
Answer:
(a) Infrared rays
(b) Microwaves.
(c) Gamma rays.

7. Why are microwaves used in RADAR?

Answer: Microwaves are electromagnetic waves of very short wavelength. Such waves are used in RADAR due to the reason that
they can travel in a particular direction in the form of a beam without being deflected.

8. Electromagnetic waves with wavelength

a. λ1 are used to treat muscular strain.
b. λ2 are used by an FM radio station for broadcasting.
c. λ3 are used to detect fractures in bones.
d. λ4 are absorbed by the ozone layer of the atmosphere.
Identify and name the part of the electromagnetic spectrum to which these radiations belong. Arrange these wavelengths
in decreasing order of magnitude.
Answer:
(a) Infrared radiations are used to treat muscular strain.
(b) Radio and microwave radiations are used for FM transmission.
(c) X-rays are used to detect fractures in bones.
(d) Ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by the ozone layer of the atmosphere.
179
The decreasing order of their wavelength is λ2 > λ1 > λ4 > λ3.

Long Questions
1. Answer the following:
a. Name the em waves which are used for the treatment of certain forms of cancer. Write their frequency.
b. Thin ozone layer on top of the stratosphere is crucial for human survival. Why?
c. An em wave exerts pressure on the surface on which it is incident. Justify.
Answer:
(a) Gamma rays.
Frequency range > 3 × 1020 Hz
(b) The thin ozone layer on top of the stratosphere is crucial for human survival because it absorbs most of the ultraviolet rays
coming from the sun. If the ozone layer had not been there, then ultraviolet rays would have entered the earth and caused danger
to the survival of the human race.
(c) An em wave carries a linear momentum with it. The linear momentum carried by a portion of a wave having energy U is given
by p = U/c.
Thus, if the wave incident on a material surface is completely absorbed, it delivers energy U and momentum p = U/c to the surface.
If the wave is totally reflected, the momentum delivered is p = 2U/c because the momentum of the wave changes from p to – p.
Therefore, it follows that an em wave incident on a surface exerts a force and hence a pressure on the surface.

2. Answer the following questions:

a. Why is the thin ozone layer at the top of the stratosphere crucial for human survival? Identify to which part of the
electromagnetic spectrum does this radiation belongs and write one important application of the radiation.
b. Why are infrared waves referred to as heat rays? How are they produced? What role do they play in maintaining the
earth’s warmth through the greenhouse effect?
Answer:
(a) The thin ozone layer on top of the stratosphere is crucial for human survival because it absorbs most of the ultraviolet rays
coming from the sun. If the ozone layer had not been there, then ultraviolet rays would have entered the earth and caused danger
to the survival of the human race. This radiation is UV radiation. It is used in sterilization.
(b) Infrared radiations heat up the material on which they fall, hence they are also called heat rays. They are produced by the
vibration of atoms and molecules. After falling on the earth, they are reflected back into the earth’s atmosphere. The earth’s
atmosphere does not allow these radiations to pass through as such they heat up the earth’s atmosphere.

180
 Chapter – 9 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments
Laws of Reflection:

The reflection at a plane surface always takes place in accordance with the following two laws:
(i) The incident ray, the reflected ray and normal to surface at the point of incidence all lie in the sameplane.
(ii) The angle of incidence, i is equal to the angle of reflection r, i. e.,

∠i = ∠r

Formation of Image by the Plane Mirror:

The formation of image of apoint object O by a plane mirror is represented in figure. The image formed I has the following
characteristics:
(i) The size of image is equal to the size of object.
(ii) The object distance = Image distance i.e., OM = MI.
(iii) The image is virtual and erect.

(iv) When a mirror is rotated through a certain angle, the reflected ray is rotated through twice this angle.

Reflection of Light from Spherical Mirror:

a) A spherical mirror is a part cut from a hollow sphere.
b) They are generally constructed from glass.
c) The reflection at spherical mirror also takes place in accordance with the laws of reflection.

Sign Convention:
Following sign conventions are the new cartesian sign convention:
(i) All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror & direction of the incident light is taken as positive. In other words,
the distances measured toward the right of the origin are positive.
(ii) The distance measured against the direction of the incident light are taken as negative. In other words, the distances
measured towards the left of origin are taken as negative.
(iii) The distance measured in the upward direction, perpendicular to the principal axis of the mirror, are taken as positive &
the distances measured in the downward direction are taken as negative.

181
Focal Length of a Spherical Mirror:
a) The distance between the focus and the pole of the mirror is called focal length of the mirror and is represented by f.
b) The focal length of a concave mirror is positive and that of a convex mirror is positive and that of a convex mirror is negative.
𝑅
c) The focal length of a mirror (concave or convex) is equal to half of the radius of curvature of the mirror, i.e., 𝑓 = .
2

Principal Axis of the Mirror:

The straight line joining the pole and the centre of curvature of spherical mirror extended on both sides is called principal axis of
the mirror.

Mirror Formula:
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
Where u= distance of the object from the pole of mirror
v = distance of the image from the pole of mirror
f = focal length of the mirror
𝑟
𝑓=
2
Where r is the radius of curvature of the mirror.

Magnification:
It is defined as the ratio of the size of the image to that of the object.
Linear magnification,
𝐼 𝑣 𝑓−𝑣 𝑓
𝑚= =− = =
𝑂 𝑢 𝑓 𝑓−𝑢
Where I size of image and O= size of object.
Magnification, m is positive, implies that the image is real and inverted.
Magnification, m is negative, implies that the image is virtual and erect.

Refraction:
When a ray of light falls on the boundary separating the two media, there is a change in direction of ray. This phenomenon is
called refraction.

Laws of Refraction.
(i) The incident ray normal at the point of incidence and refracted ray all lie in one plane.
(ii) For the same pair of media and the same colur of light, the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle
of refraction is constant i.e.,
sin⁡ 𝑖
= ⁡𝑎 𝜇𝑏
sin⁡ 𝑟
Where ⁡𝑎 𝜇𝑏 is a constant known as Refractive Index of the

medium 𝑏 with respect to the medium a, i is the angle incidence in medium a and 𝑟 is the angle of refraction in medium 𝑏.

Apparent Depth of a Liquid:

If the object be placed at the bottom of a transparent medium, say water, and viewed from above, it will appear higher than it
actually is.
The refractive index 𝜇 in this case is:
Real Depth
Refractive index of the medium, 𝜇 =
Apparent Depth
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Refraction through a Single Surface:
If 𝜇1 , 𝜇2 are refractive indices of first and second media, R the radius of curvature of spherical surface, formula is
𝜇2 𝜇1 (𝜇2 − 𝜇1 )
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
where 𝑢 and 𝑣 are the distances of the object and the image from the centre of the refracting surface of radius of curvature R
respectively.

Refraction through a Thin Lens:

If 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are radii of curvature of first and second refracting surfaces of a thin lens of focal length f, then lens-makers formula
is
1 𝜇2 − 𝜇1 1 1
=( )( − )
𝑓 𝜇1 𝑅1 𝑅2
If the lens is surrounded by air, 𝜇1 = 1 and 𝜇2 = 𝜇, then
1 1 1
= (𝜇 − 1) ( − )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2

Thin lens formula:

1 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢

Magnification Produced by a Lens:

𝐼 𝑣
𝑚= =
𝑂 𝑢
Where I is size of image and 𝑂 is size of object.

Power of a Lens:
The power of a lens 𝑃 is its ability to deviate the ray towards axis.
1
𝑃= Diopters
𝑓( in metres )
100
⁡= Diopters
𝑓( in cm)

Refraction Through Prism:

When a ray of monochromatic light is refracted by a prism, the deviation 𝛿 produced by the prism is
𝛿 = i+𝑒−A
Where i = angle of incidence
e = angle of emergence
𝐴 = angle of the prism

Angle of Deviation:
The angle of deviation 𝛿m is minimum, when ray passes symmetrically through the prism. The refractive index 𝜇 of the prism is
𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚
sin⁡ ( )
2
𝜇=
𝐴
sin⁡
2

Dispersion:
The splitting of white light into constituent colours is called the dispersion. A prism causes deviation as well as dispersion.
Optical Instruments: Optical instruments are the devices which help human eye in observing highly magnified images of tiny
objects, for detailed examination and in observing very far objects whether terrestrial or astronomical.

Human Eye:
a) It is the most familiar and complicated optical instrument provided by nature to living beings. In this device, light enters
through a curved front surface, called cornea, passes through the pupil - central hole in the iris.
b) The light is focused by the eye lens on the retina.
c) The retina senses light intensity and colour and transmits the electrical signals via optical nerves to the brain.
d) Brain finally processes the information.

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Microscope:
a) A simple microscope is a short focal length convex lens.
b) The magnifying power of a simple microscope is
𝐷
𝑀=1+
𝑓
𝑣 𝐷
c) The magnifying power, 𝑀 of a compound microscope is 𝑀 = 𝑀0 𝑥𝑀𝑒 = (1 + )
𝑢 𝑓𝑒
Where, 𝑀𝑜 and 𝑀𝑒 denotes the linear magnifying of the objective and eye lens.

Telescope:
a) The magnifying power, 𝑀 of refracting telescope is
𝑓0
𝑀=
𝑓𝑒
𝐿 = (𝑓0 − 𝑓𝑒 )
Where 𝐿 is the length of the telescope.
b) For the final image is formed at the least distance of distant vision, the magnifying power is
𝑓0 𝐹𝑒
𝑀 = (1 + )
𝑓𝑒 𝐷
c) The resolving power of a telescope
1.22𝜆
𝜃=
𝑑
Where, 𝜆 = wavelength of light, 𝜃 = angle subtended by the point object at the objective and d = diameter of the objective of the
telescope.

184
 Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following lights deviates the most when it passes through a prism?
A. Red Light B. Violet Light
C. Neither (a) nor (b) D. Both (a) and (b)
Answer: B
Explanation:
Violet Light deviates the most when it passes through a prism.

2. Which of the following phenomena of light results in a mirage?

A. Refraction of light B. Reflection of light
C. Total internal reflection D. Diffraction of light
Answer: C
Explanation:
Total Internal Reflection results in a mirage.

3. For which of the following is the field of view maximum?

A. Concave mirror B. Convex mirror
C. Plane mirror D. Cylindrical mirror
Answer: B
Explanation:
For convex mirrors, the field of view is maximum.

4. What happens when the light is refracted into a medium?

A. Both frequency and wavelength of the light B. The wavelength increases but the frequency
increase remains unchanged
C. Both wavelength and frequency decrease D. The wavelength decreases but the frequency
remains constant
Answer: B
Explanation:
When the light is refracted into a medium its wavelength increases but the frequency remains unchanged.

5. If a glass prism is dipped in water, what happens to its dispersive power?

A. Increases B. Decreases
C. Does not change D. No effect
Answer: B
Explanation:
If a glass prism is dipped in water, its dispersive power decreases.

6. What should be increased to increase the angular magnification of a simple microscope?

A. The power of the lens B. The focal length of the lens
C. Lens Aperture D. Object Size
Answer: A
Explanation:
The power of the lens should be increased to increase the angular magnification of a simple microscope.

7. Which of the following phenomenon is used in optical fibre?

A. Refraction B. Diffraction
C. Scattering D. Total Internal Reflection
Answer: D
Explanation:
Total Internal Reflection is used in optical fibre.

8. Which of the following statements is true for total internal reflection?

A. Light travels from rarer medium to denser B. Light travels from denser medium to rarer
medium medium
C. Light travels in water only D. Light travels in the air only

185
Answer: B
Explanation:
For total internal reflection, the light must travel from a denser medium to a rarer medium.

9. A convex lens is dipped in a liquid whose refractive index is equal to the refractive index of the lens. Then what is its focal
length?
A. Focal Length will become zero B. Focal Length will become infinite
C. Focal length will reduce, but not become zero D. Remains unchanged
Answer: B
Explanation:
The focal length of the lens becomes infinite.

10. For a telescope, the larger the diameter of the objective lens:
A. Greater the resolving power B. Greater the magnifying power
C. Smaller the resolving power D. Smaller the magnifying power
Answer: A
Explanation:
For a telescope, the larger the diameter of the objective lens, the greater the resolving power.

11. The direction of ray of light incident on a concave mirror is shown by PQ while directions in which the ray would travel
after reflection is shown by four rays marked 1, 2, 3 and 4 (Figure). Which of the four rays correctly shows the direction of
reflected ray?

A. 1 B. 2
C. 3 D. 4
Answer: B
Explanation:
Incidence ray P Q is coming through principal focus F so it must be parallel to principal axis, that is, either 2 or 4 . As it is a concave
mirror so, ray cannot go behind the mirror so ray (4) is discarded.

12. A car is moving with at a constant speed of 60𝑘𝑚/ℎ−1 on a straight road. Looking at the rear-view mirror, the driver finds
that the car following him is at a distance of 100𝑚 and is approaching with a speed of 5𝑘𝑚ℎ−1 . In order to keep track of the
car in the rear, the driver begins to glance alternatively at the rear and side mirror of his car after every 2𝑠 ∣ till the other
car overtakes. If the following statement(s) is/are correct?
A. The speed of the car in the rear is 65𝑘𝑚/ℎ. B. In the side mirror the car in the rear would appear
to approach with a speed of 5𝑘𝑚ℎ−1 ∣ to the driver
of the leading car.
C. In the rear view mirror the speed of the D. In the side mirror, the speed of the approaching
approaching car would appear to decrease as the car would appear to increase as the distance
distance between the cars decreases. between the cars decreases.
Answer: D
Explanation:
When rear cat approaches, initially it appears at rest as image is formed at focus. When car approaches nearer this speed will
appear to increase.

13. When an object is placed between f and 2f of a concave mirror, the image formed is:
A. Real, diminished B. Real, magnified
C. Virtual, diminished D. Virtual, magnified
Answer: B
Explanation:
When an object is placed between f and 2f of a concave mirror, the image is formed beyond 2f. The image is real and magnified.
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14. ________ mirror has real focus.
A. Concave B. Convex
C. Plane D. All of the above
Answer: A
Explanation:
In concave mirror, parallel rays after reflection from the mirror actually meet at a point. This point is known is focus. Hence the
focus is real.

15. In two positions concave mirror produces magnified image of given object. The positions are:
A. (i) At C, (ii) at F B. (i) Between F and C, (ii) Between P and P
C. (i) Beyond C, (ii) Between P and F D. (i) At C, (ii) between P and F
Answer: B
Explanation:
When the object is placed between C and P in front of a concave mirror, the imager is formed beyond C. Image is magnified, real
and inverted. When the object is placed between P and F in front of a concave mirror, the image is formed behind the mirror.
Image is magnified, virtual and erect.

16. Convex mirrors are preferred over plane mirrors as rear view mirror in automobile since:
A. The image formed is magnified. B. The image formed is real.
C. The field of view is large. D. It is light weight.
Answer: C
Explanation:
Convex mirrors are preferred over plane mirrors as rear view mirror in automobile since these mirrors have larger field of view
compared to plane and concave mirror.

17. The focal length of a concave mirror is 𝑓. An object is placed at a distance 𝑥 from the focus. The magnification is
𝑓+𝑥 𝑓
A. B.
𝑓 𝑥
𝑥 𝑓
C. D.
𝑓 𝑓+𝑥
Answer: B
Explanation:
𝑢 = 𝑓+𝑥
Using mirror formula, 1/𝑣 + 1/𝑢 = 1/𝑓
∴ 𝑣 = −𝑓(𝑓 + 𝑥)/𝑥
𝑣 𝑓
So, the magnification = |𝑚| = =
𝑢 𝑥

18. In a concave mirror, an object is placed at a distance 𝑥1 ∣ from the focus. Image if formed at a distance 𝑥2 ∣ from the focus.
The focal length of the mirror is:
A. 𝑥1 𝑥2 B. 𝑥2 𝑥1
𝑥1
C. D. None of these
𝑥2
Answer: D
Explanation:
Let f be focal length
u = −(x1 + f) and v = −(x2 + f)
1 1 1
From mirror formula, + =
v u f
−1 −1 −1
+ =
x2 + f x1 + f f
x1 + x2 + 2f 1
=
(x1 + f)(x2 + f) f
(x1 + x2 + 2f)f = (x1 + f)(x2 + f)
(x1 + x2 )f + 2f 2 = x1 x2 + (x1 + x2 )f + f 2
f 2 = x1 x2
f = √x1 x2

19. The phenomena involved in the reflection of radio waves by ionosphere are similar to:
A. Reflection of light by a plane mirror. B. Total internal reflection of light in air during a
mirage.

187
 C. Dispersion of light by water molecules during the D. Scattering of light by the particles of air.
formation of a rainbow.
Answer: B
Explanation:
Radiowaves are reflected by a layer of atmosphere called the Ionosphere, so they can reach distant parts of the Earth. The
reflection of radiowaves by ionosphere is due to total internal reflection. It is the same as total internal reflection of light in air
during a mirage, that is, angle of incidence is greater than critical angle. Ionosphere is transparent optical medium and radiowave
is reflected back. Reflection through transparent surface is total internal reflection so that internal reflection of radio wave takes
place.

20. The optical density of turpentine is higher than that of water while its mass density is lower. Figure shows a layer of
turpentine floating over water in a container. For which one of the four rays incident on turpentine in Figure, the path,
shown is correct?
A. 1 B. 2
C. 3 D. 4
Answer: B
Explanation:
𝜇𝐴 < 𝜇 𝑇 > 𝜇𝑊
As incidence ray passes from air to turpentine to water it means, from rare to denser then denser to rarer so first it bends towards
normal then away from normal so the path shown is correct for ray (2).

21. A short pulse of white light is incident from air to a glass slab at normal incidence. After travelling through the slab, the first
color to emerge is:
A. Blue B. Green
C. Violet D. Red
Answer: D
Explanation:
As we know that the velocity of wave is:
𝑣 = 𝑣𝜆
When light ray goes from one medium to other medium, the frequency of light remains unchanged.
So,
𝑦∝𝜆
or greater the wavelength, greater the speed.
And, the light of red color is of highest wavelength and therefore of highest speed. So, I after travelling through the slab, the red
color emerges first.

22. There are certain materials developed in laboratories which have a negative refractive index (Figure). A ray incident from
air (medium 1) into such a medium (medium 2) shall follow a path given by:

A. B.

C.
D.
Answer: A
Explanation:
The negative refractive index materials are those in which incident materials are those in which incident ray from air (medium
1) to them refract or bends differently or opposite and symmetric to normal to that of positive refractive index medium.

23. The radius of curvature of the curved surface of a plano - convex lens is 20 cm. If the refractive index of the material of the
lens be 1.5, it will:

188
 A. act as a convex lens only for the objects that lie on B. act as a concave lens for the objects that lie on its
its curved side. curved side.
C. act as a convex lens irrespective of the side on D. act as a concave lens irrespective of side on which
which the object lies. the object lies.
Answer: C
Explanation:
As we know the relations between 𝑓, 𝜇, 𝑅1 ∣ and 𝑅2 is known as lens maker's formula:
1 1 1
= (𝜇 − 1) ( − )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅1 = ∞, 𝑅2 = −𝑅
𝑅
𝑓=
(𝜇 − 1)
Given that,
𝑅 = 20𝑐𝑚,
𝜇 = 1.5 Put the values;
𝑅 20
𝑓= = = 40𝑐𝑚
𝜇 − 1 15 − 1
As 𝑓 > 0, it means converging nature of the lens.
So, lens act as a convex lens irrespective of the side on which the object lies.

24. Radius of curvature of human eye is 0.78𝑐𝑚. For an object at infinity, image is formed at 3𝑐𝑚 / behind the refracting
surface. The refractive index of eye is:
A. 1.35 B. 3
C. 6.2 D. 1
Answer: A
Explanation:
𝜇2 𝜇1 𝜇2 − 𝜇1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
Putting 𝑣 = 3𝑐𝑚
𝜇1 = 1
𝑢=∞
𝑅 = 0.78𝑐𝑚
𝜇2 1 𝜇2 − 1
− =
3 ∞ 0.78
∴ 𝜇2 = 1.35

25. The relationship between angle of incidence i, prism of angle A and angle of minimum deviation for a triangular prism is:
A. 𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚 = 𝑖 B. 𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚 = 2𝑖
𝛿
C. 𝐴 + 𝑚 = 𝑖 D. 2𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚 = 𝑖
2
Answer: B
Explanation:
For refraction through prism,
𝑖1 + 𝑖2 = 𝛿 + 𝐴 and 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = 𝐴
For minimum deviation,
𝑖1 = 𝑖2 = 𝑖 and 𝑟1 =
So, 2𝑖 = (𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚 )/2
𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚 = 2𝑖

26. Which of the following graphs is the correct angle of incidence vs. angle of deviation graph?

A.
B.

189
 C. D.
Answer: A
Explanation:

27. Magnifying power of a microscope depends on

A. Color of light. B. Focal length of objective and color of light.
C. Focal length of eyepiece and color of light. D. Focal length of eyepiece and objective.
Answer: D
Explanation:
1
Magnification = 𝑚 ∝
𝑓0 𝑓𝑒
So, magnifying power of a microscope depends on focal length of eyepiece and objective only.

28. ‘X’ is an optical illusion observed in deserts or over hot extended surfaces like a coal-tarred road, due to which a traveler
sees a shimmering pond of water some distance ahead of him and in which the surrounding objects like trees appear
inverted. Identify X.
A. Mileage B. Mirage
C. Optical activity D. Total internal reflection
Answer: B
Explanation:
Mirage is an optical illusion observed in deserts or over hot extended surfaces like a coal-tarred road, due to which a traveler
sees a shimmering pond of water some distance ahead of him and in which the surrounding objects like trees appear inverted.

29. Identify the principle behind the sparkling of diamonds.

A. Total internal reflection B. Refraction
C. Reflection D. Optical activity
Answer: A
Explanation:
The faces of a diamond are cut suitably so that light entering it suffers total internal reflections repeatedly and gets collected
inside but it comes out through only a few faces. Diamond sparkles when seen in the direction of emerging light.

30. A concave mirror is held in water. What should be the change in the focal length of the mirror?
A. Halved B. Doubled
C. Remains the same D. Increases exponentially
Answer: C
Explanation:
No change. The focal length of a concave mirror does not depend on the nature of the medium. Therefore, the focal length of the
mirror, even after holding it in water, will remain the same.

190
 Question/Answer
Very Short
1. When light undergoes refraction at the surface of separation of two media, what happens to its frequency/wavelength?
Answer: There is no change in its frequency, but its wavelength changes.

2. Define the refractive index.

Answer: The Refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the
given medium.

3. What is the distance between the objective and eyepiece of an astronomical telescope in its normal adjustment?
Answer: Distance between objective and eyepiece of telescope = fo + fe

4. Name the phenomenon responsible for the reddish appearance of the sun at sunrise and sunset.
Answer: Atmospheric refraction.

5. What are the two main considerations that have to be kept in mind while designing the ‘objective’ of an astronomical
telescope?
Answer: Two main considerations are:
• Large light gathering power.
• Higher resolution (or resolving power)

6. Under what condition does a biconvex lens of glass having a certain refractive index act as a plane glass sheet when immersed
in a liquid?
Answer: When the refractive index of the liquid is equal to the refractive index of a glass of which the lens is made.

7. Write the relationship between the angle of incidence ‘i’, angle of prism ‘A’ and angle of minimum deviation for a triangular
prism.
Answer: 2i = A + δm

8. Why can’t we see clearly through the fog? Name the phenomenon responsible for it.
Answer: Because it scatters light. Scattering of light.

9. How does the angle of minimum deviation of a glass prism vary if the incident violet light is replaced by red light? Give
reason.
1
Answer: It decreases as δm ∝
λ

10. The objective lenses of two telescopes have the same apertures but their focal lengths are in the ratio 1: 2. Compare the
resolving powers of the two telescopes.
Answer: Same as resolving power does not depend upon the focal length of lenses.

Short Questions
1. The aperture of the objective lens of an astronomical telescope is doubled. How does it affect?
i. the resolving power of the telescope and
ii. the intensity of the image?
𝐷
Answer: The resolving power of a telescope is given by the expression .
1.22λ
• When the aperture of the objective lens is increased, the resolving power of the telescope increases in the same ratio.
• The intensity of the image is given by the expression β ∝ D2, thus when the aperture is doubled, the intensity of the image
becomes four times.

2. How does the resolving power of a compound microscope change on (a) decreasing the wavelength of light used, and (b)
decreasing the diameter of the objective lens?
Answer:
2nsinθ
(a)The resolving power of a microscope is given by the expression RP =
λ
If the wavelength of the incident tight is decreased, the resolving power of the microscope increases.
(b)There is no effect of the decrease in the diameter of the objective on the resolving power of the microscope.
191
3. The layered lens shown in the figure is made of two kinds of glass. How many and what kinds of images will be produced by
this lens with a point source placed on the optic axis? Neglect the reflection of light at the boundaries between the layers.
Answer: Two images will be formed as the lens may be thought of, as two separate lenses of different focal lengths. The images
will be surrounded by bright halos.

4. Monochromatic light is refracted from air into a glass of refractive index n. Find the ratio of wavelengths of the incident and
refracted light.
Answer: Using the relation λ1n1 = λ2n2 we have
λ1
=n
λ2

5. Draw a labelled ray diagram to show the image formation in a compound microscope.
Answer: The labelled diagram is as shown.

6. A ray of light while travelling from a denser to a rarer medium undergoes total internal reflection. Derive the expression for
the critical angle in terms of the speed of light in the two media.
Answer: Snell’s law can be used to find the critical angle. Now Snell’s law, when the ray moves from denser medium ‘b’ to rarer
medium ‘a’, is given by,
sin⁡ ic
⁡ b na =
sin⁡ 90∘
1
But ⁡a nb =
⁡ b na
1 Sin⁡ ic
Therefore, the above equation can be written as =
⁡ a nb Sin⁡ 90∘
1
nb =
sin⁡ ic
𝑐
Now we know that n = , substituting in the above relation we have
𝑣
𝑐 1 𝑣
= or sin ic =
𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛ic 𝑐

7. Draw a labelled diagram for a refracting type of astronomical telescope. How will its magnifying power be affected by
increasing for its eyepiece (a) the focal length and (, b) the aperture? Justify your answer. Write two drawbacks of refracting
type telescopes.
Answer: The labelled diagram of the telescope is as shown in the figure.

192
 f
• The magnifying power of a telescope is given by M = o. If the focal length of the eyepiece is increased, it will decrease the
fe
magnifying power of the telescope.
• Magnifying power does not depend upon the aperture of the eyepiece. Therefore, there is no change in the magnifying power
if the aperture of the eyepiece is increased.
Drawbacks:
o Large-sized lenses are heavy and difficult to support.
o Large-sized lenses suffer from chromatic and spherical aberration.

8. Draw a labelled ray diagram of a Newtonian type reflecting telescope. Write any one advantage over refracting type
telescope.
Answer: The labelled diagram is shown below.

Due to the large aperture of the mirror as compared to a lens the image formed is much brighter than that formed by a refracting
type of telescope.

Long Questions
1. Draw a labelled ray diagram to show the image formation in a refracting type of astronomical telescope. Obtain an expression
for the angular magnifying power and the length of the tube of an astronomical telescope in its ‘normal adjustment’ position.
Why should the diameter of the objective of a telescope be large?
Answer: A labelled diagram of the telescope is shown in the figure.

The object subtends an angle at the objective and would subtend essentially the same angle at the unaided eye. Also, since the
observers’ eye is placed just to the right of the focal point f’2, the angle subtended at the eye by the final image is very nearly equal
to the angle β.
β tan⁡ β
Therefore, M = =
α tan⁡ α
AB −h AB −h
From right triangles ABC and ABC′ as shown in figure, we have tan⁡ α = = and tan⁡ β = =
CB f0 C′ A fc
β −h′ f0 f0
substituting the above two equations in equation (1), we have M = = × =
α fe −h′ fe
The length of the telescope is the distance between the two lenses which is L = fo + fe The diameter of the objective of a telescope
should be large so that it can collect more light and image of distant objects is formed clear.
2. Draw a ray diagram to show the formation of an erect image of an object kept in front of a concave mirror. Hence deduce the
mirror formula.
Answer: An object AB is placed between P and F. The course of rays for obtaining erect image A1B1 of object AB is shown in the
figure.

193
Draw DG ⊥ on the principal axis.
Triangles DGF and A1B1C are similar,
DG GF
∴ =
A1 B1 FB1
AB GF
or = [∵ DG = AB]
A 1 B1 FB1
Again triangles ABC and A1 B1 C are similar,
AB CB
∴ =
A1 B1 CB1
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we have
GF CB
=
FB1 CB
Since Point G is close to P, so GF = PF
PF CB
∴ =
FB1 CB1
Using sign conventions, we get
PF PC − PB
=
PF + PB1 PC + PB1
−f −2f+u
or =
−f+v −2f+v
Multiplying and dividing both sides by uvf, we get

194
 Chapter- 10 Wave optics
Wave Front

A light source is a point which emits disturbance in all directions. In a homogeneous medium, the disturbance reaches all those
particles of the medium in phase, which are located at the same distance from the source of light and hence at all the time, every
particle must be vibrating in phase with each other. The locus of all the particles of medium, which at any instant are vibrating in
the same phase, is called the wave front.

Depending upon the shape of the source of light, wave front can be the following types:
1. Spherical wave Front
2. Cylindrical wave Front
3. Plane Wave Front

1. Spherical Wave Front

A point source of light produces a spherical wave front. This is because the locus of every point, which are equidistant from the
point source, is a sphere figure (a).

2. Cylindrical Wave Front:

If the light source is linear (such as a slit), it produces a cylindrical wave front. Here, every point, which is equidistant from the
linear source, lies on the surface of a cylinder figure (b).

3. Plane Wave Front:

A wave front will appear plane if it is a small part of a spherical or a cylindrical wave front, I originating from a distant source. So,
it is called a plane wave front figure (c).

195
Ray of Light
The path along which light travels is known as a ray of light. If we draw an arrow normal to the wave front and which points in
the direction of propagation of disturbance represents a ray of light. In a ray diagram, thick arrows represent the rays of light.
It is also called as the wave normal because the ray of light is normal to the wave front.

Huygens’s Principle

Huygens’s principle is a geometrical construction, which can be used to obtain a new position of a wave front at a later time from
its given position at any instant. Or we can quote that this principle gives a method gives an idea about how light spreads out in
the medium.
It is developed on the following assumptions:
1. All the points on a given or primary wave front act as a source of secondary wavelets, which sends out disturbance in all
directions in a similar manner as the primary light source.
2. The new position of the wave front at any instant (called secondary wave front) is the envelope of the secondary wavelets
at that instant.
These two assumptions are known as Huygens principle or Huygens’ construction.

Principle of Superposition

If two or more than two waves superimpose each other at a common particle of the medium, then the resultant displacement
(y) of the particle is equal to the vector sum of the displacements (y1 and y2 ) produced by individual waves i.e y
⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗
y1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
y2

1. Graphical View:

196
2. Phase/Phase difference/Path difference/Time difference
i. Phase: Phase is defined as the argument of sine or cosine in the expression for displacement of a wave. For displacement
𝑦 = asin⁡ 𝜔𝑡; term 𝜔𝑡 = phase or instantaneous phase.
ii. ii. Phase Difference (𝜙) : Phase difference is the difference between the phases of two waves at a point. i.e. if y1 =
a1 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡 and y2 = a2 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) so phase difference = ∅
iii. iii. Path Difference (Δ) : Path difference between the waves at that point is the difference in path lengths of two waves
𝜆
meeting at a point. Also Δ = × 𝜙.
2𝜋
𝑇
iv. iv. Time Difference (T.D): Time difference between the waves meeting at a point is given by T.D = ×𝜙
2𝜋

3. Resultant Amplitude and Intensity

If we have two waves 𝑦1 = a1 sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡 and y2 = a2 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) where a1 , a2 = Individual amplitudes, 𝜙 = Phase difference
between the waves at an instant when they are meeting a point. I1 , I2 = Intensities of Individual waves.

• Resultant Amplitude
After superimposition of the given wave’s resultant amplitude (or the amplitude of resultant wave) is given by A =
√a12 + a2 ⁡2 + 2a1 a2 cos𝜙
For the interfering waves y1 = a1 sin 𝜔 tand y2 = a2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙), Phase difference between them is 90∘. So resultant amplitude
A = √a12 + a2 ⁡2

• Resultant Intensity
As we know intensity 𝛼( Amplitude )2 ⇒ I1 − ka1 ⁡2 , I2 − ka2 ⁡2 and I = kA2 (𝑘 is a proportionality constant). Hence from the
formula of resultant amplitude, we get the following formula of resultant intensity
I = I1 + I2 + 2√I1 I2 cos𝜙
The term 2√I1 I2 cos𝜙⁡is called interference term. For incoherent interference this term is zero so resultant intensity I = I1 + I 2

4. Coherent Sources:
Coherent sources are the sources of light which emits continuous light waves with same wavelength, frequency and in phase or
having a constant phase difference.

Interference of Light

If intensity of light at some points is maximum while at some other point intensity is minimum due to the simultaneous
superposition of two waves of exactly same frequency (coming from two coherent sources) travels in a medium and in the same
direction, this phenomenon is called Interference of light.

1. Types of Interference
Constructive Interference Destructive Interference
Constructive interference is obtained at a point when the Destructive interference is obtained at that point when the
waves meets at that point with same phase, (i.e. maximum wave meets at that point with opposite phase, (i.e minimum
light) light)
Phase difference between the⁡waves at the point of observation 𝜙 = 180∘ or (2𝑛 − 1)𝜋; 𝑛
𝜙 = 0∘ or 2n𝜋. = 1,2, …

197
 or (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋; 𝑛 = 0, 𝜆
Δ = (2𝑛 − 1) ⁡ odd
Path difference between the waves at the point of 2
observation Δ = n𝜆 (i.e. 𝜆
multiple of )
2
Resultant amplitude at the point⁡ of observation will be maximumResultant
if amplitude at the point⁡of observation will be minimum
a1 = a2 ⁡⇒ Amin = 0 Amin = a1 − a2
a1 = a2 = a0 ⁡ If a1 = a2 ⇒ Amin = 0
⁡⇒ Amax = 2a0
Resultant intensity at the point of Resultant intensity at the point o
observation will be maximum observation will be minimum
Imax = I1 + I2 + 2√I1 I2 Imin = I1 + I2 − 2√I1 I2
2 2
⁡ ⁡Imax = (√I1 + √I2 ) ⁡ Imin = (√I1 − √I2 )
If I1 = I2 = I0 ⇒ Imax = 2I0 If I1 = I2 = I0 ⇒ Imin
=0

2. Resultant Intensity Due to Two Identical Waves

The resultant intensity for two coherent sources is given by
I = I1 + I2 + 2√I1 I2 cos⁡ 𝜙
For identical source I1 = I2 = I0
𝜙
⁡⇒ I = I0 + I0 + 2√I0 I0 cos⁡ 𝜙 = 4I0 cos2 ⁡
2
𝜃
[1 + cos⁡ 𝜃 = 2cos2 ⁡ ]
2

Note:
• Redistribution of energy takes place in the form of maxima and minima interference
Imax +Imin
• Average Intensity:⁡Iav = = I1 + I2 = a12 + a22
2
• Ratio of Maximum and Minimum Intensities:
2 2
𝐼max √𝐼1 + √𝐼2 √𝐼1 /𝐼2 + 1 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 2 𝑎1 /𝑎2 + 1 2
=( ) ( ) =( ) =( )
𝐼min √𝐼1 − √𝐼2 √𝐼1 /𝐼2 − 1 𝑎1 − 𝑎2 𝑎1 /𝑎2 − 1
• Also
𝐼
𝐼1 𝑎1 √ max + 1
𝐼min
√ = ⁡=
𝐼2 𝑎2 𝐼max
√ −1
( 𝐼min )
• If two waves having equal intensity (I1 = I2 = I0 ) meets at two locations P and Q with path difference Δ1 and Δ2
respectively then the ratio of resultant intensity at point
• P and Q will be
𝜙 𝜋Δ
𝐼𝑝 cos2 ⁡ 1 cos2 ⁡ ( 𝜆 1 )
⁡= 2 =
𝐼𝑄 𝜙 𝜋Δ
cos2 ⁡ 2 cos2 ⁡ ( 𝜆 2 )
2

Young's Double Slit Experiment (YDSE)

An interference pattern is obtained on the screen when monochromatic light (single wavelength) falls on two narrow slits S1
and S2 which are very close together acts as two coherent sources, and when waves coming from these two sources
superimposes on each other. Alternate bright and dark bands obtained on the screen in this experiment. These bands are called
Fringes.
𝑑 = Distance between slits.
𝐷 = Distance between slits and screen
𝜆 = The wavelength of monochromatic light emitted from source.

198
i. At the central position 𝜙 = 0∘ or Δ = 0. So, the Central fringe will always be bright.
ii. The fringe pattern formed by a slit will be brighter than that due to a point.
iii. The minima will not be completely dark if the slit widths are unequal. So, uniform illumination occurs for a very large
width.
iv. No interference pattern is observed on the screen if one slit is illuminated with red light and the other is illuminated with
blue light.
v. The central fringe will be dark instead of bright if the two coherent sources consist of object and its reflected image.

1.Path Difference
Path difference between the interfering waves meeting at a point 𝑃 on the screen is
yd
given by x = = dsin⁡ 𝜃 where 𝑥 is the position of point 𝑃 from central maxima.
D

For maxima at 𝑃: x = n𝜆
Where 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
(2𝑛−1)𝜆
And for minima at 𝑃: 𝑥 =
2
Where 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …

Note:
If the slits are horizontal path difference is 𝑑cos⁡ 𝜃,so as 𝜃 increases, 𝑥 decreases. But if the slits are vertical, the path difference
(𝑥) is 𝑑sin⁡ 𝜃, so as 𝜃 increases, Δ also increases.

199
2. More About Fringes
𝜆D 𝜆
i. Every fringe will have equal width. Width of one fringe is 𝛽 = and angular fringe width 𝜃 =
d d
𝜆𝑎 𝛽𝑎
ii. If the YDSE setup is taken in one medium then changes into another, so 𝛽 changes. E.g., in water 𝜆𝑤 = ⇒ 𝛽𝑤 = =
𝜇𝑤 𝜇𝑤
3
𝛽
4 𝑎
1
iii. Fringe width 𝛽 ∝ i.e if separation between the sources increases, 𝛽 decreases.
𝑑
𝑛𝜆𝐷
iv. Position of 𝑛th bright fringe from central maxima 𝑥𝑛 = = 𝑛𝛽; 𝑛 = 0,1,2, …
𝑑
(2𝑛−1)𝜆𝐷 (2𝑛−1)𝛽
v. Position of 𝑛th dark fringe from central maxima 𝑥𝑛 = = ; 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …
2𝑑 2
vi. In YDSE, if 𝑛1 fringes are visible in a field of view with light of wavelength 𝜆1 , while 𝑛2 with light of wavelength 𝜆2 in the
same field, then n1 𝜆1 = n2 𝜆2

3. Shifting of Fringe Pattern in YDSE

The fringe pattern will get shifted if a transparent thin film of mica or glass is placed in the path of one of the waves. If this film is
placed in the path of upper wave, the pattern shifts upward and if the film is placed in the path of lower wave, the pattern will
shift downward.

D 𝛽
Fringe shift = (𝜇 − 1)t = (𝜇 − 1)t
d 𝜆
⇒ Additional path difference = (𝜇 − 1)𝑡
⇒ Fringe shift is independent of the order of fringe (i.e shift of zero order maxima = shift of 𝐧th order maxima)
⇒ Also, the shift is independent of wavelength.

Illustrations of Interference

Interference effects are commonly observed in thin films when their thickness is comparable to wavelength of incident light (If it
is too thin as compared to wavelength of light it appears dark and if it’s too thick, this will return in uniform illumination of film).
Thin layer of oil on water surface and soap bubbles shows various colours in white light due to interference of waves reflected
from the two surfaces of the film.

200
1 Thin Films
In case of thin films, interference occur between the waves reflected from its two surfaces and waves refracted through it.

Interference in Reflected Light Interference in Refracted Light

Condition for constructive Condition for constructive
interference (maximum intensity) interference (maximum intensity)
𝜆 𝜆
Δ = 2𝜇tcosr = (2n ± 1) Δ = 2𝜇tcosr = (2n)
2 2
For normal incidence r = 0 For normal incident
𝜆 2𝜇t = n𝜆
So 2𝜇t = (2n ± 1)
2
Condition for destructive Condition for destructive
interference (minimum intensity) interference (minimum intensity)
𝜆 𝜆
Δ = 2𝜇tcosr = (2n) Δ = 2𝜇tcosr = (2n ± 1)
2 2
For normal incidence 2𝜇t = n𝜆 For ⁡ normal ⁡ incidence
𝜆
2𝜇t = (2n ± 1)
2

Note: For interference in visible light, the thickness of the film must be in the order of 10,000 A0

Doppler's Effect in Light

The phenomenon due to relative motion between the source of light and the observer which causes apparent change in
frequency (or wavelength) of the light is called Doppler's effect.

201
According to special theory of relativity,
v 1 + v/c
=
v √1 − v 2 /c 2
If 𝑣 =actual frequency, 𝑣 ′ = apparent frequency,𝑣 = speed of source with respect to stationary observer, 𝑐 = speed of light.

Source of Light Moves Source of Light Moves Away

Towards the Stationary From the Stationary Observer
Observer (𝑣 << 𝑐) (𝑣 << 𝑐)
(i) Apparent frequency: (i) Apparent frequency:
v v
v ′ = v (1 + ) and v ′ = v (1 − ) and
c c
Apparent wavelength: Apparent wavelength:
v v
𝜆 = 𝜆 (1 − ) 𝜆 = 𝜆 (1 + )
c c
(ii) Doppler's shift: (ii) Doppler's shift:
If apparent wavelength < actual If apparent wavelength > actual
wavelength, spectrum of the wavelength, spectrum of the
radiation from the source of light radiation from the source of light
shifts towards the red end of the shifts towards the violet end of
spectrum. This is called Red shift spectrum. This is called Viole
v v
Doppler's shift Δ𝜆 = 𝜆 shift Doppler's shift Δ𝜆 = 𝜆 ⋅
c c

Diffraction of Light

The phenomenon of light bending around the corners of an obstacle/aperture whose size is comparable to the size of the
wavelength of light.

202
1. Types of Diffraction
The diffraction phenomenon of light is divided into two types
Types of diffraction Phenomenon:

Fresnel Diffraction Fraunhofer Diffraction

In Fresnel's diffraction, either In this case both source and
source or screen or both are at screen are effectively at infinite
finite distance distance from the diffracting
device.
In Fresnel's diffraction, either Common examples:
source or screen or both are at Diffraction at single slit, double
finite distance from the diffracting sliffraction grating.
device (obstacle or aperture).

2. Diffraction of Light at a Single Slit

In case of diffraction at a single slit, we get a central bright band with alternate bright (maxima) and dark (minima) bands of
decreasing intensity as shown

2𝜆𝐷 2𝜆
i. Width of central maxima 𝛽0 = and angular width =
𝑑 d
ii. The path difference between the waves from the two ends of the aperture is given by Δ = n𝜆; where n = 1,2,3, … i.e.
dsin⁡ 𝜃 = n𝜆 as the minima occurs at a point on either side of the central maxima.

203
 n𝜆
⇒ sin⁡ 𝜃 =
d
iii. The secondary maxima occur, where the path difference between the waves from the two ends of the aperture is given by
𝜆
Δ = (2n + 1) ;
2
where,
𝜆 (2n + 1)𝜆
n = 1,2,3, … i.e. dsin⁡ 𝜃 = (2n + 1) ⇒ sin⁡ 𝜃 =
2 2d

3. Comparison Between Interference and Diffraction

Interference Diffraction
Produced by the superimposition Produced by the superposition of
of waves from two coherent wavelets from different parts of
sources. same wave front. (single
coherent source)
All fringes are of the same width All secondary fringes are of
𝜆𝐷 same width but the central
𝛽= maxima has double the width
d
𝜆𝐷
𝛽0 = 2𝛽 = 2
𝑑
All fringes have equal intensity Intensity decreases as the order
of maximum increases.
Intensity of all minimum may be Intensity of minima is not zero.
zero. Positions of nth maxima Positions of nth secondary
and minima. maxima and
nd dD
𝑋𝑛( bright ) = Xn( Bright ) = (2n + 1)
d d
D nXD
X n( Dark ) = (2n − 1) Xn( Dark ) =
d d
Path difference for nth maxima For nth secondary maxima
Δ = 𝑛𝜆 𝜆
Δ = (2n + 1)
2
Path difference for nth minima Path difference for nth minima
Δ = (2𝑛 − 1)𝜆 Δ = 𝑛𝜆

4. Diffraction and Optical Instruments

Objective lens of instruments like telescope or microscope etc. acts like a circular aperture. By diffraction of light at the circular
aperture, a converging lens doesn’t form a point image of an object rather it produces a brighter disc surrounded by alternate
dark and bright concentric rings known as Airy disc.

1.22𝜆
The angular half width of Airy disc = 𝜃 = (where 𝐷 = aperture of lens)
D
The lateral width of the image = 𝑓𝜃 (where 𝑓 = focal length of the lens)
Note:
Diffraction of light limits the ability of optical instruments to form clear images of objects when they are close to each other.

Polarization of Light

Light travels as transverse EM waves. While comparing to magnitude of magnetic field, the magnitude of electric field is much
larger. We generally describe light as electric field oscillations.

204
1. Unpolarized Light
Light with electric field oscillations in every direction in the plane perpendicular to the propagation of it is called Unpolarised
light. The oscillation of light is divided into horizontal and vertical components.

2. Polarized Light
Polarized or plane polarized light is the light with oscillations only in one plane is.
• Plane of oscillation is the plane in which oscillation occurs in the polarized light.
• Plane of polarization is the plane perpendicular to the plane of oscillation.
• By transmitting through certain crystals such as tourmaline or Polaroid light can be polarized.

3. Polarization by Scattering
If a beam of white light is passed through a medium having particles with size comparable to the order of wavelength of light,
then the beam will get scattered. This scattered light propagates in a direction perpendicular to the direction of incidence, and it
will be plane polarized (as detected by the analyzer). This is called polarization by scattering.

4. Polarization of Light by Reflection

If unpolarized light is reflected using a surface, the reflected light can be obtained as completely polarised, partially polarized or
unpolarized. The nature of reflected light depends on the angle of incidence.
Polarizing angle or Brewster's angle (𝑖𝑝 ) is the angle of incidence when the reflected light is completely plane polarized.

205
5. Polaroid
The device used to produce the plane polarised light is known as a Polaroid. It is based on the principle of selective absorption.
Also, it is more effective than the tourmaline crystal.
It can also be described as a thin film of ultramicroscopic crystals of quinine iodo sulphate which has its optic axis parallel to each
other.

i. A Polaroid only allows light oscillations which are parallel to the transmission axis to pass through them.
ii. Polarizer is the crystal or Polaroid on which unpolarised light is incident. Crystal or polaroid on which polarised light is
incident is called analyzer.

Note: If an unpolarized light is passed through a polarizer, the intensity of the transmitted polarized light will become half of the
intensity of unpolarised light.
i. Polaroids are used in making wind shields of automobiles, sun glasses etc. They helps to reduce head light glare of cares
and improve colour contrast in old paintings. Polaroids are also used in 3-D motion pictures are in optical stress analysis.

6. Brewster's Law
When a beam of unpolarised light is reflected from a transparent medium (having refractive index = 𝜇 ), the reflected light will
be completely plane polarised at a certain angle of incidence (called the angle of polarisation 𝜃𝑝 ). This is known as Brewster's
law.
Also 𝜇 = tan⁡ 𝜃𝑝 ⁡ − − Brewster's law
i. For i𝜃p or i𝜃p

206
Both reflected and refracted rays become partially polarized
ii. For glass 𝜃p ≈ 57∘, for water 𝜃𝑝 ≈ 53∘

Validity of Ray Optics

By diffraction of light travels, a parallel beam of light travels up to distances as large as few meters can be broadened.

Fresnel Distance:
The minimum distance a beam of light can travel before its deviation from straight line path becomes significant/ noticeable is
known as Fresnel distance.
a2
ZF =
𝜆
As the wavelength of light is very small, the deviation will be also very small and light can be assumed as travelling in a straight
line.
So, we can neglect broadening of beam due to diffraction up to distances as large as a few meters, i.e., we can assume that light
travels along straight lines and ray optics can be taken as a limiting case of wave optics.
Therefore, Ray optics can be considered as a limiting case of wave optics.

Resolving Power

If two-point objects are close to each other, images diffraction patterns of those objects will also be close and overlap with each
other.
The limit of resolution of the instrument is the minimum distance between two objects which can be seen separately by the object
instrument.
1
Resolving power (R.P) =
Limit of Revolution

1. Resolving power of Microscope

2𝜇sin⁡ 𝜃
R.P. of microscope =
𝜆

207
2. Resolving power of Telescope
1 D
R.P of telescope = = Where 𝐷 is the aperture of the telescope.
𝑑𝜃 1.22𝜆

208
 Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which among the following isn’t a suitable phenomenon to establish that light is wave motion?
A. Interference B. Diffraction
C. Reflection D. Polarization
Answer: C
Explanation:
Light undergoes interference, diffraction, and polarization. These phenomena establish that light is a wave motion. Therefore, out
of the options, reflection isn’t a suitable phenomenon to establish that light is wave motion.

2. The optical path of monochromatic light is the same if it travels 2" " cm thickness of glass or 2.25" " cm thickness of water. If
the refractive index of water is 1.33, what is the refractive index of glass?
A. 2.5 B. 1.5
C. 3.5 D. 4.5
Answer: B
Explanation
Optical path = μ × Path in medium.
The optical path for glass = Optical path for water.
(1.33 × 2.25)
μg =
(2.0)
μg = 1.50.

3. Identify the condition which is not necessary for two light waves to be coherent.
A. The two waves must be continuous B. The two waves should be of the same frequency or
wavelength
C. They should have a constant or zero phases D. They two light sources should be narrow
difference
Answer: D
Explanation:
The essential conditions for two light waves to be coherent include that the two waves must be continuous, the two waves should
be of the same frequency or wavelength, and they should have a constant or zero phases difference. So, the unnecessary condition
for two light waves to be coherent is the statement that the sources should be narrow.

3 4
4. The absolute refractive indices of glass and water are and . Determine the ratio of the speeds of light in glass and water.
2 3
A. 5: 7 B. 9: 8
C. 7: 5 D. 8: 9
Answer: D
Explanation:
vg μw
=
vw μg
4
vg (3 )
=
vw (3 )
2
vg
= 8: 9
vw

5. The refractive index of glass is 1.5 and that of water is 1.3, the speed of light in water is 2.25 × 108 m/s. What is the speed of
light in glass?
A. 7.95 × 108 m/s B. 9.95 ×
108 m
s

C. 1.95 ×
108 m D. 3.95 × 108 m/s
s
Answer: C
Explanation:
vg μw
=
vw μg

209
 μw
Vg = ( ) × Vw
μg
vg 1.3
= ( ) × 2.25 × 108
vw 1.5
vg
= 1.95 × 108 m/s.
vw

108 m
6. The speed of light in air is 3 × . If the refractive index of glass is 1.5 , find the time taken by light to travel a distance of
s
10 cm in the glass.
A. 0.5 × 10−10 s B. 5 × 10−10 s
C. 50 × 10−10 s D. 500 × 10−10 s

Answer: B
Explanation:
c (3×108 )
vg = = = 2 × 108 m/s.
μ (1.5)
Displacement
Time, t =
vg
(10 × 10−2 )
t=
(2 × 108 )
t = 5 × 10−10 s.

7. The speed of yellow light in a certain liquid is 2.4 × 108 m/s. Find the refractive index of the liquid.
A. 1.25 B. 5.55
C. 6.25 D. 12.25

Answer: A
Explanation:
c
μ1 =
v1

(3 × 108 )
μ1 =
(2.4 × 108 )
μ1 = 1.25

8. The speed of the yellow light in a certain liquid is 2.4 × 108 m/s. Find the refractive index of the liquid.
A. 6.25 B. 5.73
C. 1.25 D. 9.73

Answer: C
Explanation:
c
μ=
vt
108
μ=3× × 108
2.4
μ = 1.25
9. The wavelength of light coming from a sodium source is 589 nm. What will be its wavelength in the water?
A. 625 nm B. 443 nm
C. 789 nm D. 125 nm
Answer: B
Explanation:
λ = 589 nm, μ = 1.33.
λ
Wavelength in water, λW =
μ
589
λW =
1.33
λW = 443 nm.

10. A light wave enters from air into glass. How will the energy of the wave be affected?
A. Decreases B. Increases
C. Remains the same D. Independent

210
Answer: A
Explanation:
When a light wave enters from the air medium into the glass medium, the energy of the wave decreases because a part of the light
wave is reflected in the air. Therefore, in this way, energy will be affected.

11. If a wave undergoes refraction, what will be the phase change?

A. 180∘ B. 270∘
C. 90 ∘
D. 0∘
Answer: D
Explanation:
When a wave undergoes refraction, the phase change will be zero. The phase change is what guides the process. Therefore, no
phase change occurs to a wave during refraction.

12. When a wave undergoes reflection at a denser medium, what will be the phase change?
A. 2π radian B. 0
C. π radian D. 3π radian

Answer: C
Explanation:
When a wave is reflected in the rarer medium from the surface of a denser medium, it undergoes a phase change of π radian.
Therefore, when a wave undergoes reflection at a denser medium, the phase change will be π radian.

13. A light wave enters from air into glass. How will the frequency of the wave be affected?
A. Increases B. Remains unchanged
C. Decreases D. Insignificant
Answer: B
Explanation:
The frequency of the wave remains unchanged. This is because the frequency is independent of the wave dynamics. Therefore,
when a light wave enters from the air medium into the glass medium, the frequency will be the same.

14. Which of the following is a form of light whose photons share the same frequency and whose wavelengths are in phase with
one another?
A. Coherent sources B. Incoherent sources
C. Electromagnetic waves D. Sunlight
Answer: A
Explanation:
Coherent light is a form of light whose photons share the same frequency and whose wavelengths are in phase with one another.
The phase difference between the waves should be constant in the case of coherent sources.

15. Which among the following is an example of coherent sources?

A. Fluorescent tubes B. LED light
C. LASER D. Tungsten filament lamps
Answer: C
Explanation:
LASER is the short form for Laser Amplification by Stimulated Emission Radiation. The amplified light beam coming out of a
LASER is essentially due to the emission of electrons stimulated by incident radiation consisting of photons. As a result, this causes
the coherent behavior of the LASER beam.

16. Pick the odd one out.

A. LASER B. LED
C. Sound waves D. Radio transmitters

Answer: B
Explanation:
LED is the odd one out. LED is short for light-emitting diode. LED is not a coherent source, whereas others are examples of
coherent sources. The light emitted from an LED is neither spectrally coherent nor even highly monochromatic.

17. Identifying the factor is not the same for coherent waves.

211
 A. Frequency B. Phase difference constant
C. Amplitude D. Wavelength in phase with each other
Answer: C
Explanation:
Coherent waves are the waves with the same frequency and the wavelength of the waves are in phase as well. Therefore, the phase
difference is constant. But the coherent waves do not have the same amplitude. Since the amplitude is different, there will be no
complete constructive interference where they meet, so they will contribute poorly to an interference pattern.

18. Which of the following is the formula for calculating coherence time?
λ3 λ
A. Tc = B. Tc =
(cΔλ) (cΔλ)
λ2 λ2
C. Tc = D. Tc =
(cΔλ) (cΔλ)
Answer: D
Explanation:
The formula for calculating coherence time is given as:
λ2
Tc =
(cΔλ)
Where Tc is the coherence time, λ is the wavelength, Δλ is the spectral width of the source, and c is the speed of light in a
vacuum (i.e., 3 × 108 m/s ).

19. When is the wave interference strong?

A. When the paths taken by all of the interfering B. When the paths taken by all of the interfering
waves are greater than the coherence length waves are lesser than the coherence length
C. When the paths taken by all of the interfering D. When the paths taken by all of the interfering
waves are equal than the coherence length waves are independent of the coherence length
Answer: B
Explanation:
Coherence length is defined as the propagation distance over which a coherent wave maintains a specified degree of coherence.
Wave interference is strong when the paths taken by all of the interfering waves are lesser than the coherence length.

20. In Young’s double-slit experiment with monochromatic light, how is fringe width affected, if the screen is moved closer to
the slits?
A. Independent B. Remains the same
C. Increases D. Decreases
Answer: C
Explanation:
Fringe width is given as:
Dλ
β=
d
As the screen is moved closer to the two slits, the distance denoted by D decreases and so fringe width β increase.

21. In Young's double-slit experiment, lights of green, yellow, and orange colors are successively used. Write the fringe widths
for the three colors in increasing order.
A. βG < βY < βO B. βO < βY < βG
C. βO < βG < βY D. βY < βG < βO
Answer: B
Explanation:
Fringe width is expressed as:
Dλ
β=
d
Since the wavelength are related as shown → λG < λY < λO , we can say that → βG < βY < βO .

22. In Young's double-slit experiment, the two parallel slits are made one millimeter apart and a screen is placed one meter
away. What is the fringe separation when blue-green light of wavelength 500 nm is used?
A. 0.5 mm B. 50 mm
C. 0.25 mm D. 25 mm
Answer: A
Explanation:

212
Fringe width is given as:
Dλ
β= .
d
(1×500×10−9 )
So β = (10−3 )
β = 0.5 mm
Therefore, the fringe separation when blue-green light of wavelength 500 nm is used is 0.5 mm.

23. What would be the resultant intensity at a point of destructive interference, if there are two identical coherent waves of
intensity I0 producing an interference pattern?
A. 5I0 B. 2I0
C. I0 D. 0
Answer: D
Explanation:
Resultant intensity at the point of destructive interference will be as follows:
I = I0 + I0 + 2√I0 I0 cos 180∘
I=0
Therefore, At a point of destructive interference, the resultant intensity is 0. When two identical coherent waves interfere
destructively, their amplitudes add up to zero, resulting in complete cancellation of the wave. Therefore, the intensity at the point
of destructive interference is zero.

24. What happens to the interference pattern if the phase difference between the two sources varies continuously?
A. Brightens B. No change
C. Disappears D. Monochromatic pattern
Answer: C
Explanation:
The positions of bright and dark fringes will change rapidly. Such rapid changes cannot be detected by our eyes. Uniform
illumination is seen on the screen i.e., the interference pattern disappears.

25. What will be the effect on the fringes formed in young’s double-slit experiment if the apparatus is immersed in water?
A. Increases B. Decreases
C. Remains the same D. Independent
Answer: B
Explanation:
λ
The wavelength of light in water (λ′ = ) is less than that in air. When the apparatus is immersed in water, the fringe width
μ
decreases. This is the impact experienced by the apparatus when immersed in water.

26. What would be the resultant intensity at a point of constructive interference, if there are two identical coherent waves of
intensity l' producing an interference pattern?
A. 4I′ B. 0
C. I′ D. 21′
Answer: A
Explanation:
Resultant intensity at the point of constructive interference is given as follows:
I = l′ + l′ + 2√l′ I′ cos⁡ 0∘
I = 4I′
Therefore, the value of the resultant intensity at a point of constructive interference is 4I′ .

27. In Young’s double-slit experiment if the distance between two slits is halved and distance between the slits and the screen
is doubled, then what will be the effect on fringe width?
A. Doubled B. Decreases four times
C. Increases four times D. Halved
Answer: C
Explanation:
Dλ
Original fringe width is given as → β = .
d
λ.2D
So, the new fringe width is → β′ = d
( )
2

213
β′ = 4β
Therefore, the new fringe width is 4β.

28. If the separation between the two slits is decreased in Young’s double-slit experiment keeping the screen position fixed,
what will happen to the width of the fringe?
A. Decreases B. Increases
C. Remains the same D. Independent
Answer: B
Explanation:
Fringe width is expressed as:
Dλ
β=
d
So, as the separation (d) between the two slits decreases, the fringe width increases. They are inversely proportional to each
other.

29. State the essential condition for diffraction of light to occur.

A. The size of the aperture must be less when B. The size of the aperture must be more when
compared to the wavelength of light compared to the wavelength of light
C. The size of the aperture must be comparable to D. The size of the aperture should not be compared
the wavelength of light to the wavelength of light
Answer: C
Explanation:
Diffraction is the spreading out of waves as they pass through an aperture or around objects. The diffraction of light occurs
when the size of the obstacle or the aperture is comparable to the wavelength of light.

30. What is the cause of diffraction?

A. Interference of primary wavelets B. Interference of secondary wavelets
C. Reflection of primary wavelets D. Reflection of secondary wavelets
Answer: B
Explanation:
Diffraction occurs due to interference of secondary wavelets between different portions of a wavefront allowed to pass across a
small aperture or obstacle. Interference can be either constructive or destructive. When interference is constructive, the
intensity of the wave will increase.

Question/Answer
Very Short
1. Sketch the refracted wavefront emerging from convex tens, If a plane wavefront is an incident normally on it.
Answer: The figure is as shown.

2. How would you explain the propagation of light on the basis of Huygen’s wave theory?
Answer: To explain the propagation of light we have to draw a wavefront at a later instant when a wavefront at an earlier instant
is known. This can be drawn by the use of Huygen’s principle.

3. Draw the shape of the reflected wavefront when a plane wavefront is an incident on a concave mirror.
Answer: The reflected wavefront is as shown.

214
4. Draw the shape of the refracted wavefront when a plane wavefront is an incident on a prism.
Answer: The shape of the wavefront is as shown.

5. Draw the type of wavefront that corresponds to a beam of light diverging from a point source.
Answer: The wavefront formed by the light coming from a very far off source is a plane and for a beam of light diverging from a
point, a wavefront is a number of concentric circles.

6. Draw the type of wavefront that corresponds to a beam of light coming from a very far off source.
Answer: The wavefront is as shown.

7. Name two phenomena that establish the wave nature of light.

Answer: Interference and diffraction of light.

8. State the conditions which must be satisfied for two light sources to be coherent.
Answer:
(a) Two sources must emit light of the same wavelength (or frequency).
(b) The two light sources must be either in-phase or have a constant phase difference.

9. Draw an intensity distribution graph for diffraction due to a single slit.

Answer: The intensity distribution for a single-slit diffraction pattern is as shown.

215
10. Name one device for producing plane polarised light. Draw the graph showing the variation of intensity of polarised light
transmitted by an analyser.
Answer: Nicol prism can be used to produce plane polarised light. The graph is as shown.

Short Questions
1. How can one distinguish between an unpolarised and linearly polarised light beam using polaroid?
Answer: The two lights will be allowed to pass through a polariser. When the polarizer is rotated in the path of these two light
beams, the intensity of light remains the same in all the orientations of the polariser, then the light is unpolarised. But if the
intensity of light varies from maximum to minimum then the light beam is a polarised light beam.

2. What is meant by plane polarised light? What type of waves shows the property of polarisation? Describe a method of
producing a beam of plane polarised light?
Answer: The light that has its vibrations restricted in only one plane is called plane polarised light.
Transverse waves show the phenomenon of polarization.
Light is allowed to pass through a polaroid. The polaroid absorbs those vibrations which are not parallel to its axis and
allows only those vibrations to pass which are parallel to its axis.

3. Write the Important characteristic features by which the Interference can be distinguished from the observed diffraction
pattern.
Answer:
(a) In the interference pattern the bright fringes are of the same width, whereas in the diffraction pattern they are not of the same
width.
(b) In interference all bright fringes are equally bright while in diffraction they are not equally bright.

4. State Brewster’s law. The value of Brewster’s angle for the transparent medium is different for the light of different colours.
Give reason.
Answer: When the reflected ray and the refracted ray are perpendicular then μ = tanip where ip is the polarising angle
or Brewster angle.
Brewster’s angle depends upon the refractive index of the two media in contact. The refractive index in turn depends upon the
wavelength of light used (different colours) hence Brewster’s angle is different for different colours.

5. Discuss the intensity of transmitted light when a polaroid sheet is rotated between two crossed polaroids.
Answer: Let lo be the intensity of polarised light after passing through the first polarizer P1. Then the intensity of light after passing
through the second polarizer P2 will be l = locos 2θ, where θ is the angle between pass axes of P1 and P2. Since P1 and P3 are crossed
the angle between the pass axes of P2 and P3 will be (π/2 – θ). Hence the intensity of light emerging from P3 will be
l = lo cos² θ cos² (90° – θ) = lo cos² θ sin² θ = (lo /4) sin² 2θ
Therefore, the transmitted intensity will be maximum when θ = π/4
6. Is energy conserved in interference? Explain.
Answer: Yes, energy is conserved in interference. Energy from the dark fringes is accumulated in the bright fringes. If
we take
216
 ϕ
I = 4a2 cos2 ⁡ , then intensity at bright points is Imax = 4a2 and intensity at the minima Imin = 0. Hence average intensity in the
2
pattern of the fringes produced due to interference is given by
Imax + Imin 4a2 + 0
Γ= = = 2a2
2 2
But if there is no interference then total intensity at every point on the screen will be l = a² + a² = 2a², which is the same as the
average intensity in the interference pattern.

7. An incident beam of light of intensity lo is made to fall on a polaroid A. Another polaroid B is so oriented with respect to A
that there is no light emerging out of B. A third polaroid C is now introduced midway between A and B and is so oriented that
its axis bisects the angle between the axis of A and B. What is the intensity of light now between (i) A and C (ii) C and B? Give
reasons for your answers.
Answer: Polaroids A and B are oriented at an angle of 90°, so no light is emerging out of B. On placing polaroid C between A and
B such that its axis bisects the angle between axes of A and B, then the angle between axes of polaroids A and B is 45° and that of
C and B also 45°.

8. One of the slits of Young’s double-slit experiment is covered with a semi-transparent paper so that it transmits lesser light.
What will be the effect on the interference pattern?
Answer: Answer: There will be an interference pattern whose fringe width is the same as that of the original. But there will be a
decrease in the contrast between the maxima and the minima, i.e., the maxima will become less bright, and the minima will
become brighter.

Long Questions
1. Define the term wavefront. Using Huygen’s wave theory, verify the law of reflection.
Or
Define the term, “refractive index” of a medium. Verify Snell’s law of refraction when a plane wavefront is propagating from
a denser to a rarer medium.
Answer: The wavefront is a locus of points that oscillate in the same phase.
Consider a plane wavefront AB incident obliquely on a plane reflecting surface MM–. Let us consider the situation when one end
A of was front strikes the mirror at an angle i but the other end B has still to cover distance BC. The time required for this will be
t = BC/c.
According to Huygen’s principle, point A starts emitting secondary wavelets and in time t, these will cover a distance c t = BC and
spread. Hence, with point A as centre and BC as radius, draw a circular arc. Draw tangent CD on this arc from point C. Obviously,
the CD is the reflected wavefront inclined at an angle ‘r’. As incident wavefront and reflected wavefront, both are in the plane of
the paper, the 1st law of reflection is proved.

To prove the second law of reflection, consider ΔABC and ΔADC. BC = AD (by construction),
∠ABC = ∠ADC = 90° and AC is common.
Therefore, the two triangles are congruent and, hence, ∠BAC = ∠DCA or ∠i = ∠r, i.e. The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of
incidence, which is the second law of reflection.
Or
The refractive index of medium 2, w.r.t. medium 1 equals the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence (in medium 1) to the sine of
the angle of refraction (in medium 2), The diagram is as shown.

217
From the diagram
BC v1 τ
sin⁡ i = =
AC AC
AE v τ
And sin⁡ r = = 2
AC AC
sin⁡ i v1
Therefore, = = n12
sin⁡ r v2

2. (a)Sketch the refracted wavefront for the incident plane wavefront of the light from a distant object passing through a convex
lens.
(b)Using Huygens’s principle, verify the laws of refraction when light from a denser medium is incident on a rarer medium.
(c)For yellow light of wavelength 590 nm incident on a glass slab, the refractive index of glass Is 1.5. Estimate the speed and
wavelength of yellow light Inside the glass slab.
Answer:

(b) Refraction from denser to the rarer medium: Let XY be plane refracting surface separating two media of refractive index μ1 and
μ2 (μ1 > μ2)
Let a plane wavefront AB incident at an angle i. According to Huygen’s principle, each point on the wavefront becomes a source of
secondary wavelets and
Time is taken by wavelets from B to C = Time taken by wavelets from A to D

BC AD
i.e. t = =
v1 v2
BC v1
or =
AD v2
In right angle △ ABC
BC
= sin⁡ i
AC
or BC = ACsin⁡ j
Similarly, in right angle △ ADC
AD = ACsin⁡ r
From (ii) and (iii)
BC sin⁡ i
=
AD sin⁡ r
From (i) and (ii), we have
sin⁡ i v1
= = ⁡1 μ2
sin⁡ r v2
(c) Given λ = 590nm, μ = 1.5
Velocity of light inside glass slab.

218
 C 3 × 108
∴v= = = 2 × 108 ms −1
μ 1.5
Wavelength of yellow light inside the glass slab.
λ 290
λ1 = = = 393.33nm
μ 1.5

219
 Chapter – 11 Dual Nature of Radiation And Matter
Introduction
Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetism and Hertz experiments on the generation and detection of electromagnetic waves in
1887 strongly established the wave nature of light. Towards the same period at the end of 19th century, experimental
investigations on conduction of electricity (electric discharge) through gases at low pressure in a discharge tube led to many
historic discoveries. The discovery of X-rays by Roentgen in 1895, and of electrons by J. J. Thomson in 1897, were important
milestones in the understanding of atomic structure. The colour of glow of the glass depended on the type of glass, it being
yellowish green for soda glass. The cause of this fluorescence was attributed to the radiation which appeared to be coming from
the cathode. These cathode rays were discovered, in 1870, by William Crookes who later, in 1879, suggested that these rays
consisted of streams of fast moving negatively charged particles. The British physicist J. J. Thomson (1856-1940) confirmed this
hypothesis. By applying mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic fields across the discharge tube, J. J. Thomson was the first
to determine experimentally the speed and the specific charge [charge to mass ratio (𝑒/𝑚) ] of the cathode ray particles. They
were found to travel with speeds ranging from about 0.1 to 0.2 times the speed of light (3 × 108 m/s). The presently accepted
value of 𝑒/m is 1.76 × 1011 C/kg. Further, the value of 𝑒/m was found to be independent of the nature of the material/metal used
as the cathode (emitter), or the gas introduced in the discharge tube. This observation suggested the universality of the cathode
ray particles.

Around the same time, in 1887, it was found that certain metals, when irradiated by ultraviolet light, emitted negatively charged
particles having small speeds. Also, certain metals when heated to a high temperature were found to emit negatively charged
particles. The value of 𝑒/𝑚 of these particles was found to be the same as that for cathode ray particles. These observations thus
established that all these particles, although produced under different conditions, were identical in nature. J. J. Thomson, in 1897,
named these particles as electrons, and suggested that they were fundamental, universal constituents of matter. For his epoch-
making discovery of electrons, through his theoretical and experimental investigations on conduction of electricity by gases, he
was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1906. In 1913, the American physicist R. A. Millikan (1868-1953) performed the
pioneering oil-drop experiment for the precise measurement of the charge on an electron. He found that the charge on an oil-
droplet was always an integral multiple of an elementary charge, 1.602 × 10−19 C. Millikan's experiment established that electric
charge is quantised. From the values of charge (𝑒) and specific charge (e/m), the mass (m) of the electron could be determined.

Electron Emission

We know that metals have free electrons (negatively charged particles) that are responsible for their conductivity. However, the
free electrons cannot normally escape out of the metal surface. If an electron attempts to come out of the metal, the metal surface
acquires a positive charge and pulls the electron back to the metal. The free electron is thus held inside the metal surface by the
attractive forces of the ions. Consequently, the electron can come out of the metal surface only if it has got sufficient energy to
overcome the attractive pull. A certain minimum amount of energy is required to be given to an electron to pull it out from the
surface of the metal. This minimum energy required by an electron to escape from the metal surface is called the work function
of the metal. It is generally denoted by 𝜙0 and measured in eV (electron volt). One electron volt is the energy gained by an electron
when it has been accelerated by a potential difference of 1 volt, so that 1eV = 1.602 × 10−19 J.

This unit of energy is commonly used in atomic and nuclear physics. The work function (𝜙0 ) depends on the properties of the
metal and the nature of its surface. The values of work function of some metals are given in Table 11.1. These values are
approximate as they are very sensitive to surface impurities.

Note from Table 11.1 that the work function of platinum is the highest (𝜙0 = 5.65eV) while it is the lowest (𝜙0 = 2.14eV) for
caesium.

The minimum energy required for the electron emission from the metal surface can be supplied to the free electrons by any one
of the following physical processes:

Table 11.1 work functions of some metals

Work function Work function
Metal Metal
𝝓𝟎 (𝐞𝐕) 𝝓𝟎 (𝐞𝐕)
Cs 2.14 Al 4.28
K 2.30 Hg 4.49
Na 2.75 Cu 4.65
220
 Ca 3.20 Ag 4.70
Mo 4.17 Ni 5.15
Pb 4.25 Pt 5.65

• Thermionic emission: By suitably heating, sufficient thermal energy can be imparted to the free electrons to enable them to
come out of the metal.
• Field emission: By applying a very strong electric field (of the order of 108 V m−1 ) to a metal, electrons can be pulled out of
the metal, as in a spark plug.
• Photo-electric emission: When light of suitable frequency illuminates a metal surface, electrons are emitted from the metal
surface. These photo(light)-generated electrons are called photoelectrons.

Photoelectric Effect

Hertz's observations
The phenomenon of photoelectric emission was discovered in 1887 by Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894), during his electromagnetic
wave experiments. In his experimental investigation on the production of electromagnetic waves by means of a spark discharge,
Hertz observed that high voltage sparks across the detector loop were enhanced when the emitter plate was illuminated by
ultraviolet light from an arc lamp.

Light shining on the metal surface somehow facilitated the escape of free, charged particles which we now know as electrons.
When light falls on a metal surface, some electrons near the surface absorb enough energy from the incident radiation to
overcome the attraction of the positive ions in the material of the surface. After gaining sufficient energy from the incident light,
the electrons escape from the surface of the metal into the surrounding space.

Hallwachs' and Lenard's observations

Wilhelm Hallwachs and Philipp Lenard investigated the phenomenon of photoelectric emission in detail during 1886-1902.

Lenard (1862-1947) observed that when ultraviolet radiation was allowed to fall on the emitter plate of an evacuated glass tube
enclosing two electrodes (metal plates), current flows in the circuit (Fig. 11.1). As soon as the ultraviolet radiation was stopped,
the current flow also stopped. These observations indicate that when ultraviolet radiation falls on the emitter plate C, electrons
are ejected from it which are attracted towards the positive, collector plate A by the electric field. The electrons flow through the
evacuated glass tube, resulting in the current flow. Thus, light falling on the surface of the emitter causes current in the external
circuit. Hallwachs and Lenard studied how this photo current varied with collector plate potential, and with frequency and
intensity of incident light.

Hallwachs, in 1888, undertook the study further and connected a negatively charged zinc plate to an electroscope. He observed
that the zinc plate lost its charge when it was illuminated by ultraviolet light. Further, the uncharged zinc plate became positively
charged when it was irradiated by ultraviolet light. Positive charge on a positively charged zinc plate was found to be further
enhanced when it was illuminated by ultraviolet light. From these observations he concluded that negatively charged particles
were emitted from the zinc plate under the action of ultraviolet light.
After the discovery of the electron in 1897, it became evident that the incident light causes electrons to be emitted from the
emitter plate. Due to negative charge, the emitted electrons are pushed towards the collector plate by the electric field. Hallwachs
and Lenard also observed that when ultraviolet light fell on the emitter plate, no electrons were emitted at all when the frequency
of the incident light was smaller than a certain minimum value, called the threshold frequency. This minimum frequency depends
on the nature of the material of the emitter plate.

It was found that certain metals like zinc, cadmium, magnesium, etc., responded only to ultraviolet light, having short wavelength,
to cause electron emission from the surface. However, some alkali metals such as lithium, sodium, potassium, caesium and
rubidium were sensitive even to visible light. All these photosensitive substances emit electrons when they are illuminated by
light. After the discovery of electrons, these electrons were termed as photoelectrons. The phenomenon is called photoelectric
effect.

Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect

Figure 11.1 depicts a schematic view of the arrangement used for the experimental study of the photoelectric effect. It consists
of an evacuated glass/quartz tube having a photosensitive plate C and another metal plate A. Monochromatic light from the
source S of sufficiently short wavelength passes through the window W and falls on the photosensitive plate C (emitter). A

221
transparent quartz window is sealed on to the glass tube, which permits ultraviolet radiation to pass through it and irradiate the
photosensitive plate C. The electrons are emitted by the plate C and are collected by the plate A (collector), by the electric field
created by the battery. The battery maintains the potential difference between the plates C and A, that can be varied. The polarity
of the plates C and A can be reversed by a commutator. Thus, the plate 𝐴 can be maintained at a desired positive or negative
potential with respect to emitter C. When the collector plate A is positive with respect to the emitter plate C, the electrons are
attracted to it. The emission of electrons causes the flow of electric current in the circuit. The potential difference between the
emitter and collector plates is measured by a voltmeter (V) whereas the resulting photo current flowing in the circuit is measured
by a microammeter (μA). The photoelectric current can be increased or decreased by varying the potential of collector plate A
with respect to the emitter plate C. The intensity and frequency of the incident light can be varied, as can the potential difference
V between the emitter C and the collector A.

We can use the experimental arrangement of Fig. 11.1 to study the variation of photocurrent with (a) intensity of radiation, (b)
frequency of incident radiation, (c) the potential difference between the plates A and C, and (d) the nature of the material of plate
C. Light of different frequencies can be used by putting appropriate coloured filter or coloured glass in the path of light falling on
the emitter C. The intensity of light is varied by changing the distance of the light source from the emitter.

Figure 11.1 Experimental arrangement for study of photoelectric effect.

Figure 11.2 Variation of Photoelectric current with intensity of light.

Effect of intensity of light on photocurrent

The collector A is maintained at a positive potential with respect to emitter C so that electrons ejected from C are attracted
towards collector A. Keeping the frequency of the incident radiation and the accelerating potential fixed, the intensity of light is
varied, and the resulting photoelectric current is measured each time. It is found that the photocurrent increases linearly with
intensity of incident light as shown graphically in Fig. 11.2. The photocurrent is directly proportional to the number of
photoelectrons emitted per second. This implies that the number of photoelectrons emitted per second is directly proportional
to the intensity of incident radiation.

222
Effect of potential on photoelectric current
We first keep the plate A at some positive accelerating potential with respect to the plate C and illuminate the plate C with light
of fixed frequency 𝑣 and fixed intensity 𝐼1 . We next vary the positive potential of plate A gradually and measure the resulting
photocurrent each time. It is found that the photoelectric current increases with an increase in accelerating (positive) potential.
At some stage, for a certain positive potential of plate A, all the emitted electrons are collected by the plate A and the photoelectric
current becomes maximum or saturates. If we increase the accelerating potential of plate A further, the photocurrent does not
increase. This maximum value of the photoelectric current is called saturation current. Saturation current corresponds to the
case when all the photoelectrons emitted by the emitter plate C reach the collector plate A.

Fig. 11.3 Varlation of photocurrent with collector plate potentlal for different intenstty of incident radiation.

We now apply a negative (retarding) potential to the plate A with respect to the plate C and make it increasingly negative
gradually. When the Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter polarity is reversed, the electrons are repelled and only the most
energetic electrons are able to reach the collector A. The photocurrent is found to decrease rapidly until it drops to zero at a
certain sharply defined, critical value of the negative potential 𝑉0 on the plate A. For a particular frequency of incident radiation,
the minimum negative (retarding) potential 𝑉𝑜 given to the plate 𝐴 for which the photocurrent stops or becomes zero is called
the cut-off or stopping potential.
The interpretation of the observation in terms of photoelectrons is straightforward. All the photoelectrons emitted from the
metal do not have the same energy. Photoelectric current is zero when the stopping potential is sufficient to repel even the most
energetic photoelectrons, with the maximum kinetic energy (𝐾max ), so that.

𝐾max = 𝑒𝑉0

We can now repeat this experiment with incident radiation of the same frequency but of higher intensity 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 (𝐼3 > 𝐼2 > 𝐼1 ).
We note that the saturation currents are now found to be at higher values. This shows that more electrons are being emitted per
second, proportional to the intensity of incident radiation. But the stopping potential remains the same as that for the incident
radiation of intensity 𝐼1 , as shown graphically in Fig. 11.3. Thus, for a given frequency of the incident radiation, the stopping
potential is independent of its intensity. In other words, the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons depends on the light
source and the emitter plate material but is independent of intensity of incident radiation.

Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential

We now study the relation between the frequency 𝑣 of the incident radiation and the stopping potential 𝑉0 . We suitably adjust
the same intensity of light radiation at various frequencies and study the variation of photocurrent with collector plate potential.
The resulting variation is shown in Fig. 11.4

Figure 11.4 Variation of photoelectric current with collector plate potential for different frequencies of incident
radiation.
223
We obtain different values of stopping potential but the same value of the saturation current for incident radiation of different
frequencies. The energy of the emitted electrons depends on the frequency of the incident radiation. The stopping potential is
more negative for higher frequencies of incident radiation.

Figure 11.5 Variation of stopping potential V0 with frequency ν of incident radiation for a given photosensitive
material.
Note from Fig. 11.4 that the stopping potentials are in the order 𝑉03 > 𝑉02 > 𝑉01 if the frequencies are in the order 𝑣3 > 𝑣2 > 𝑣1 .
This implies that the greater the frequency of incident light, greater is the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons.
Consequently, we need greater retarding potential to stop them completely. If we plot a graph between the frequency of incident
radiation and the corresponding stopping potential for different metals we get a straight line, as shown in Fig. 11.5.
The graph shows that.
• the stopping potential 𝑉0 varies linearly with the frequency of incident radiation for a given photosensitive material.
• there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency 𝑣0 for which the stopping potential is zero.
These observations have two implications:
• The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons varies linearly with the frequency of incident radiation but is
independent of its intensity.
• For a frequency 𝑣 of incident radiation, lower than the cut-off frequency 𝑣0 , no photoelectric emission is possible even if the
intensity is large.
This minimum, cut-off frequency 𝑣0 , is called the threshold frequency. It is different for different metals.
`Different photosensitive materials respond differently to light. Selenium is more sensitive than zinc or copper. The same
photosensitive substance gives different response to light of different wavelengths. For example, ultraviolet light gives rise to
photoelectric effect in copper while green or red light does not.

Note that in all the above experiments, it is found that, if frequency of the incident radiation exceeds the threshold frequency, the
photoelectric emission starts instantaneously without any apparent time lag, even if the incident radiation is very dim. It is now
known that emission starts in a time of the order of 10−9 s or less.

We now summarise the experimental features and observations described in this section.
• For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation (above the threshold frequency), the photoelectric
current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light (Fig. 11.2).
• For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation, saturation current is found to be proportional to the
intensity of incident radiation whereas the stopping potential is independent of its intensity.
• For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency of the incident radiation, called the
threshold frequency, below which no emission of photoelectrons takes place, no matter how intense the incident light is.
Above the threshold frequency, the stopping potential or equivalently the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of the incident radiation but is independent of its intensity (Fig. 11.5).
• The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process without any apparent time lag (∼ 10−9 s or less), even when the
incident radiation is made exceedingly dim.

Photoelectric Effect and Wave Theory OF Light

The wave nature of light was well established by the end of the nineteenth century. The phenomena of interference, diffraction
and polarisation were explained in a natural and satisfactory way by the wave picture of light. According to this picture, light is
an electromagnetic wave consisting of electric and magnetic fields with continuous distribution of energy over the region of space
over which the wave is extended. Let us now see if this wave picture of light can explain the observations on photoelectric
emission given in the previous section.
224
According to the wave picture of light, the free electrons at the surface of the metal (over which the beam of radiation falls) absorb
the radiant energy continuously. The greater the intensity of radiation, the greater are the amplitude of electric and magnetic
fields. Consequently, the greater the intensity, the greater should be the energy absorbed by each electron. In this picture, the
maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons on the surface is then expected to increase with increase in intensity. Also, no
matter what the frequency of radiation is, a sufficiently intense beam of radiation (over sufficient time) should be able to impart
enough energy to the electrons, so that they exceed the minimum energy needed to escape from the metal surface . A threshold
frequency, therefore, should not exist.

Further, we should note that in the wave picture, the absorption of energy by electron takes place continuously over the entire
wavefront of the radiation. Since a large number of electrons absorb energy, the energy absorbed per electron per unit time turns
out to be small. Explicit calculations estimate that it can take hours or more for a single electron to pick up sufficient energy to
overcome the work function and come out of the metal. This conclusion is again in striking contrast to observation (iv) that the
photoelectric emission is instantaneous. In short, the wave picture is unable to explain the most basic features of photoelectric
emission.

Einstein's Photoelectric Equation: Energy Quantum OF Radiation

In 1905, Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955) proposed a radically new picture of electromagnetic radiation to explain the photoelectric
effect. In this picture, photoelectric emission does not take place by continuous absorption of energy from radiation. Radiation
energy is built up of discrete units - the so-called quantity of energy of radiation. Each quantum of radiant energy has energy ℎ𝑣,
where ℎ is Planck's constant and 𝑣 the frequency of light. In photoelectric effect, an electron absorbs a quantum of energy (ℎ𝑣)
of radiation. If this quantum of energy absorbed exceeds the minimum energy needed for the electron to escape from the metal
surface (work function 𝜙0 ), the electron is emitted with maximum kinetic energy.
𝐾max = ℎ𝑣 − 𝜙0 . . . . (11.2)
More tightly bound electrons will emerge with kinetic energies less than the maximum value. Note that the intensity of light of a
given frequency is determined by the number of photons incident per second. Increasing the intensity will increase the number
of emitted electrons per second. However, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons is determined by the
energy of each photon.

Equation (11.2) is known as Einstein's photoelectric equation. We now see how this equation accounts in a simple and elegant
manner all the observations on photoelectric effect given at the end of sub-section 11.4.3.
• According to Eq. (11.2), 𝐾max depends linearly on 𝑣, and is independent of intensity of radiation, in agreement with
observation. This has happened because in Einstein's picture, photoelectric effect arises from the absorption of a single
quantum of radiation by a single electron. The intensity of radiation (that is proportional to the number of energy quanta
per unit area per unit time) is irrelevant to this basic process.
• Since 𝐾max must be non-negative, Eq. (11.2) implies that photoelectric emission is possible only if ℎ𝑣 > 𝜙0 or 𝑣 > 𝑣0 , where.
𝜙0
𝑣0 = . . . . (11.3)
ℎ
Equation (11.3) shows that the greater the work function 𝜙0 , the higher the minimum or threshold frequency 𝑣0 needed to
emit photoelectrons. Thus, there exists a threshold frequency 𝑣0 (= 𝜙0 /ℎ) for the metal surface, below which no
photoelectric emission is possible, no matter how intense the incident radiation may be or how long it falls on the surface.
• In this picture, intensity of radiation as noted above, is proportional to the number of energy quanta per unit area per unit
time. The greater the number of energy quanta available, the greater is the number of electrons absorbing the energy quanta
and greater, therefore, is the number of electrons coming out of the metal (for 𝑣 > 𝑣0 ). This explains why, for 𝑣 > 𝑣0 ,
photoelectric current is proportional to intensity.
• In Einstein's picture, the basic elementary process involved in photoelectric effect is the absorption of a light quantum by an
electron. This process is instantaneous. Thus, whatever may be the intensity i.e., the number of quanta of radiation per unit
area per unit time, photoelectric emission is instantaneous. Low intensity does not mean delay in emission, since the basic
elementary process is the same. Intensity only determines how many electrons are able to participate in the elementary
process (absorption of a light quantum by a single electron) and, therefore, the photoelectric current.
Using Eq. (11.1), the photoelectric equation, Eq. (11.2), can be written as
𝑒𝑉0 = ℎ𝑣 − 𝜙0 ; for 𝑣 ≥ 𝑣0
or
ℎ 𝜙0
𝑉0 = 𝑣 − . . . . . . (11.4)
𝑒 𝑒

This is an important result. It predicts that the 𝑉0 versus 𝑣 curve is a straight line with slope = (ℎ/𝑒), independent of the nature
of the material. During 1906-1916, Millikan performed a series of experiments on photoelectric effect, aimed at disproving
Einstein's photoelectric equation. He measured the slope of the straight line obtained for sodium, similar to that shown in Fig.
225
11.5. Using the known value of 𝑒, he determined the value of Planck's constant ℎ. This value was close to the value of Planck's
contant (= 6.626 × 10−34 J s) determined in an entirely different context. In this way, in 1916, Millikan proved the validity of
Einstein's photoelectric equation, instead of disproving it.

The successful explanation of photoelectric effect using the hypothesis of light quanta and the experimental determination of
values of ℎ and 𝜙0 , in agreement with values obtained from other experiments, led to the acceptance of Einstein's picture of
photoelectric effect. Millikan verified photoelectric equations with great precision, for a number of alkali metals over a wide range
of radiation frequencies.

Particle Nature of Light: The Photon

Photoelectric effect thus gave evidence to the strange fact that light in interaction with matter behaved as if it was made of quanta
or packets of energy, each of energy ℎ𝑣.

Is the light quantum of energy to be associated with a particle? Einstein arrived at the important result, that the light quantum
can also be associated with momentum (ℎ𝑣/𝑐). A definite value of energy as well as momentum is a strong sign that the light
quantum can be associated with a particle. This particle was later named photon. The particle-like behaviour of light was further
confirmed, in 1924, by the experiment of A.H. Compton (1892-1962) on scattering of X-rays from electrons. In 1921, Einstein was
awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his contribution to theoretical physics and the photoelectric effect. In 1923, Millikan was
awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect.

We can summarise the photon picture of electromagnetic radiation as follows:

• In interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made up of particles called photons.
• Each photon has energy 𝐸(= ℎ𝑣) and momentum 𝑝(= ℎ𝑣/𝑐), and speed 𝑐, the speed of light.
• All photons of light of a particular frequency 𝑣, or wavelength 𝜆, have the same energy 𝐸(= ℎ𝑣 = ℎ𝑐/𝜆) and momentum 𝑝(=
ℎ𝑣/𝑐 = ℎ/𝜆), whatever the intensity of radiation may be. By increasing the intensity of light of given wavelength, there is
only an increase in the number of photons per second crossing a given area, with each photon having the same energy. Thus,
photon energy is independent of intensity of radiation.
• Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
• In a photon-particle collision (such as photon-electron collision), the total energy and total momentum are conserved.
However, the number of photons may not be conserved in a collision. The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be
created.

Example: Monochromatic light of frequency 6.0 × 1014 Hz is produced by a laser. The power emitted is 2.0 × 10−3 W. (a) What
is the energy of a photon in the light beam? (b) How many photons per second, on an average, are emitted by the source?
Solution
(a) Each photon has an energy
𝐸 = ℎ𝑣 = (6.63 × 10−34 J s)(6.0 × 1014 Hz)
= 3.98 × 10−19 J
(b) If 𝑁 is the number of photons emitted by the source per second, the power 𝑃 transmitted in the beam equals 𝑁 times the
energy per photon 𝐸, so that 𝑃 = 𝑁𝐸. Then
𝑃 2.0 × 10−3 W
𝑁 = =
𝐸 3.98 × 10−19 J
= 5.0 × 1015 photons per second .

Example: The work function of caesium is 2.14eV. Find (a) the threshold frequency for caesium, and (b) the wavelength of the
incident light if the photocurrent is brought to zero by a stopping potential of 0.60 V.
Solution
(a) For the cut-off or threshold frequency, the energy ℎ𝑣0 of the incident radiation must be equal to work function 𝜙0 so that
𝜙0 2.14eV
𝑣0 = =
ℎ 6.63 × 10−34 J s
2.14 × 1.6 × 10−19 J
= = 5.16 × 1014 Hz
6.63 × 10−34 J s
Thus, for frequencies less than this threshold frequency, no photoelectrons are ejected.
(b) Photocurrent reduces to zero, when maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons equals the potential energy 𝑒𝑉0
by the retarding potential 𝑉0 . Einstein's Photoelectric equation is

226
 ℎ𝑐
𝑒𝑉0 = ℎ𝑣 − 𝜙0 = − 𝜙0
𝜆
or, 𝜆 = ℎ𝑐/(𝑒𝑉0 + 𝜙0 )
(6.63 × 10−34 J s) × (3 × 108 m/s)
=
(0.60eV + 2.14eV)
19.89 × 10−26 J m
=
(2.74eV)
19.89 × 10−26 J m
𝜆 = = 454 nm
2.74 × 1.6 × 10−19 J

Example: The wavelength of light in the visible region is about 390 nm for violet colour, about 550 nm (average wavelength) for
yellowgreen colour and about 760 nm for red colour.
(a) What are the energies of photons in (eV) at the (i) violet end, (ii) average wavelength, yellow green colour, and (iii) red end
of the visible spectrum? (Take ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 J s and 1eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J.)
(b) From which of the photosensitive materials with work functions listed in Table 11.1 and using the results of (i), (ii) and (iii)
of (a), can you build a photoelectric device that operates with visible light?

Solution
(a) Energy of the incident photon, 𝐸 = ℎ𝑣 = ℎ𝑐/𝜆
𝐸 = (6.63 × 10−34 J s)(3 × 108 m/s)/𝜆
1.989 × 10−25 J m
=
𝜆
(i) For violet light, 𝜆1 = 390 nm (lower wavelength end)
1.989 × 10−25 J m
Incident photon energy, 𝐸1 =
390 × 10−9 m
= 5.10 × 10−19 J
5.10 × 10−19 J
=
1.6 × 10−19 J/eV
= 3.19eV
(ii) For yellow-green light, 𝜆2 = 550 nm (average wavelength)
1.989×10−25 J m
Incident photon energy, 𝐸2 =
550×10−9 m
= 3.62 × 10−19 J = 2.26eV
(iii) For red light, 𝜆3 = 760 nm (higher wavelength end)
1.989 × 10−25 Jm
Incident photon energy, E3 =
760 × 10−9 m
= 2.62 × 10−19 J = 1.64eV
(b) For a photoelectric device to operate, we require incident light energy 𝐸 to be equal to or greater than the work function 𝜙0
of the material. Thus, the photoelectric device will operate with violet light (with 𝐸 = 3.19eV ) photosensitive material Na (with
𝜙0 = 2.75eV ), K (with 𝜙0 = 2.30eV ) and Cs (with 𝜙0 = 2.14eV ). It will also operate with yellow-green light (with 𝐸 = 2.26eV )
for Cs (with 𝜙0 = 2.14eV ) only. However, it will not operate with red light (with 𝐸 = 1.64eV ) for any of these photosensitive
materials.

Wave Nature of Matter

The dual (wave-particle) nature of light (electromagnetic radiation, in general) comes out clearly from what we have learnt in
this and the preceding chapters. The wave nature of light shows up in the phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarisation.
On the other hand, in photoelectric effect and Compton effect which involve energy and momentum transfer, radiation behaves
as if it is made up of a bunch of particles - the photons. Whether a particle or wave description is best suited for understanding
an experiment depends on the nature of the experiment. For example, in the familiar phenomenon of seeing an object by our eye,
both descriptions are important. The gathering and focussing mechanism of light by the eye-lens is well described in the wave
picture. But its absorption by the rods and cones (of the retina) requires the photon picture of light.

A natural question arises: If radiation has a dual (wave-particle) nature, might not the particles of nature (the electrons, protons,
etc.) also exhibit wave-like character? In 1924, the French physicist Louis Victor de Broglie (pronounced as de Broy) (1892-1987)
put forward the bold hypothesis that moving particles of matter should display wave-like properties under suitable conditions.
He reasoned that nature was symmetrical and that the two basic physical entities - matter and energy, must have symmetrical
character. If radiation shows dual aspects, so should matter. De Broglie proposed that the wavelength 𝜆 associated with a particle
of momentum 𝑝 is given as
227
 ℎ ℎ
𝜆= = ….(11.5)
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
where 𝑚 is the mass of the particle and 𝑣 its speed. Equation (11.5) is known as the de Broglie relation and the wavelength 𝜆 of
the matter wave is called de Broglie wavelength. The dual aspect of matter is evident in the de Broglie relation. On the left-hand
side of Eq. (11.5), 𝜆 is the attribute of a wave while on the right-hand side the momentum 𝑝 is a typical attribute of a particle.
Planck's constant ℎ relates the two attributes.

Equation (11.5) for a material particle is basically a hypothesis whose validity can be tested only by experiment. However, it is
interesting to see that it is satisfied also by a photon. For a photon, as we have seen,
𝑝 = ℎ𝑣/𝑐 . . . . (11.6)
Therefore,
ℎ 𝑐
= = 𝜆 ….(11.7)
𝑝 𝑣
That is, the de Broglie wavelength of a photon given by Eq. (11.5) equals the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation of which
the photon is a quantum of energy and momentum.

Clearly, from Eq. (11.5), 𝜆 is smaller for a heavier particle (large 𝑚 ) or more energetic particle (large 𝑣 ). For example, the de
Broglie wavelength of a ball of mass 0.12 kg moving with a speed of 20 m s−1 is easily calculated:

Photo Сell
A photocell is a technological application of the photoelectric effect. It is a device whose electrical properties are affected by light.
It is also sometimes called an electric eye. A photocell consists of a semi-cylindrical photo-sensitive metal plate C (emitter) and a
wire loop A (collector) supported in an evacuated glass or quartz bulb. It is connected to the external circuit having a high-tension
battery B and microammeter (𝜇A) as shown in the Figure. Sometimes, instead of the plate C, a thin layer of photosensitive
material is pasted on the inside of the bulb. A part of the bulb is left clean for the light to enter it.

Figure 11.6
When light of suitable wavelength falls on the emitter C, photoelectrons are emitted. These photoelectrons are drawn to collector
A. Photocurrent of the order of a few microamperes can be normally obtained from a photocell.

A photocell converts a change in intensity of illumination into a change in photocurrent. This current can be used to operate
control systems and in light measuring devices. A photocell of lead sulphide sensitive to infrared radiation is used in electronic
ignition circuits.

In scientific work, photo cells are used whenever it is necessary to measure the intensity of light. Light meters in photographic
cameras make use of photo cells to measure the intensity of incident light. The photocells, inserted in the door light electric
circuit, are used as automatic door opener. A person approaching a doorway may interrupt a light beam which is incident on a
photocell.

A photocell door or rings an alarm. They are used in the control of a counting device which records every interruption of the light
beam caused by a person or object passing across the beam. So photocells help count the persons entering an auditorium,
provided they enter the hall one by one. They are used for detection of traffic law defaulters: an alarm may be sounded whenever
a beam of (invisible) radiation is intercepted.
228
In burglar alarm, (invisible) ultraviolet light is continuously made to fall on a photocell installed at the doorway. A person entering
the door interrupts the beam falling on the photocell. The abrupt change in photocurrent is used to start an electric bell ringing.
In fire alarm, a number of photocells are installed at suitable places in a building. In the event of breaking out of fire, light
radiations fall upon the photocell. This completes the electric circuit through an electric bell or a siren which starts operating as
a warning signal.

Photocells are used in the reproduction of sound in motion pictures and in the television camera for scanning and telecasting
scenes. They are used in industries for detecting minor flaws or holes in metal sheets.

𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 = 0.12 kg × 20 m s−1 = 2.40 kg m s−1

ℎ 6.63 × 10−34 J s
𝜆= = = 2.76 × 10−34 m
𝑝 2.40 kg m s

Louis Victor de Broglie (1892 - 1987) French physicist who put forth revolutionary idea of wave nature of matter. This idea was
developed by Erwin Schródinger into a fullfledged theory of quantum mechanics commonly known as wave mechanics. In 1929,
he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the wave nature of electrons. This wavelength is so small that it is
beyond any measurement. This is the reason why macroscopic objects in our daily life do not show wave-like properties. On the
other hand, in the sub-atomic domain, the wave character of particles is significant and measurable.

Consider an electron (mass 𝑚, charge 𝑒 ) accelerated from rest through a potential 𝑉. The kinetic energy 𝐾 of the electron equals
the work done (𝑒𝑉) on it by the electric field:
𝐾 = 𝑒𝑉
1 𝑝2
Now, 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = , so that
2 2𝑚
𝑝 = √2𝑚𝐾 = √2𝑚𝑒𝑉
The de Broglie wavelength 𝜆 of the electron is then
ℎ ℎ ℎ
𝜆= = =
𝑝 √2𝑚𝐾 √2𝑚𝑒𝑉
Substituting the numerical values of ℎ, 𝑚, 𝑒 we get
1.227
𝜆= nm
√𝑉
where 𝑉 is the magnitude of accelerating potential in volts. For a 120 V accelerating potential, gives 𝜆 = 0.112 nm. This
wavelength is of the same order as the spacing between the atomic planes in crystals. This suggests that matter waves associated
with an electron could be verified by crystal diffraction experiments analogous to X-ray diffraction. We describe the experimental
verification of the de Broglie hypothesis in the next section. In 1929, de Broglie was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his
discovery of the wave nature of electrons.

The matter-wave picture elegantly incorporated the Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. According to the principle, it is not
possible to measure both the position and momentum of an electron (or any other particle) at the same time exactly. There is
always some uncertainty (Δ𝑥) in the specification of position and some uncertainty (Δ𝑝) in the specification of momentum. The
product of Δ𝑥 and Δ𝑝 is of the order of ℏ∗ (with ℏ = ℎ/2𝜋 ), i.e.,
Δ𝑥Δ𝑝 ≈ ℏ
Allows the possibility that Δ𝑥 is zero; but then Δ𝑝 must be infinite in order that the product is non-zero. Similarly, if Δ𝑝 is zero,
Δ𝑥 must be infinite. Ordinarily, both Δ𝑥 and Δ𝑝 are non-zero such that their product is of the order of ℏ.
Now, if an electron has a definite momentum 𝑝, (i.e. Δ𝑝 = 0 ), by the de Broglie relation, it has a definite wavelength 𝜆. A wave of
definite (single) wavelength extends all over space. By Born's probability interpretation this means that the electron is not
localised in any finite region of space. That is, its position uncertainty is infinite (Δ𝑥 → ∞), which is consistent with the
uncertainty principle.

In general, the matter wave associated with the electron is not extended all over space. It is a wave packet extending over some
finite region of space. In that case Δ𝑥 is not infinite but has some finite value depending on the extension of the wave packet. Also,
you must appreciate that a wave packet of finite extension does not have a single wavelength. It is built up of wavelengths spread
around some central wavelength.
By de Broglie's relation, then, the momentum of the electron will also have a spread - an uncertainty Δ𝑝. This is as expected from
the uncertainty principle. It can be shown that the wave packet description together with de Broglie relation and Born's
probability interpretation reproduce the Heisenberg's uncertainty principle exactly.

Example: What is the de Broglie wavelength associated with (a) an electron moving with a speed of 5.4 × 106 m/s, and (b) a ball
of mass 150 g travelling at 30.0 m/s ?

229
Solution
(a) For the electron:
Mass 𝑚 = 9.11 × 10−31 kg, speed 𝑣 = 5.4 × 106 m/s. Then, momentum 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 = 9.11 × 10−31 ( kg) × 5.4 × 106 ( m/s)
𝑝 = 4.92 × 10−24 kg m/s
de Broglie wavelength, 𝜆 = ℎ/𝑝
6.63 × 10−34 J s
=
4.92 × 10−24 kg m/s
𝜆 = 0.135 nm
(b) For the ball:
Mass 𝑚′ = 0.150 kg, speed 𝑣 ′ = 30.0 m/s.
Then momentum 𝑝′ = 𝑚′ 𝑣 ′ = 0.150( kg) × 30.0( m/s)
𝑝′ = 4.50 kg m/s
de Broglie wavelength 𝜆′ = ℎ/𝑝′.
6.63 × 10±34 J s
=
4.50 × kgm/s
𝜆′ = 1.47 × 10−34 m
The de Broglie wavelength of electron is comparable with X-ray wavelengths. However, for the ball it is about 10−19 times the
size of the proton, quite beyond experimental measurement.

Example: An electron, an 𝛼-particle, and a proton have the same kinetic energy. Which of these particles has the shortest de
Broglie wavelength?
Solution
For a particle, de Broglie wavelength, 𝜆 = ℎ/𝑝
Kinetic energy, 𝐾 = 𝑝2 /2𝑚
Then, 𝜆 = ℎ/√2𝑚𝐾
For the same kinetic energy 𝐾, the de Broglie wavelength associated with the particle is inversely proportional to the square root
of their masses. A proton ( 11 H) is 1836 times massive than an electron and an 𝛼-particle ( 42 He) four times that of a proton.
Hence, 𝛼 - particle has the shortest de Broglie wavelength.

Probability Interpretation to Matter Waves

It is worth pausing here to reflect on just what a matter wave associated with a particle, say, an electron, means. Actually, a truly
satisfactory physical understanding of the dual nature of matter and radiation has not emerged so far. The great founders of
quantum mechanics (Niels Bohr, Albert Einstein, and many others) struggled with this and related concepts for long. Still the
deep physical interpretation of quantum mechanics continues to be an area of active research. Despite this, the concept of matter
wave has been mathematically introduced in modern quantum mechanics with great success. An important milestone in this
connection was when Max Born (18821970) suggested a probability interpretation to the matter wave amplitude. According to
this, the intensity (square of the amplitude) of the matter wave at a point determines the probability density of the particle at
that point. Probability density means probability per unit volume. Thus, if 𝐴 is the amplitude of the wave at a point, |𝐴|2 Δ𝑉 is the
probability of the particle being found in a small volume Δ𝑉 around that point. Thus, if the intensity of matter wave is large in a
certain region, there is a greater probability of the particle being found there than where the intensity is small.

Example: A particle is moving three times as fast as an electron. The ratio of the de Broglie wavelength of the particle to that of
the electron is 1.813 × 10−4 . Calculate the particle's mass and identify the particle.

Solution
ℎ ℎ
de Broglie wavelength of a moving particle, having mass 𝑚 and velocity 𝑣 : 𝜆 = =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
Mass, 𝑚 = ℎ/𝜆𝑣
For an electron, mass 𝑚e = ℎ/𝜆𝑒 𝑣𝑒
Now, we have 𝑣/𝑣𝑒 = 3 and
𝜆/𝜆𝑒 = 1.813 × 10−4
𝜆𝑒 𝑣𝑒
Then, mass of the particle, 𝑚 = 𝑚e
𝜆 𝑣
𝑚 = (9.11 × 10−31 kg) × (1/3) × (1/1.813 × 10−4 )
𝑚 = 1.675 × 10−27 kg.
Thus, the particle with this mass could be a proton or a neutron.

Example: What is the de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron, accelerated through a potential difference of 100 volts?
Solution Accelerating potential 𝑉 = 100 V. The de Broglie wavelength 𝜆 is

230
 1.227
𝜆 = ℎ/𝑝 = nm
√𝑉
1.227
𝜆= nm = 0.123 nm
√100
The de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron in this case is of the order of X-ray wavelengths.

Davisson and Germer Experiment

The wave nature of electrons was first experimentally verified by C.J. Davisson and L.H. Germer in 1927 and independently by
G.P. Thomson, in 1928 , who observed diffraction effects with beams of electrons scattered by crystals. Davisson and Thomson
shared the Nobel Prize in 1937 for their experimental discovery of diffraction of electrons by crystals.

The experimental arrangement used by Davisson and Germer is schematically shown in Fig. 11.7. It consists of an electron gun
which comprises of a tungsten filament F, coated with barium oxide and heated by a low voltage power supply (L.T. or battery).
Electrons emitted by the filament are accelerated to a desired velocity by applying suitable potential/voltage from a high voltage
power supply (H.T. or battery). They are made to pass through a cylinder with fine holes along its axis, producing a fine collimated
beam. The beam is made to fall on the surface of a nickel crystal. The electrons are scattered in all directions by the atoms of the
crystal. The intensity of the electron beam, scattered in a given direction, is measured by the electron detector (collector).

Figure 11.7 Davisson-Germer electron diffraction arrangement.

The detector can be moved on a circular scale and is connected to a sensitive galvanometer, which records the current. The
deflection of the galvanometer is proportional to the intensity of the electron beam entering the collector. The apparatus is
enclosed in an evacuated chamber. By moving the detector on the circular scale at different positions, the intensity of the
scattered electron beam is measured for different values of angle of scattering 𝜃 which is the angle between the incident and the
scattered electron beams. The variation of the intensity (𝐼) of the scattered electrons with the angle of scattering 𝜃 is obtained
for different accelerating voltages.

The experiment was performed by varying the accelarating voltage from 44 V to 68 V. It was noticed that a strong peak appeared
in the intensity (𝐼) of the scattered electron for an accelarating voltage of 54 V at a scattering angle 𝜃 = 50∘
The appearance of the peak in a particular direction is due to the constructive interference of electrons scattered from different
layers of the regularly spaced atoms of the crystals. From the electron diffraction measurements, the wavelength of matter waves
was found to be 0.165 nm.

The de Broglie wavelength 𝜆 associated with electrons, using Eq. (11.11), for 𝑉 = 54 V is given by
1.227
𝜆 = ℎ/𝑝 = nm
√𝑉
1.227
𝜆= nm = 0.167 nm
√54
Thus, there is an excellent agreement between the theoretical value and the experimentally obtained value of de Broglie
wavelength. Davisson Germer experiment thus strikingly confirms the wave nature of electrons and the de Broglie relation. More
recently, in 1989, the wave nature of a beam of electrons was experimentally demonstrated in a double-slit experiment, similar
to that used for the wave nature of light. Also, in an experiment in 1994, interference fringes were obtained with the beams of
iodine molecules, which are about a million times more massive than electrons.
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The de Broglie hypothesis has been basic to the development of modern quantum mechanics. It has also led to the field of electron
optics. The wave properties of electrons have been utilised in the design of electron microscope, which is a great improvement,
with higher resolution, over the optical microscope.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Identify the process in which an electron escapes from the metal surface.
A. Electron emission B. Electron displacement
C. Electron transgression D. Electron movement
Answer: A
Explanation: The process in which an electron escapes from the metal surface is known as electron emission. Electrons are
loosely bound to the nucleus, and therefore, a little energy push sets these electrons flying out of their respective orbits.

2. How many types of electron emissions exist?

A. 2 B. 3
C. 4 D. 1
Answer: C
Explanation: There are four types of electron emissions, namely, thermionic emission, photoelectric emission, secondary
emission, and field emission. These are the different methods of producing electron emissions.

3. Which of the following are quick electron emissions?

A. Photoelectric emission B. Field emission
C. Secondary emission D. Thermionic emission
Answer: B
Explanation: Field electron emission, or simply field emission, is known as quick electron emissions because, in this type of
electron emission, the emission of electrons is induced due to the presence of an electrostatic field.

4. Find the wrong statement.

A. An electron gun is to create electrons and then B. Thermionic emissions and photoelectric
accelerate them to a very high speed emissions are the same
C. The kinetic energy of photoelectrons vary D. Vacuum tubes are thermionic devices
Answer: B
Explanation: No, thermionic emissions and photoelectric emissions are not the same. During thermionic emissions, the electrons
are emitted from the metal surface by providing heat energy, whereas, during photoelectric emission light energy is emitted
when electrons are emitted from the surface of the metal. So, it is the opposite in operation.

5. Which photon is more energetic: A red one or a violet one?

A. Both B. Red
C. Violet D. Neither
Answer: C
Explanation: Violet photon has more energy because the energy of a photon is given as:
E = hv
Since energy is directly proportional to wavelength, i.e., Vvoilet > Vred, the violet photon is more energetic than the red photon.

6. If the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is doubled, what will happen to the energy of photons?
A. Remains the same B. Doubled
C. Halved D. Infinite
Answer: C
Explanation: Energy of a photon is given as:
hc
E = hv =
λ
The energy of the photon reduces to one-half when the wavelength of radiation is doubled.

7. What happens to the wavelength of a photon after it collides with an electron?

A. Increases B. Decreases
C. Remains the same D. Infinite
Answer: A
232
Explanation: A photon transfers a part of its energy to the colliding electron, so its energy decreases, and consequently
wavelength increases. This is because the energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength of a photon.

8. Why are alkali metals most suited as photo-sensitive metals?

A. High frequency B. Zero rest mass
C. High work function D. Low work function
Answer: D
Explanation: Alkali metals have low work functions. Even visible radiation can eject out electrons from them. So alkali metals
are the most suitable photo-sensitive metals.

9. Which radiation will be most effective for the emission of electrons from a metallic surface?
A. Microwaves B. X rays
C. Ultraviolet D. Infrared
Answer: C
Explanation: Ultraviolet rays are most effective for photoelectric emission because they have the highest frequency when
compared to the other electromagnetic waves, and hence the most energetic among all of them.

10. Two metals A and B have work functions 4 eV and 10 eV respectively. Which metal has a higher threshold wavelength?
A. Metal A B. Metal B
C. Both D. Neither
Answer: A
hc
Explanation: According to the equation, W0 = hv0 = , the work function is inversely proportional to the wavelength.
λ0
So, metal A with lower work function has a higher threshold wavelength.
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11. Give the unit of work function.

A. Electron volt B. Joule
C. Hertz D. Watt
Answer: A
Explanation: One electron volt is the kinetic energy gained by an electron when it is accelerated through a potential difference
of 1 volt.
Therefore, 1 eV = 1.602 × 10−19 J.

12. What is the frequency of a photon whose energy is 66.3 eV?

A. 196 × 1016 Hz B. 1336 × 1016 Hz
C. 1.6 × 1016 Hz D. 16 × 1016 Hz
Answer: C
Explanation: Frequency can be calculated as follows:
E
V =
h
V = (66.3 × 1.6 × 10−19 )(6.63 × 10−34 )
V = 1.6 × 1016 Hz

13. Calculate the energy of a photon of wavelength 6600 angstroms.

A. 30 × 10-19 J B. 3 × 10-19 J
C. 300 × 10-19 J D. 3000 × 10-19 J
Answer: B
Explanation: Given: λ = 6600 angstrom = 6600 × 10−10 m.
hc
Energy of a photon =
λ
6.6 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
E =
6600 × 10−10
E = 3 × 10−19 J

14. Which of the following increases the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted?
A. Increasing the frequency of the incident beam B. Increasing the velocity of the electrons
C. Decreasing the frequency of the incident beam D. Increasing the mass of the photoelectrons
Answer: A

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Explanation: The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons can be increased by increasing the frequency of the incident
beam and at the same time keeping the number of incident photons fixed. Now, this would result in a proportionate increase in
energy, and in this way, the maximum kinetic energy can be increased.

15. Who is responsible for the photoelectric effect experiment?

A. Albert Einstein B. Max Planck
C. Heinrich Hertz D. de – Broglie
Answer: C
Explanation: German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect in 1887 when he was working in
connection with his work on radio waves. During this time, Hertz observed that, when ultraviolet light shines on two metal
electrodes with a voltage applied across them, the light changes the voltage at which sparking takes place. This led to his
discovery of the photoelectric effect experiment.

16. Identify the conclusion of the photoelectric experiment from the following.
A. Photons are smaller than the electrons B. The energy in light comes as small packets
C. The energy in light comes as huge packets of D. The energy released by the photoelectric effect is
energy very less
Answer: B
Explanation: The conclusion drawn from the experiment of the photoelectric effect is that the energy in light comes as small
packets. These small packets of energy are known as quantum of energy or a photon. The magnitude of these is proportional to
the frequency of the wave.

17. Find the odd one out.

A. Chlorine B. Sodium
C. Oxygen D. Helium
Answer: B
Explanation: In this, sodium is the odd one out because, sodium, being an alkali metal, is photosensitive while the others are
not photosensitive materials. Sodium metal emits electrons even when ordinary light falls on it. Therefore, it is known as a
photosensitive material.

18. Pick out the apparatus used in the experiment of the photoelectric effect from the following.
A. Electron gun B. Vacuum tubes
C. Metal tubes D. Glass tubes
Answer: D
Explanation: The apparatus used in the experiment of the photoelectric effect involves an evacuated glass tube. Two metal
electrodes, a collector, and a metal plate are enclosed in this glass tube. This glass tube is provided with a side quartz window.
The metal plate acts as the photoelectron emitter.

19. Which theory of light explains the photoelectric effect?

A. Electromagnetic theory B. Magnetic theory
C. Electric theory D. Wave theory
Answer: A
Explanation: According to the electromagnetic theory, the photoelectric effect can be attributed to the transfer of energy from
the light to an electron. From this point of view, an alteration in the intensity of light will induce changes in the kinetic energy of
the electrons emitted from the metal.

20. Which theory of light is wave theory or particle theory?

A. Dynamic physics B. Static physics
C. Quantum mechanics D. de – Broglie hypothesis
Answer: C
Explanation: The essential theory of light was further evolved from electromagnetics into quantum mechanics. Einstein
believed light is a particle, i.e. a photon and that the flow of these particles (photons) is a wave.

21. Which principle suggests that the intensity of light determines its amplitude?
A. Huygens principle B. Classic wave theory
C. de – Broglie hypothesis D. Einstein’s particle theory
Answer: B

234
Explanation: The principle is the classic wave theory. The classic wave theory states that the intensity of light determines the
amplitude of the wave. Therefore, a greater intensity of light will cause the electrons on the metal to oscillate more violently
and also to be ejected with greater kinetic energy.

22. Why does light travel as a wave?

A. Due to the small packets called photons B. Due to an electric field
C. Light does not travel as a wave D. Due to its electromagnetic nature
Answer: D
Explanation: Light travels as a wave due to its electromagnetic nature. This is further facilitated by Maxwell’s equations which
states that changing magnetic fields give rise to electric fields and changing electric fields give rise to magnetic fields.

23. The emission of electrons does not occur in which of the following?
A. Photoelectric Emission B. Thermionic Emission
C. Secondary Emission D. X-Ray Emission
Answer: D
Explanation: The emission of electrons does not take place in X-Ray Emission.

24. What happens to the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons when the light is incident on a metal surface?

A. It varies with the frequency of light B. It varies with the light intensity
C. It varies with the speed of light D. It varies irregularly
Answer: A
Explanation: The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons varies with the frequency of light.

25. A photoelectric cell is a device which

A. Converts light energy into electricity B. Converts electricity into light energy
C. Stores Light energy D. Stores Electricity
Answer: A
Explanation: A photoelectric cell is a device that converts light energy into electricity.

26. What does a cathode ray consist of?

A. Electrons B. Protons
C. Photons D. Alpha particles
Answer: A
Explanation: A cathode ray consists of electrons.

27. Who gave the theory of quantization of electric charge?

A. J.J Thomason B. William Crookes
C. R.A Millikan D. Wilhelm Hallwachs
Answer: C
Explanation: R.A Millikan gave the theory of quantization of electric charge.

28. Which of the following metals is not sensitive to visible light?

A. Rubidium B. Sodium
C. Caesium D. Cadmium
Answer: D
Explanation: Cadmium is not sensitive to visible light.

29. Which of the following does the wave theory of light not explain?
A. Diffraction B. Photocurrent
C. Polarization D. Interference
Answer: B
Explanation: Wave theory can explain diffraction, polarization and interference but could not explain the photoelectric effect.
The photoelectric effect is explained by a quantum theory which treats light as a particle.

30. Photons are deflected by

A. Magnetic field only B. Electric field only
C. Electromagnetic field D. None of the above
Answer:D
235
Explanation: None of the given options deflect photons.

Question/Answer
Very Short
1. Calculate the energy associated in eV with a photon of wavelength 4000A o
Answer:
Given the wavelength of given photon is,
∘
λ = 4000A = 4 × 10−7 m
Hence the energy associated is
hc 6.6 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
E= = E = 4.95 × 10−19 J
λ 4000 × 10−10
4.95 × 10−19 J
E= eV = 3.09eV
1.6 × 10−19

2. Mention one physical process for the release of electrons from the surface of a metal.
Answer: Photoelectric emission: The phenomenon in which the electrons from the surface of a metal are given energy in form
of electromagnetic waves and they are ejected out, this phenomenon is called the photoelectric emission.

3. The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron is 2.8 eV What is the value of stopping potential?
Answer: Given an electron that is moving with a kinetic energy. For it to be not ejected, it has to be held back using a stopping
potential V0
. The relation between the two is:
KE = eVo = 2.8eV
⇒ Vo = 2.8V

4. Calculate the threshold frequency of photon for photoelectric emission from a metal of work function 0.1eV
Answer: Given is the work function
0.1eV
ϕo = hν0
ϕo 0.1eV
⇒ ν0 = =
h 6.6 × 10−34 Js
0.1 × 1.6 × 10−19 J
ν0 = = 2.4 × 1014 Hz
6.6 × 10−34 Js

5. Ultraviolet light is incident on two photosensitive materials having work function Φ1 and Φ2 (Φ1>Φ2). In which of the case
will K.E. of emitted electrons be greater? Why?
Answer: According to the energy balance equation of the photoelectric effect hv = Φ0 + K. E If Φ1 > Φ2 thus K.E. will be more
for second surface whose work function is less.

6. Show graphically how the stopping potential for a given photosensitive surface varies with the frequency of incident
radiations.
Answer: Suppose
v0 is the threshold of frequency or cut off frequency.
V0 is the corresponding stopping potential

236
7. How does the stopping potential applied to a photocell change if the distance between the light source and the
cathode of the cell is doubled?
Answer: Intensity of light drops quadratically with distance. However, the stopping potential does not depend on the intensity
of the light. Hence it is independent of distance as well.

8. On what factor does the retarding potential of a photocell depend?

Answer: The retarding photocell depends upon the frequency of the incident light.

9. Electron and proton are moving with same speed, which will have more wavelength?
1
Answer: Since the wavelength is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass of the body, λ∝ . So, electrons being
√m
lighter will have more wavelengths.

10. If the maximum kinetic energy of electrons emitted by photocell is 4 eV, what is the stopping potential?
Answer: The stopping potential is 4 V.

Short Questions
1. An a-particle and a proton of the same kinetic energy are in turn allowed to pass through a magnetic field B, acting normal
to the direction of motion of the particles. Calculate the ratio of radii of the circular paths described by them.
Answer: Given qα = 2e, qp = e, Kα = Kp, mα = 4mp, rα/rp =?
Using the expression
√2mK
r= we have
qB
rα mα qp 4mp e
= (√ × )=√ × =1
rp mp qα mp 2e

2. How will the photoelectric current change on decreasing the wavelength of incident radiation for a given photosensitive
material?
Answer: Photoelectric current is independent of the wavelength of the incident radiation. Therefore, there will be no change in
the photoelectric current.

3. Estimate the ratio of the wavelengths associated with the electron orbiting around the nucleus in the ground and first
excited states of a hydrogen atom.
Answer: Since De Brogue’s hypothesis is related to
Bohr’s atomic model as,
Nλ = 2πr
Since r ∝ n2
∴ r = a 0 n2
∴ nλ = 2πa0 n2
∴ λ = 2πa0 n
λ1
2πa0 1 1
λ2 = =
2πa0 2 2

4. Show graphically how the stopping potential for a given photosensitive surface varies with the frequency of the incident
radiation.
Answer: The required graph is as shown

237
5. The de-Broglie wavelength associated with an electron accelerated through a potential difference V is λ. What will be its
wavelength when accelerating potential is increased to 4 V?
Answer: The de-BrogLie wavelength is inversely proportional to the square root of potential, therefore =

wilt become half of its previous value.

1
6. Plot a graph showing the variation of de Brogue wavelength (λ) associated with a charged particle of mass m, versus
√V
where V is the potential difference through which the particle is accelerated. How does this graph give us information
regarding the magnitude of the charge of the particle?
Answer: The plot is as shown.

h h
We know that λ = =
√2mE √2mqV
λ h
Now = = slope of the graph,
1/√V √2mq
h2
Or q =
2m( slope )2

7. X-rays of wavelength ‘λ’ fall on a photosensitive surface, emitting electrons. Assuming that the work function of the surface
hλ
can be neglected, prove that the de-Broghe wavelength of the electrons emitted will be √ .
2mc
Answer: The energy possessed by X-rays of wavelength λ is given by E=hc / λ.
Consider an electron of mass charge e to be accelerated the potential difference of V volts the velocity gained by it.
Then kinetic energy of electron is,
1
E = mv 2 = eV
2
or
2eV 2E
v=√ =√
m m
If λ is the de-Broglie wavelength associated with an electron, then,
h h h h
λ= = = =
mv 2ev √2meV √2mE
m√
m
Substituting for e, we have
h h hλ
λ= = =√
√2mE √2mhc/λ 2mc

8. Explain with the help of Einstein’s photoelectric equation any two observed features in the photoelectric effect. cannot be
explained by the wave theory.
Answer: According to Einstein's equation, we have
1 2
mvmax = h(v − vo)
2
Two features
(a) Maximum energy is directly proportional to the frequency
(b) Existence of threshold frequency Explanation of two features:
• The energy of the photon is directly proportional to the frequency.
• No photoelectric emission is possible if hv < hv0

238
9. Why is the wave theory of electromagnetic radiation not able to explain the photoelectric effect? How does the photon
picture resolve this problem?
Answer: According to the wave theory, the more intense a beam, more is the kinetic energy it will impart to the photoelectron.
This does not agree with the experimental observations (max K.E. of the emitted photoelectron is independent of intensity) on
the photoelectric effect. Also, according to the wave theory photoemission can occur at all frequencies.
The photon picture resolves this problem by saying that light in interaction with matter behaves as if it is made of quanta or
packets of energy, each of energy hv. This picture enables us to get a correct explanation of all the observed experimental
features of the photoelectric effect.

10. (a) Define the terms,

(i) threshold frequency and
(ii) stopping potential in the photoelectric effect.
(b) Plot a graph of photocurrent versus anode potential for radiation of frequency v and intensities l1 and l2. (l1 < l2).
Answer:
(a) Threshold frequency: It is the frequency of the incident radiation below which photoelectric effect does not take place.
Stopping potential: It is the minimum negative (retarding) potential, given to the anode (collector plate) for which the
photocurrent stops or becomes zero.
(b) The plot is as shown.

Long Answers Questions

1. What is the photoelectric effect? Write Einstein’s photoelectric equation and use it to explain: (a) independence of maximum
energy of emitted photoelectrons from the intensity of incident light and (b) existence of a threshold frequency for the
emission of photoelectrons.
Answer: The election of photoelectrons from a metal surface when Light of suitable frequency is incident on it is catted
photoelectric effect.
1
Einstein’s equation of photoelectric effect is mv² = hv – ω0
2
(a) In accordance with Einstein’s equation, the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is independent of the intensity of the incident
radiation.
(b) In accordance with Einstein’s equation, the kinetic energy will be positive and hence photoelectrons will be ejected if v > v0.
Thus, below a certain frequency called threshold frequency, photoelectrons are not ejected from a metal surface (if v < v 0).

2. An electron of mass m and charge q is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of V. Obtain the expression for
the de-Broglie wavelength associated with it. If electrons and protons are moving with the same kinetic energy, which one
of them will have a larger de-Broglie wavelength associated with it? Give reason.
Answer: Answer: Consider an electron of mass m and charge e to be accelerated through a potential difference of V volts. Let v
be the velocity gained by it. Then kinetic energy of the electron is,
1
E = mv 2 = eV
2
2eV 2E
or v =√ =√
m m
If λ is the de-Broglie wavelength associated with an electron, then|
h h h h
λ= = = =
mv 2ev √2meV √2mE
m√
m

239
Since de-Broglie wavelength is inversely proportional to the square root of mass, the lesser the mass, the more is the de- Broglie
wavelength. Since the mass of an electron is lesser than that of the proton, the electron has a greater de-Broglie wavelength than
a proton.

3. Sketch the graphs showing the variation of stopping potential with the frequency of incident radiations for two
photosensitive materials A and B having threshold frequencies v0 > v’0 respectively.
(a) Which of the two metals A or B has a higher work function?
(b) What information do you get from the slope of the graphs?
(c) What does the value of the intercept of graph ‘A’ on the potential axis represent?
Answer: The graphs are as shown below.

(a) The work function is directly proportional to the threshold frequency. The threshold frequency of metal A is greater than
that of metal B; therefore, A has a greater work function than B.
(b) The slope of the graphs gives the value of Planck’s constant.
(c) The intercept on the potential axis is negative (-W0/e) w.r.t. stopping potential, i.e. Work function = e × magnitude of the
intercept on the potential axis. We may infer it to give the voltage which, when applied with opposite polarity to the stopping
voltage, will just pull-out electrons from the metallic atom’s outermost orbit.

4. When a given photosensitive material is irradiated with light of frequency v, the maximum speed of the emitted
photoelectrons equals Vmax. The graph shown in the figure gives a plot of V² max varying with frequency v.

Obtain an expression for:

(a) Planck’s constant, and
(b) The work function of the given photosensitive material in terms of the parameters T, ‘n’ and the mass ‘m’ of the lectron.
(c) How is threshold frequency determined from the plot?
Answer: (a) By Einstein's photoelectric equation we have
1 2
K max = mvmax = hv − ϕo
2
2h 2ϕo
or vmax
2
= ( )v −
m m
2h l
Slope of the graph = =
m n
2ϕ ml
(b) The intercept on V 2 max axis is = o = 1 Therefore, work function Φ0 =
m 2
(c) The threshold frequency is the intercept on the v axis i.e., v0 = n

5. X-rays fall on a photosensitive surface to cause photoelectric emission. Assuming that the work function of the surface can
be neglected, find the relation between the de-Broglie wavelength (λ) of the electrons emitted to the energy (E v) of the

240
 incident photons. Draw the nature of the graph for λ as a function of Ev.
Answer: Consider an electron of mass m and charge e to be accelerated through a potential difference of V volt. Let v be the
velocity gained by it. Then kinetic energy of the electron is,
1 2Ev
Ev = mv 2 or v = √
2 m
If λ is the de-Broglie wavelength associated with an electron, then,
h h
λ= =
mv √2mEv
The nature of the graph is as shown.

6. Light of intensity ‘l’ and frequency ‘v’ is incident on a photosensitive surface and causes photoelectric emission. What will be
the effect on anode current when:
(a) the intensity of light is gradually increased,
(b) the frequency of incident radiation is increased and
(c) the anode potential is increased.
In each case, all other factors remain the same. Explain giving justification in each case.
Answer:
(a) Anode current will increase with the increase of intensity as the more the intensity of light, the more is the number of photons
and hence a greater number of photoelectrons are ejected.
(b) No effect as the frequency of light affects the maximum K.E. of the emitted photoelectrons.
(c) Anode current will increase with anode potential as more anode potential will accelerate the more electrons till it attains a
saturation value and gets them collected at the anode at a faster rate.

7. The graphs, drawn here, are for the phenomenon of the photoelectric effect.

(a) Identify which of the two characteristics (intensity/frequency) of incident light is being kept constant in each case.
(b) Name the quantity, corresponding to the mark, in each case.
(c) Justify the existence of a ‘threshold frequency’ for a given photosensitive surface. (CBSE Delhi 2016C)
241
Answer:
(a) Graph 1: Intensity, Graph 2: Frequency
(b) Graph 1: Saturation current, Graph 2: stopping potential
(c) The electrons require minimum energy to set themselves free. This is called the work function. As the energy of the photon
depends upon its frequency, the photons must possess a minimum frequency so that their energy becomes equal to or greater
ω0
than the work function. This is called threshold frequency and is given by v0 =
h

8. Draw a graph showing the variation of de-Broglie wavelength λ of a particle of charge q and mass, with the accelerating
potential V. An alpha particle and a proton have the same de-Broglie wavelength equal to 1 Å. Explain with calculations,
which of the two has more kinetic energy.
Answer: The graph is as shown.
h
The de-Broglie wavelength of a particle is given by the expression λ = Since the alpha particle and the proton have the
√2mqV
same de- Broglie wavelength, we have

Therefore, proton has a greater value of de-Broglie wavelength.

Now kinetic energy is given by the expression.
Ea mp m 1
= = =
Ep mα 4m 4
Thus, proton has more kinetic energy.

242
 Chapter 12 Atoms
Introduction

In this chapter, we will study various atomic models. Initially, J.J. Thomson proposed an atomic model in which he thought of as
electrons embedded in between protons. In 1911, his student Earnest Rutherford proposed a nuclear model, on the basis of a
scattering experiment. In spite of strong experimental evidence, Rutherford’s model of the atom was rejected on the ground of
the classical theory of electromagnetism.

So in order to rectify the shortcomings of Rutherford’s model, in 1913, Niels Bohr combined the classical and early quantum
concepts of Einstein and Plank to explain the stability of an atom.

Thomson Model
According to Thomson, "An atom consists of positively charged matter, into which negatively charged particles are embedded
randomly". But this model did not last long as it could not explain the observations of Rutherford's alpha-particle scattering
experiment.

Alpha-Particle Scattering
In 1911, Rutherford, along with his assistants, H. Geiger and E. Marsden, performed the Alpha Particle scattering experiment,
which led to the birth of the ‘nuclear model of an atom’.
They took a thin gold foil having a thickness of 2.1 × 10−7 m and placed it in the center of a rotatable detector made of zinc sulfide
and a microscope. Then, they directed a beam of 5.5MeV alpha particles emitted from a radioactive source at the foil. Lead bricks
collimated these alpha particles as they passed through them.

After hitting the foil, the scattering of these alpha particles could be studied by the brief flashes on the screen. Rutherford and
his team expected to learn more about the structure of the atom from the results of this experiment.

Nucleus

Isotopes
The atoms of an element, which constitute the same atomic number, but different mass numbers are termed isotopes. Some
examples are:
I. 8 O16 , 8 O17 , 8 O18
II. 17 O35 , 17 Cl37
III. 82 Pb206 , 82 Pb207 , 82 Pb208 .
243
Isotones
The atoms whose nuclei constitute the same number of neutrons are termed isotones.

Isobars
The atoms which constitute the same mass numbers, but different atomic numbers are termed isobars. Some examples are:
I. 1 H3 and 1 He3
II. 2 Li7 and 4 Be7
III. 28 Ar 40 and 29 Ca40
IV. Ge76 and 34 Se76

Atomic Mass Unit

The Atomic mass unit (a.m.u) refers to a very small unit of mass and it is observed to be very convenient in nuclear physics.
It is defined as 1/12th the mass of one 6 C12 atom.
With respect to Avogadro's hypothesis, number of atoms in 12g of 6 C12 is taken equivalent to the Avogadro number i.e.,
6.023 × 1023 .
Thus, the mass of one carbon atom ( 6 C12 ) is given by
12
= 1.992678 × 10−26 kg
6.023 × 1023
Further,
1
1amu = × 1.992678 × 10−26 kg
12
⇒ 1amu = 1.660565 × 10−27 kg

Energy Equivalent of Atomic Mass Unit

With respect to Einstein's mass-energy equivalence formula, the energy equivalent of mass m is expressed as E =
mc 2 , where c is the speed of light.
If it is supposed that m = 1amu = 1.660565 × 10−27 kg; and as c = 2.998 × 108 ms−1 ; the energy equivalent of 1amu is given by
1amu = (1.660565 × 10−27 kg) × (2.998 × 108 ms1 )2 = 1.4925 × 10−10 J
Now, it is known that 1MeV = 1.602 × 10−13 J;
Thus,
1.4925 × 10−10
⇒ 1amu = eV = 931.5MeV
1.602 × 10−13

Nuclear Size
The volume of a nucleus is in direct proportion to the number of nucleons (mass number) involved in the nucleus. When R is th
e radius of the nucleus having mass number A, then,
4 3 1 1
πR ∝ A ⇒ R ∝ A3 ⇒ R = R 0 A3
3

Nuclear Density
Mass of the nucleus of the atom of mass number A is given by
A = Aamu = A × 1.660565 × 10−27 kg
When R is radius of the nucleus, then,
4 4 3 4
Volume of nucleus = R3 = π(R 0 A1/3 ) = R30 A
3 3 3
Taking R 0 = 1.1 × 1015 m;
Density of the nucleus is given by
mass of nucleus
ρ=
volume of nucleus
A × 1.66065 × 10−27
= = 2.97 × 1017 kgm−3
4/3π(1.1 × 10−15 )3 × A
Clearly, density is independent of A

Discussion
The densities of the nuclei of all atoms are equal as they are independent of the mass numbers.
A high-density nucleus of an atom (≈ 1017 kgm−3 ) refers to the compactness of the nucleus. Such examples of high-density nuclei
are observed in the form of neutron stars.

244
Mass Defect
The difference between the sum of the masses of the nucleons forming a nucleus and the rest mass of the nucleus is termed
mass defect. It is represented by Δm.
Let us evaluate the mass defect for the nucleus of an atom z X A .
The nucleus of the atom consists of Z protons and (A − Z) neutrons.
Thus, if mN is the mass of the nucleus of the atom Z X A , then the mass defect is expressed as
m = [Zmp + (A − Z)mn mN ( Z X A )]
The binding energy of a nucleus refers to the energy equivalent to the mass defect of the nucleus. It may be computed as the work
required to be done to separate the nucleon to an infinite distance apart in order to make them no longer in contact with each
other.
If Δm refers to mass defect of a nucleus, then according to Einstein's mass-energy relation, the binding energy of the nucleus is
given by Δmc 2 (in joules).
Here, mass defect Δm has to be taken in kilograms. On the other hand, if the mass defect is taken in amu, then,
Binding energy of the nucleus = Δm × 931.5(in MeV)
⇒ Binding energy
= [Zmp + (A − Z)mn − mN ( Z X A )] × 931.5

Binding Energy Per Nucleon

The binding energy per nucleon refers to the average energy required to extract a single nucleon from the nucleus. Clearly,
binding energy
binding energy per nucleon = .
A

Packing Fraction
mass defect
Mathematically, packing fraction = .
A

Laws of Radioactivity Decay

Rutherford and Soddy learnt the phenomenon of radioactivity in detail and put forward the following laws, known as the laws
of radioactive decay:
a. Radioactivity is a sudden phenomenon, and one cannot predict when a particular atom in a given radioactive sample
would undergo disintegration.
b. When a radioactive atom disintegrates, either an α-particle (nucleus of helium) or a β-particle (electron) gets emitted.
c. The emission of an α-particle by radioactive-atom results in a daughter atom,
whose atomic number is 2 units less than that of the parent atom.
α− decay
d. ZX
A
→ Z−2 Y
A−4

e. The emission of a β-particle by a radioactive atom result in a daughter atom, whose atomic number is 1 unit more than that
of the parent atom. However, the mass number remains the same as that of the parent atom.
β− decay
f. ZX
A
→ Z + 1YA
g. The number of atoms disintegrating per second of a radioactive sample at any time is in direct proportion to the number of
atoms present at that time. The rate of disintegration of the sample cannot be changed by altering the external factors such
as pressure, temperature, etc. This is known as radioactive decay law.

With respect to radioactive decay law, the rate of disintegration at any time t is in direct proportion to the number of atoms
dN dN
present at time. Mathematically, ∝N⇒ = −λN
dt dt
Where, the constant of proportionality λ is termed the decay constant of the radioactive sample. It is also referred to as the
disintegration constant or transformation constant. Its value is dependent upon the nature of the radioactive sample. Also, the
negative sign in the expression mentions that the number of the atoms of the sample reduces with the passage of time.
Simplifying the expression further by integrating,
dN
⇒∫ = −∫ λdt
N
N
⇒ log e = −λt
N0
N
⇒ = e−λt
N0
⇒ N = N0 e−λt ⇒ N = N0 et

Radioactive Decay Constant

From radioactive decay law,

245
dN
= −λN
dt
−dN/dt
⇒λ=
N
Thus, radioactive decay constant of a substance (radioactive) refers to the ratio of its instantaneous rate of disintegration to the
number of atoms present at that time.
Also do we have N = N0 et
Now, if t = 1/λ; then,
N = N0 e−λI/λ = 1/eN0 = N0 /(2.718)
= 0.368N0
Clearly, radioactive decay constant of a substance may also refer to the reciprocal of the time, after which the number of atoms
of a radioactive substance reduces to 0.368 or 36.8% of their number present initially.

Half Life
Let a radioactive sample contain N0 atoms at time t = 0.
The number of atoms left behind after time t is represented as N = N0 et
Using the definition of half-life, it follows that when t = t1/2 ; N = N0 /2
Considering the above condition, it follows that
N0
⇒ = N0 e−λt1/2 = 2
2
1
⇒ e−λt1/2 = ⇒ e−λt1/2 = 2
2
⇒ λT = log e 2 = 2.303log10 2 = 2.303 × 0.3010
= 0.693
0.693
⇒ t1/2 =
λ
Clearly, half-life of a radioactive substance is inversely proportional to its decay constant and can be considered as a characteristic
property of its nucleus. It cannot be changed by any known method.

Mean Life or Average Life

The average life of a radioactive substance refers to the average time for which the nuclei of the atoms of the radioactive substance
exist. It is mathematically given by
1
t avg =
λ
Activity of Radioactive Substance
The activity of a radioactive substance refers to the rate at which the nuclei of its atoms in the sample disintegrate. When a
radioactive sample consists of N atoms at any time t, then its activity at time t is given by
dN
A=−
dt
The negative sign mentions that with the passage of time, the activity of the radioactive substance reduces.
dN
Involving radioactive decay law, = −λN and N = N0 e−λt here
dt
⇒ A = λN
⇒ A = λN0 e−λt
⇒ A = A0 e−λt
Here, λN0 = A0 is known as the activity of the radioactive sample at time t = 0.

Units of Activity
The activity of a radioactive sample can be expressed as the number of disintegrations per second. The practical unit of activity
of a radioactive sample is curie (Ci).
The activity of a radioactive sample is known to be one curie when it undergoes 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second.
Clearly, 1 curie (Ci) = 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second.
There is also another unit of radioactivity termed Rutherford (Rd). The activity of a radioactive sample is known to be one Ruth
erford when it undergoes 106 disintegrations per second.
Clearly, 1rutherford (Rd) = 106 disintegrations /s

Nuclear Fission
The process of splitting a heavy nucleus into two nuclei of nearly comparable masses with liberation of energy is termed nuclear
fission. For example,
235 + n1 → [ U 236 ] → 141 + 92 + 3 n1 + Q
92 U 0 92 56 Ba 30 Kr 0

246
The neutron reproduction factor refers to the ratio of the rate of production of neutrons to the rate of loss of neutrons.
Mathematically, it is given by,
rate of production of neutrons
k=
rate of loss of neutrons
When k = 1, the fission reaction would be steady;
When k > 1, the fission reaction would accelerate;
When k < 1, the fission reaction would decelerate.

Nuclear Reactor
Main sections and their functions of a nuclear reactor are as follows:
• Fuel: It is a fissionable material, generally U235.
• Moderator: It is used to reduce the speed of the neutrons released during the fission. The most popular moderators are
water, heavy water and graphite.
• Control Rods: these rods are made of cadmium or boron that can control the chain reaction by absorbing neutrons.
• Coolant and Heat Exchange: The coolant helps in taking away heat from the reactor core and thus heats the water in the
heat exchanger to generate steam. The popularly used coolants are liquid sodium and heavy water.
• Radiation Shielding: These are thick concrete walls that can stop the radiation from emitting out.

Radiation Hazards
1. The exposure to radiation induces harmful genetic effects.
2. The strong α -ray exposure has the potential to cause lung cancer.
3. The exposure to fast and slow neutrons may result in blindness.
4. The exposure to neutrons, protons and α -particles may result in damage to red blood cells.
5. The exposure to α-particles may also result in disastrous effects.
6. The strong exposure to protons and neutrons has the potential to cause serious damage to productive organs.

Safety Measures from Radiation Hazards

• Precautions followed by the workers engaged in this field:
• The radioisotopes are moved in thick-walled lead containers and are kept in rooms with thick walls of lead.
• The radioisotopes are used with the help of remote-control devices.
• The workers are suggested to wear lead aprons.
• The radioactive contamination of the work area is taken care of at all costs.

Free Electrons in Metals

Electrons can be considered as the fundamental constituent of an atom. A metal has free electrons that move about freely through
the atomic spaces randomly. However, as soon as an electron leaves the metal, an equal positive charge gets produced on the
surface of the metal. As a consequence, the electron is pulled back into the metal and thus remains contained in it. The pull on
the electrons at the surface is observed to be dependent on the nature of the metal surface and is expressed by a characteristic
of the metal termed work function.

Work Function
• The minimum energy that should be supplied to the electron for it to just come out of a metal surface is termed the work
function of that metal.
• This process is known as electron emission and can be achieved in the following ways:
• Thermionic emission: Here, the extra energy is supplied in the form of heat. The emitted electrons are called thermo-
electrons.
• Photoelectric emission: Here, the extra energy is supplied by means of electromagnetic radiation. The emitted electrons are
called photoelectrons.
• Secondary emission: Here, the fast-moving electrons on collision with the metal surface kicks out electrons, known as
secondary electrons.
• Field emission: Here, electrons are emitted with the help of electrostatic fields.

Photoelectric Effect

The phenomenon of ejecting electrons from a metal surface when light of sufficiently high frequency encounters it is termed as
photoelectric effect. The electrons so ejected are called photoelectrons.
247
Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect
The setup consists of an evacuated glass tube joined with two electrodes. The electrode E is known as an emitting electrode and
the other electrode C is known as the collecting electrode.
When suitable radiation falls on the electrode E, electrons are emitted from it. The electrons, which have sufficient kinetic energy,
travel to the electrode C, despite its negative polarity. The potential difference between the two electrodes forms the retarding
potential. As the collecting electrode is made more and more negative, fewer and fewer electrons would reach the cathode and
the photo-electric current measured by the ammeter would fall.
When the retarding potential is equal to V0 , known as the stopping potential, no electron would reach the cathode and the current
would become zero. In such a case, the work done by stopping potential is the same as the maximum kinetic energy of the
electrons. i.e., eV0 = 1/2mvmax
2 .

Laws of Photoelectric Emission

1. The emission of photoelectrons happens only when the frequency of the incident radiation is more than a certain critical
value, which is a characteristic of that metal. The critical value of frequency is termed the threshold frequency for the metal
of the emitting electrode.
2. The emission of photoelectrons begins as soon as light falls on a metal surface.
3. The maximum kinetic energy with which an electron gets emitted from a metal surface is not dependent on the intensity of
the light and is dependent only upon its frequency.
4. The number of photoelectrons emitted, i.e., photoelectric current, is not dependent on the frequency of the incident light
but is dependent only upon its intensity.

Photoelectric Cell
A photoelectric cell is a setup which converts light energy into electrical energy. Photoelectric cells are of the following three
types:
1. Photo emissive cells
2. Photovoltaic cells
3. Photoconductive cells
A photo emissive cell may be of vacuum type or gas-filled type.

Working - Photo Emissive Cells

It involves two electrodes, a cathode C and an anode A, contained in a highly evacuated glass bulb. The cathode C is a semi-
cylindrical plate layered with a photosensitive material. This is known as the de-Broglie relation of caesium deposited on silver
oxide. The anode A is in the shape of a wire, so that it is not obstructing the path of the light incident on the cathode.
When light of a frequency greater than the threshold frequency of the cathode surface falls on the cathode, photoelectrons get
emitted. When a potential difference of about 10V is applied between the anode and cathode, the photoelectrons get attracted
towards the anode and the micro-ammeter connected in the circuit would record the current.

Applications of Photoelectric Cell

• It is utilized in a television studio for the conversion of the light and shade of the object into electric currents for
transmission of pictures.
• It is utilized in a photographic camera for the automatic adjustment of aperture.
• It is utilized for automatic counting of the number of people entering a hall or a stadium.
• It is utilized in automatic switching of streetlights and traffic signals.
• It is utilized for raising a fire alarm in case of emergencies like accidental fire in buildings, factories, etc.
• It is utilized in burglar’s alarms for houses, bank and treasuries.

Dual Nature of Radiation

The different phenomena concerning radiation can be categorized into three parts:
1. In phenomena such as interference, diffraction, polarization, etc., the interaction of radiation takes places with the radiation
itself. Such phenomena can be expressed on the basis of the electromagnetic (wave) nature of radiation only.
2. In phenomena such as photoelectric effect, Compton effect, etc., interaction of radiation takes place with matter. Such
phenomena can be expressed on the basis of the quantum (particle) nature of radiation.
3. In phenomena such as rectilinear propagation, reflection, refraction, etc., neither the interaction of radiation takes place
with radiation nor of radiation with matter. Such phenomena can be expressed on the basis of either of the two natures
(wave or particle) of the radiation.

248
De Broglie Waves

Louis-Broglie presented a bold hypothesis that matter must also possess dual nature.
The following observations made him realise the duality hypothesis for matter:
I. The whole energy in this universe is in the form of matter and electromagnetic radiation.
II. Nature loves symmetry. As the radiation has dual nature, matter must also possess dual nature.
Clearly, according to de-Broglie’s hypothesis, every moving particle has a wave associated with it. Such waves are called de-
Broglie waves or matter waves. With respect to the quantum theory of radiation, energy of a photon is given by
E = hν … (i)
Also, the energy of a relativistic particle is given by

E = √m20 c 2 + p2 + c
As photon is a particle of zero rest mass, considering m0 = 0 in the above equation, we have
E = pc … (ii)
⇒ pc = hν
hν hν
⇒p= = (∵ c = νλ)
c νλ
h
⇒p=
λ
Thus, the wave-length of the photon is given by
h
⇒λ= …
p
Clearly, de-Broglie wavelength is given by
h
λ= … (iv)
mν
This is known as the de-Broglie relation.

De-Broglie Wavelength of Electron

Suppose that an electron of mass m and charge e is made to accelerate through a potential difference V. When E is the energy
acquired by the particle, then, E = eV … (i)
Now, if v is the velocity of electron, then
1 2E
E = mv 2 ⇒ v = √( )
2 m
Now, de-Broglie wavelength of electron is given by
h h
⇒λ= = ⋯
mv m√2E/m
Substituting the value of E,
h
⇒λ= ⋯
√2meV
Considering m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg; e = 1.6 × 10−29 C and
h = 6.62 × 10−34 Js,
12.27
⇒λ= × 10−10 m
√V
12.27
⇒λ= A … (v)
√V
For instance, the de-Broglie wavelength of electrons when accelerated through a potential difference of 100 volt would be
12.27
λ= ≈ 1.227A
√100
Clearly, the wavelength of the de-Broglie wave associated with 100eV electrons is of the order of the wavelength of X-rays.

Thomson’s Atom Model

In this model, positive charges are uniformly distributed over the entire sphere and the electrons are contained in the sphere of
these positive charges just like seeds in a watermelon or plums in the pudding. Due to this reason, Thomson’s atom model is also
called the plum-pudding model.
The total positive charge inside the atom is the same as the total negative charge carried by electrons, so that every atom is
electrically neutral.

249
When the atom gets slightly disturbed, the electrons in the atoms vibrate about their equilibrium position and result in the
ejection of radiation of definite frequencies in the form of infra-red, visible, or ultraviolet light.

Failure of Thomson’s Atom Model

This model had to be discarded because of the following reasons:
• It could not express the origin of the spectral lines in the form of a series as in the case of hydrogen atoms.
• It could not clearly express the scattering of α particles through large angles as in the case of Rutherford’s α scattering
experiment.

Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering Experiment

1 Most of α-particles were seen to pass through the fold foil without any appreciable deflection.
2 The various α particles, on passing through the gold foil, undergo different amounts of deflections. A large number of α
particles caused fairly large deflections.
3 A very small number of α-particles (about 1 in 8000) practically retracted their paths or suffered deflection of nearly 180∘.
4 The plot between the total number of α-particles N(θ) scattered through angle θ and the scattering angle θ was found to be
as shown in graph:

These experimental observations led Rutherford to the following inferences:

1 As most of the α particles passed without any deviation, the atom had a lot of empty space in it.
2 As fast and heavy α particles could be deflected even through 180∘, the whole of the positive charge and practically the entire
mass of the atom were confirmed to extremely small central cores. These were called nuclei. Because 1 in about 8000α
particles get deflected through 180∘ , the size of the nucleus was assumed to be about 1/10000th of the size of the atom.

Rutherford’s Atom Model

On the basis of the results of α scattering experiment, Rutherford suggested the following picture of an atom:
1 Atoms can be regarded as spheres of diameters 1010 m but whole of the positive charge and almost the entire mass of these
atoms are concentrated in small central cores called nuclei having diameters of about 1014 m.
2 The nucleus is neighbored by electrons. In other words, the electrons are distributed over the remaining part of the atom
leaving plenty of empty space in the atom.

Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Atom Model

i. When the electrons revolve around the nucleus, they get continuously accelerated towards the center of the nucleus.
According to Lorentz, an accelerated charged particle must radiate energy continuously. Thus, in the atom, a revolving
electron must continuously emit energy and hence the radius of its path must go on decreasing and finally, it must fall into
the nucleus. However, electrons revolve around the nucleus without falling into it. Clearly, Rutherford’s atom model couldn’t
explain the stability of the atom.
ii. Suppose if Rutherford's atom model is true, the electron could revolve in orbits of all possible radii and thus it should emit
a continuous energy spectrum. But atoms like hydrogen possess a line spectrum.

Bohr Atomic Model

Bohr considered the Rutherford model of the atom and added a few arbitrary conditions in it. These conditions are referred to
as his postulates:

250
I. The electron in a stable orbit does not radiate energy. i.e.,
mv2 kZe2
II. = .
r r2
III. A stable orbit is that in which the angular momentum of the electron about nucleus is an integral (n) multiple of
h h
IV. i. e. , mvr = n ; n = 1,2,3, …
2π 2π
(n ≠ 0)
V. The electron can absorb or radiate energy only when the electron jumps from a lower to a higher orbit or falls from a
higher to a lower orbit.
VI. The energy emitted or absorbed is a light photon of frequency ν and of energy, E = hν.

For Hydrogen Atom

(Z = atomic number = 1) :
h
1 Ln = angular momentum in the nth orbit = n
2π
2 rn = radius of nth circular orbit = (0.529Ao )n2 (1Ao = 10−10 m)
3 ⇒ rn ∝ n2
−13.6eV 1
4 En = Energy of the electron in the nth orbit = ⇒ En ∝
n2 n2
Note
Total energy of the electron in an atom is negative, mentioning that it is bound.
13.6V
Binding energy (B. E)n = −En =
n2
5 En2 − En1 = Energy emitted when an electron jumps from n2 th orbit to nth orbit (n2 > n1 )
1 1
⇒ ΔE = (13.6ev) [ 2 − 2 ]
n1 n2
⇒ ΔE = hν
where,
ν = frequency of spectral line emitted.
1
= ν = wave number number of wave sin unit length
λ
1 1
⇒ ν = R [ 2 − 2]
n1 n2
where, R = Rydberg's constant for hydrogen
= 1.097 × 107 m−1
6 For hydrogen like atom/species of atomic number Z :
Bohr radius 2 n2
rnz = n = (0.529Ao )
Z Z
Z2
Enz = (−13.6) 2 ev
n
R z = RZ2 − Rydberg's constant for the element of atomic number Z.
Note: When motion of the nucleus is also considered, then m is replaced by μ, where μ = reduced mass of electron-nucleus system
mM Z2 μ
= In this case, En = (−13.6ev)
(m+M) n2 me

Spectral Series
Lyman Series: (Landing orbit n = 1 )
1 1
Ultraviolet region ν‾ = R [ 2 − ] ; n2 > 1
1 n22

251
Balmer Series: (Landing orbit n = 2 )
1 1
Visible region ν‾ = R [ − ] ; n2 > 2
22 n22
Paschen Series: (Landing orbit n = 3 )
1 1
In the near infrared region ν‾ = R [ 2 − ] ; n2 > 3
3 n22
Bracket Series: (Landing orbit n = 4 )
1 1
In the mid infrared region ν‾ = R [ − ] ; n2 > 4
42 n22
Pfund Series: (Landing orbit n = 5 )
1 1
In far infrared region ν‾ = R [ 2 − ] ; n2 > 5
5 n2
In all these series,
n2 = n1 + 1 is the α line
n2 = n1 + 2 is the β line
n2 = n1 + 3 is the γ line, and so on
Where n1 = Landing orbit

X-rays

Production of X-rays
The following diagram gives a brief idea about the production of X-rays:
In the given X-ray tube, the electrons ejected from the metallic cathode travel towards the metal target anode with a voltage,
which is accelerating in nature. The high energy electrons, which carry energies in eV, interact with the atoms in the metal
target. A few electrons reach very near to a nucleus in the target and suffer deviation by the electromagnetic interaction. It is
during this process that the electron is released in the form of X-rays.
Now, if we plot a graph between the wavelength and intensity of X-ray emission, it looks like the following curve:

Considering this plot, it is understood that there is a minimum wavelength below which no X-ray is emitted. This is known as the
cut off wavelength or the threshold wavelength.

For some sharply defined wavelengths, the intensity of X-rays is very large as marked by K α and K β in the plot. These X-rays are
referred to as characteristic X-rays.
For other wavelengths, the intensity varies gradually and these X rays are referred to as continuous X-rays.
An expression for threshold wavelength can be derived as:
hc hc
λ= ⇒ λmin =
E eV

252
Characteristic X-rays

Now, consider the emission spectrum of characteristic X-rays as follows:

For K α emission lines, threshold wavelength turns out to be:
hc
λ=
EK − EL
For K β emission lines, threshold wavelength turns out to be:
hc
λ=
EL − EM

Rutherford’s Atomic Model

Rutherford carried forward the Geiger-Marsden experiment. This model described the atom as a small, dense, positively charged
core called a nucleus, in which nearly the whole mass is concentrated. The light weighted constituent, i.e., electrons revolve
around it much like planets revolve around the Sun in an orbit.

Impact Parameter
The impact parameter (b) is the perpendicular distance of the initial velocity vector of the alpha particle (Helium) from the central
θ
1 ze2 cot
line of the nucleus when the particle is far away from the nucleus of the atom. Its formula is: b = 2
4πϵ0 E

The Distance of Closest Approach (ro)

To find the size of the nucleus, we have a formula, i.e.,
ze(2e)
r0 =
1
4πϵ0 ( mv 2 )
2
Here, Ze = charge on the nucleus
2e = charge on alpha particle
r0 = radius of the nucleus
1
= 9 × 109Nm2 C −2
4πϵ0

253
 Multiple Choice Questions
1. The atomic number of silicon is 14. Its ground state electronic configuration is:
A. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 B. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
C. 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
2 2 6 2 2
D. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
Answer: C
Explanation:
The atomic number of silicon is 14.
Therefore, 14 Si will have the following electronic configuration:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2

2. What is the valence electron in alkali metal?

A. f-electron B. p-electron
C. s-electron D. d-electron
Answer: C
Explanation:
The valence electron in an alkali metal is an s-electron. Generally, they make up Group 1 of the periodic table. The different
examples that come under this category are lithium, potassium, and francium.

3. Of the following pairs of species which one will have the same electronic configuration for both members?
A. Li+ and Na+ B. He and Ne+
C. H and Li D. N+
Answer: D
Explanation:
Carbon and the positive ion of nitrogen (N + )will have the same electronic configuration.
The electronic configuration of both Carbon and the positive ion of nitrogen is as follows: 1s2 2s2 2p6 .

4. Which of the following did Bohr use to explain his theory?

A. Conservation of linear momentum B. The quantization of angular momentum
C. Conservation of quantum frequency D. Conservation of mass
Answer: B
Explanation:
To explain his theory, Niels Bohr used the quantization of angular momentum. It means the radius of the orbit and the energy
will be quantized. The Boundary conditions for the wave function are periodic.

5. According to Bohr’s principle, what is the relation between the principal quantum number and the radius of the orbit?
1 1
A. r proportional to B. r proportional to
n n2
C. r proportional to n D. r proportional to n2
Answer: D
Explanation:
n2 h 2
The equation is given as: r =
4π2 mkZe2
Therefore, we can say that the radius of the orbit is directly proportional to the square of the principal quantum number.

6. ‘X’ can see objects in the ultra-violet light while human beings cannot do so. Identify X.
A. 1.63 eV B. 15.87 eV
C. 30.9 eV D. 217.6 eV
Answer: D
Explanation:
The equation is given as:
−13.6Z2
En = eV
n2
−13.6 × 16
En =
1
En = −217.6eV
Hence the ionization energy for an electron in the ground state of Be atom is 217.6 eV.

7. If an α-particle collides head-on with a nucleus, what is its impact parameter?

254
 A. Zero B. Infinite
C. 10-10 m D. 1010 m
Answer: A
Explanation:
The perpendicular distance between the path of a projectile and the center of the potential field is the impact parameter.
Therefore, for a head-on collision of the α-particle with a nucleus, the impact parameter is equal to zero.

8. In which of the following system, will the radius of the first orbit (n=1) be minimum?
A. Doubly ionized lithium B. Singly ionized helium
C. Deuterium atom D. Hydrogen atom
Answer: A
Explanation:
The equation is given as:
h2
r= 2
2π mkZe2
Hence, of the given atoms/ions, (Z = 3) is maximum for doubly ionized lithium, so the radius of its first orbit is minimum.

9. An α-particle of energy 10 MeV is scattered through 180o by a fixed uranium nucleus. Calculate the order of distance of the
closest approach?
A. 10-20 m B. 10-12 m
C. 10-11 m D. 1012 m
Answer: B
Explanation:
(2Ze2 )
r0 =
1
(4πε0 ( mv 2 ))
2
9 × 109 × 2 × 92 × (1.6 × 10−19 )2
r0 = J
10 × 1 × 10−13
−14
r0 = 4.239 × 10 m
r0 = 4.2 × 10−12 cm.

10. Which source is associated with a line emission spectrum?

A. Electric fire B. Neon street sign
C. Red traffic light D. Sun
Answer: B
Explanation:
Neon Street sign gives a line emission spectrum. When neon atoms gain enough energy to become excited, light is produced.
Atom releases a photon when it returns to a lower energy state. Therefore, the source associated with a line emission spectrum
is the neon street sign.

11. According to the uncertainty principle for an electron, time measurement will become uncertain if which of the following is
measured with high certainty?
A. Energy B. Momentum
C. Location D. Velocity
Answer: A
Explanation:
According to the uncertainty principle,
h
ΔE. Δt >= .
2π
Thus the time measured will become uncertain if ΔE is measured with high certainty.

12. Find the true statement.

A. An electron will not lose energy when jumping from B. An electron will not give energy when jumping from
the 1st orbit to the 3rd orbit the 1st orbit to the 3rd orbit
C. An electron will release energy when jumping from D. An electron will absorb energy when jumping from
the 1st orbit to the 3rd orbit the 1st orbit to the 3rd orbit
Answer: D
Explanation:

255
An electron will absorb energy when jumping from the 1st orbit to the 3rd orbit. Only by absorbing energy, an electron will be
able to jump from the first orbit to the third orbit in the atomic spectrum.

13. The size of the atom is proportional to which of the following?

A. A B. A1/3
C. A2/3 D. A-1/3
Answer: B
Explanation:
The size of the atom is proportional to A1/3.
The electron affinity of the atom is inversely proportional to the atomic size. As the number of energy levels increases, the
atomic size must increase.

14. Calculate the ratio of the kinetic energy for the n = 2 electron for the Li atom to that of Be+ ion?
9 3
A. B.
16 4
C. 1 D.
1
2
Answer: A
Explanation:
2
Z
KELi ( Li )
=[ 2 ]
KEBe Z
( Be )
2
3 2
KELi ( )
=[ 2 ]
KEBe 4
( )
2
KELi 9
= .
KEBe 16

15. What is the ratio of minimum to maximum wavelength in the Balmer series?
A. 5:9 B. 5:36
C. 1:4 D. 3:4
Answer: A
Explanation:
For a wavelength of Balmer series,
1 1 1
= R[ − ]
λ 4 9
1 5R
=
λ 30
λmin 5R 4
= ×
λmax 36 R
λmin 5
=
λmax 9

16. The energy of characteristic X-ray is a consequence of which of the following?

A. The energy of the projectile electron B. The thermal energy of the target
C. Transition in target atoms D. Temperature
Answer: C
Explanation:
The energy of characteristic X-ray is a consequence of transition in target atoms. They cause emission or absorption of
electromagnetic radiation. The other options are not responsible for the energy of characteristic X rays.

17. Find out the minimum energy required to take out the only one electron from the ground state of Li+?
A. 13.6 eV B. 122.4 eV
C. 25.3 eV D. 67.9 eV
Answer: B
Explanation:
Ionization energy is given as:
E = 13.6 Z2 eV
For Li+, Z = 3
E = 13.6 × 9
256
E = 122.4 eV

18. What is the energy required to ionize an H-atom from the third excited state, if ground state ionization energy of H-atom is
13.6 eV?
A. 1.5 eV B. 3.4 eV
C. 13.6 eV D. 12.1 eV
Answer: A
Explanation:
−13.6
From third excited state, E =
16
E = -0.85 eV
Energy required to ionize H-atom from second excited state = 0 – (-0.85)
E = +0.85 eV

19. The radius of the Bohr orbit depends on which of the following?
1 B. n
A.
n
C.
1
D. n2
n2
Answer: C
Explanation:
The equation is given as:
n2 h2
rn = 2
4π mkZe2
From this, we can understand that rn is directly proportional to n2 .

20. What is the order of the radius of an electron orbit in a hydrogen atom?
A. 10-8 m B. 10−9 m
C. 10 −11
m D. 10−13 m
Answer: C
Explanation:
The radius of an electron orbit in a hydrogen atom is of the order of 10−11 m. It is equal to the most probable distance between
the nucleus and the electron in a hydrogen atom in its ground state.

21. What will be the longest wavelength in the Balmer series of hydrogen spectrum?
A. 6557 × 10-10 m B. 5557 × 10-10 m
C. 9557 × 10-10 m D. 1557 × 10-10 m
Answer: A
Explanation:
1 1 1
= R [ 2 − 2]
λ n1 n2
1 1 1
= 1.098 × 107 [ 2 − 2 ]
λ 2 3
10−7
λ = 36 × × 1.098
5
−10
λ = 6557 × 10 m.

22. A hydrogen atom in its ground state absorbs 10.2 eV of energy. What is the orbital angular momentum is increased by?
A. 4.22 × 10−3 Js B. 2.11 × 10−34 Js
C. 3.16 × 10 Js
−34 D. 1.05 × 10−34 Js
Answer: D
Explanation:
Increase in angular momentum
h
=
2π
h 10−34
= 6.6 × × 3.14
2π 2
h
= 1.05 × 10−34 Js.
2π

23. Which of the following is true regarding the Bohr model of atoms?

257
 A. Assumes that the angular momentum of B. Uses Faraday’s laws
electrons is quantized
C. Predicts continuous emission spectra for atoms D. Predicts the same emission spectra for all types
of atoms
Answer: A
Explanation:
Bohr model of atoms assumes that the angular momentum of electrons is quantized. The atom is held between the nucleus and
surroundings by electrostatic forces. The other options are not valid.

24. Hydrogen atoms are excited from ground state to the state of principal quantum number 4. Then, what will be the number
of spectral lines observed?
A. 3 B. 6
C. 5 D. 2
Answer: D
Explanation:
n = 4.
n(n−1)
The number of spectral lines emitted =
2
n(n − 1) (4 × 3)
= =2
2 6

25. When a hydrogen atom is in its first excited level, what is the relation of radius and Bohr radius?
A. Twice B. 4 times
C. Same D. Half
Answer: B
Explanation:
For the first excited level, n = 2.
r2 = (2)2 r0 = 4r0 .
So, when a hydrogen atom is in its first excited level, its radius is 4 times of the Bohr radius.

26. What causes spectral lines?

A. The transition of electrons between two energy B. The transition of electrons between two
levels wavelength ranges
C. Magnetic and electric field exiting in an atom D. The transition of electrons from electric to
magnetic field
Answer: A

Explanation:

The observed spectral lines are caused by the transition of electrons between two energy levels in an atom. The emission
spectrum of the hydrogen atom is divided into many spectral series, with wavelengths that are given by Rydberg’s formula.

27. How many spectral lines are there in the hydrogen spectrum?
A. Infinity B. Zero
C. Multiple D. One
Answer: C
Explanation:
Even though hydrogen has only one electron in its outermost shell, it has multiple spectral lines. This is because hydrogen has
many energy levels. When the electron excites from a lower level of energy into a higher level, then it releases a photon, and
this photon is the one that appears as spectral lines.

28. Which theory explained that electrons revolved in circular orbits?

A. Einstein theory B. Bohr theory
C. Rydberg theory D. de – Broglie theory
Answer: B
Explanation:
Niels Bohr explained the line spectrum of the hydrogen atom with the assumption that electrons revolved around an atom in
circular orbits and that the orbit closer to the nucleus represented the ground state and the farther orbits represented the
higher levels of energy.

258
29. When is hydrogen stable?
A. When the electron jumps to higher energy levels B. When an electric field is introduced
C. When a magnetic field is introduced D. When the electron is at its ground state
Answer: D
Explanation:
The hydrogen atom is stable when the electron rests at the ground level of energy, i.e., when the principal quantum number, n =
1. In other words, when the electron is revolving in the first orbit around the nucleus, the hydrogen atom is stable.

30. Which of the following is found in the UV region of the spectrum?

A. Pfund series B. Brackett series
C. Lyman series D. Paschen series
Answer: C
Explanation:
The transitions that end at the ground level, where the principal quantum number is one, are called the Lyman series. Here, the
energies that are released are so large, and therefore, these spectral lines appear in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum.

Question/Answer
Very Short
1. Name the spectral series which lies in the visible region.
Answer: Balmer series

2. What is the maximum number of spectral lines emitted by a hydrogen atom when it is in the third excited state?
Answer: Six.

3. When is Hα line of the Balmer series in the emission spectrum of hydrogen atom obtained?
when an electron jumps from n =3 to n = 2 level.
Answer: It is obtained

4. A mass of lead is embedded in a block of wood. Radiations from a radioactive source incident on the side of the block produce
a shadow on a fluorescent screen placed beyond the block. The shadow of the wood is faint, but the shadow of lead is dark.
Give a reason for this difference.
Answer: The shadow of the wood is faint because only the a-radiations are stopped by the wood (since a-radiations are least
penetrating). The shadow of lead is dark because p and y-radiations are also stopped by lead.

5. What was the source of alpha particles in Rutherford’s alpha scattering experiment?
Answer: The source was 21483Bi.

6. If the radius of the ground level of a hydrogen atom is 5.3 nm, what is the radius of the first excited state?
Answer: It is 4 × 5.3 = 21.2 nm (∵ r = n²ro)

7. Calculate the ratio of energies of photons produced due to the transition of electron of a hydrogen atom from its:
(a) Second permitted energy level to the first level, and
(b) Highest permitted energy level to the second permitted level.
Answer:
(a) energy of photon E1 = – 3.4 – (-13.6) = 10.2 eV
(b) energy of photon E2 = 0 – (-3.4) = 3.4 eV
E1 10.2
(c) Ratio = =3
E2 3.4
(d)
8. The mass of an H-atom is less than the sum of the masses of a proton and electron. Why is this?
Answer: Einstein's mass-energy equivalence gives E = mc 2 . Thus, the mass of an H-atom is mp + me − B/c 2 where B ≈ 13.6eV

9. Name the series of hydrogen spectrum lying in ultraviolet and visible region.
Answer: Lyman series lies in ultraviolet region while Balmer series lies in visible region.

10. What is Bohr’s quantisation condition for the angular momentum of an electron in the second orbit?
Answer: We know that,
259
 nh
L=
2π
We are given,
n=2
2h
⇒L=
2π
h
∴L=
π
Therefore, Bohr's quantisation condition for the angular momentum of an electron in the second orbit is found to be,
h
L=
π

Short Questions
1. Define electron-volt and atomic mass unit. Calculate the energy in joule equivalent to the mass of one proton.
Answer:
Electron volt: It is defined as the energy gained by an electron when accelerated through a potential difference of 1 volt.
Atomic mass unit: It is defined as one-twelfth of the mass of one atom of carbon 12.
The mass of a proton is 1.67 × 10-27 kg. Therefore, energy equivalent of this mass is E = mc² = 1.67 × 10 -27 × (3 × 108)2 = 1.5 × 10-
10 J

2. State Bohr’s quantization condition of angular momentum. Calculate the shortest wavelength of the Bracket series and state
to which part of the electromagnetic spectrum does it belong.
Or calculate the orbital period of the electron in the first excited state of the hydrogen atom.
Answer: Bohr’s Quantisation condition: Only those orbits are permitted in which the angular momentum of the electron is an
integral multiple of h/2π.
For Brackett Series,
The shortest wavelength is for the transition of electrons from ni = ∞ to nf = 4
Using the equation
1 1 1
= R ( 2 − 2)
λ nf ni
1 1 1 R
= R ( 2 − 2) =
λ 4 ∞ 16
16 16
Or λ = = = 1467.8nm
R 1.09 × 107
Or
16 16
λ= = = 1467.8nm
R 1.09 × 107
OR
First excited state n = 2, T = ?
2πr n3 h3 1
T= = 2 4 2 where k =
v 4π me k 4πε0
Substituting the values, we have
(2)3 (6.6 × 10−34 )3
T=
4 × (3.14)2 × 9.1 × 10−31 × (1.6 × 10−19 )4 × (9 × 109 )2
T = 1.22 × 10−15 s

3. Write two important limitations of the Rutherford nuclear model of the atom.
Answer:
• Rutherford’s model fails to explain the line spectra of the atom.
• Rutherford’s model cannot explain the stability of the nucleus.

4. Find out the wavelength of the electron orbiting in the ground state of the hydrogen atom.
Answer: The wavelength of an electron in the ground state of hydrogen atom is given by,
hc
E=
λ
or
hc
λ=
E
For ground state
E = −13.6eV = 13.6 × 1.6 × 10−19 J
Hence wavelength of electron in the first orbit
260
 hc 6.6 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
λ= = = 0.9 × 10 − 7J
E 13.6 × 1.6 × 10−19

5. (a) State Bohr’s postulate to define stable orbits in a hydrogen atom. How does de Broglie’s hypothesis explain the stability
of these orbits?
(b) A hydrogen atom initially in the ground state absorbs a photon which excites it to the n = 4 level. Estimate the frequency
of the photon.
Answer: (a) Bohr's postulate for stable orbits states the electron in an atom revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for
which its angular momentum is an integral multiple of h/2π(h = Planck's constant), ( n = 1,2,3 … )
As per de Broglie's hypothesis λ = h/p = h/mv
For a stable orbit, we must have a circumference of the orbit = nλ(n = 1,2, 3 … )
∴ 2πr = nλ
Or mvr = nh/2π
Thus, de-Broglie showed that the formation. of stationary patterns for integral " n " gives rise to the stability of the atom.
This is nothing but Bohr's postulate.
(b) Energy in the n = 4 level n1 = 1 and n2 = 4
1 1 1
∴ = RH ( 2 − 2)
λ n1 n2
1 1
= RH ( 2 − 2)
1 4
1 15
= R H (1 − ) = R H ( )
16 16
c
∵v =
λ
1
= c×
λ
From eqn (i)
15
v = C × RH ( )
16
15
= 3 × 10 × 1.09 × 107 ( )
8
16
∴ v = 3.1 × 1015 Hz

6. An alpha particle moving with initial kinetic energy K towards a nucleus of atomic number Z approaches a distance ‘d’ at
which it reverses its direction. Obtain an expression for the distance of closest approach ‘d’ in terms of the kinetic energy of
the alpha particle, K.
Answer: At the distance of the closest approach, the kinetic energy of the alpha particle is converted into the electrostatic
potential energy of the alpha particle-nucleus system. Therefore, at the distance of the closest approach we have,
Kinetic energy = Potential energy Therefore,
1 1 2Ze2
mv 2 =
2 4πε0 rmin
1 2Ze2
or rmin =
4πε0 K
where K is the kinetic energy.

7. The figure shows the energy level diagram of the hydrogen atom.

a) Find out the transition which results in the emission of a photon of wavelength 496 nm.
b) Which transition corresponds to the emission of radiation of maximum wavelength? Justify your answer.
Answer:
(a) The wavelength of photon emitted is given by
None of these transitions correspond to a wavelength of 496 nm. The closest is 4 to 2 of 489 nm.
(b) Transition 4 to 3 as the frequency of this radiation is maximum.

261
8. A nucleus makes a transition from one permitted energy level to another level of lower energy. Name the region
of the electromagnetic spectrum to which the emitted photon belongs. What is the order of its energy in electron-
volts? Write four characteristics of nuclear forces.
Answer:
(a) Emitted photon belongs to gamma-rays part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
(b) the energy is of the order of MeV.
(c) Four characteristics of nuclear forces are:
• Nuclear forces are independent of charges.
• Nuclear forces are short-range forces.
• Nuclear forces are the strongest forces in nature, in their own small range of few fermis.
• Nuclear forces are saturated forces.

9. In accordance with the Bohr's model, find the quantum number that characterises the earth's revolution around
the sun in an orbit of radius 1.5×1011m with orbital speed 3×104m/s (Mass of earth.) = 6.0×1024kg
Answer: We are given:
Radius of the orbit of the Earth around the Sun,
r = 1.5 × 1011 m
Orbital speed of the Earth,
v = 3 × 104m/s
Mass of the Earth,
m = 6.0 × 1024 kg
According to Bohr's model, angular momentum is quantized and could be given as:
ATOMS
nh
Mvr =
2π
Where,
h = Planck's constant = 6.62 × 10−34 Js
n = Quantum number
mvr2π
⇒n=
h
2π × 6 × 1024 × 3 × 104 × 1.5 × 1011
⇒n=
6.62 × 10−34
∴ n = 25.61 × 1073 = 2.6 × 1074
Hence, the quanta number that characterizes the Earth' revolution is found to be 2.6 × 1074

10. The total energy of an electron in the first excited state of the hydrogen atom is about −3.4eV.
a) What is the kinetic energy of the electron in this state?
b) What is the potential energy of the electron in this state?
c) Which of the answers above would change if the choice of the zero of potential energy is changed?
Answer:
(a) We are given,
Total energy of the electron,
E = −3.4eV
Kinetic energy of the electron is equal to the negative of the total energy.
⇒ K. E = −E
∴ K. E = −(−3.4) = +3.4eV
Hence, the kinetic energy of the electron in the given state is found to be:
+3.4eV.
(b) We know that the potential energy (U) of the electron is found to be equal to the negative of twice of its kinetic energy.
⇒ U = −2K. E
∴ U = −2 × 3.4 = −6.8eV
Hence, the potential energy of the electron in the given state is found to be −6.8eV.
(c) We know that the potential energy of a system would depend on the reference point taken. Here, the potential energy of the
reference
point is taken to be zero. On changing the reference point, then the value of the potential energy of the system would also
change. Since, we know that total energy is the sum of kinetic and potential energies, total energy of the system will also
change.

Long Questions
262
1. Explain Rutherford’s experiment on the scattering of alpha particles and state the significance of the results.
Answer: The schematic arrangement in the Geiger Marsden experiment is shown in the figure.

Alpha-particles emitted by a Bismuth (21483Bi) radioactive source were collimated into a narrow beam by their passage through
lead bricks. The beam was allowed to fall on a thin foil of gold of thickness 2.1 × 10-7 m. The scattered alpha-particles were
observed through a rotatable detector consisting of a zinc sulfide screen and a microscope. The scattered alpha-particles on
striking the screen produced bright light flashes or scintillations. These scintillations could be viewed through the microscope
and counted at different angles from the direction of the incident beam. Significance: The experiment established the existence
of a nucleus that contained the entire positive charge and about 99.95% of the mass.

2. Using Bohr’s postulates, obtain the expression for the total energy of the electron in the stationary states of the hydrogen
atom. Hence draw the energy level diagram showing how the line spectra corresponding to the Balmer series occur due to
the transition between energy levels. (CBSE Delhi 2013)
Answer: The electron revolving around the nucleus has two types of energy:
Kinetic energy due to its motion.
Potential energy due to it lying in the electric field of the nucleus.
Thus, the total energy of the electron is given by,
E = K. E. +P. E. . . (1) ∣
An electron of mass m moving around the nucleus with an orbital velocity v has kinetic energy given by
1 1 ke2
K.E. = mv 2 =
2 2 r
Now the potential energy of the electron at a distance r from the nucleus is given by,
PE = potential due to the nucleus at a distance r × charge on the electron = V × − e...(3)
Now the potential at a distance r from the nucleus having a charge e is given by,
e
V=k
r
Substituting in equation (3) we have
e2
P.E. = V × −e = −k
r
Substituting equations (2) and (3) in equation 1 we have
1 ke2 ke2
E = K.E. + P.E. = −
2 r r
1 ke2
=−
2 r
But the radius of the nth orbit is given by,
n2 h2
rn = 2 2
4π me k
Substituting in equation (6) we have
2π2 me4 k 2
E=−
n2 h2
This gives the expression for the energy possessed by the electron in the nth orbit of the hydrogen atom.

3. Hydrogen atoms are excited with an electron beam of energy of 12.5 eV. Find
(a) The highest energy level up to which the hydrogen atoms will be excited.
(b) The longest wavelengths in the (i) Lyman series, (ii) Balmer series of the spectrum of these hydrogen atoms.
Answer: (a) The maximum energy that the excited hydrogen atom can have is,
263
E = −13.6eV + 12.5eV
or E = −1.1eV
−13.6
Since En = eV
n2
∴ For n = 1, E1 = −13.6eV (< 1.1eV)
−13.6
For n = 2, E2 = = −3.4eV
4
(< −1.1eV)
−13.6
For n = 3, E3 = = −1.5eV
9
(< −1.1eV)
−13.6
For n = 4, E4 = = −0.85eV (> −1.1eV)
16
∴ The electron can only be excited up to n = 3 states.
(b) From energy tevet of hydrogen atom, we have
1 1 1
= R [ 2 − 2]
λ n1 n2
Longest wavelength of Lyman senes
1 1 1 3
= R [ 2 − 2] = R
λL 1 2 4
4 4
or λL = =( ) m ≈ 1218A∘
3R 3 × 1.1 × 107
Longest wavelength of Balmer series
1 1 1 5
= R [ 2 − 2] = R
λB 2 3 36
36 36
∴ λB = =( ) m ≈ 6560Å
5R 5 × 1.1 × 107

4. Using Bohr’s postulates of the atomic model derive the expression for the radius of the 11 th electron orbit. Hence obtain the
expression for Bohr’s radius.
Answer: Let us consider a mechanical model of the hydrogen atom as shown in the figure that incorporates this quantization
assumption.

This atom consists of a single electron with mass m and charge – e revolving around a single proton of charge + e. The proton is
nearly 2000 times as massive as the electron, so we can assume that the proton does not move. As the electron revolves around
the nucleus the electrostatic force of attraction between the electron and the proton provides the necessary centripetal force.
Therefore, we have
e2 mv 2
k 2=
rn rn
e2
or k = mv 2
rn
By Bohr's quantisation condition we have
nh
mvr =
2π
nh
or v =
2πmrn
substituting equation 2 in equation 1 we have,
264
 e2 nh 2
k = m( )
rn 2πmrn
n2 h 2
Solving for r we have rn =
4π2 me2 k
This gives the radius of the nth orbit of the hydrogen atom. If n = 1 we have r = a0 which is called Bohr's radius.
h2
a∘ = 2 2
4π me k

5. State Bohr’s postulate of the hydrogen atom successfully explains the emission lines in the spectrum of the hydrogen atoms.
Use the Rydberg formula to determine the wavelength of Ha line. [Given Rydberg constant R = 1.03 × 10 7 m-1]
Answer: It states that an electron might make a transition from one of its specified non radiating orbits to another of lower
energy. When it does so, a photon is emitted having energy equal to the energy difference between the initial and final states.
The frequency of the emitted photon is then given by hv = Ei − Ef where Ei and Ef are the energies of the initial and final states
1 1 1
Using the formula = R H ( − ) we have for Ha Line ni = 3 and nf = 2
λ n2f n2i
1 1 1
Therefore, = 1.03 × 107 ( 2 − )
λ 2 32
36
or λ = = 6.99 × −7
10 m
5×1.03×107

6. Using Bohr’s postulates derive the expression for the frequency of radiation emitted when an electron In a hydrogen atom
undergoes a transition from a higher energy state (quantum number n-) to the towering state (n,). When an electron in a
hydrogen atom jumps from the energy state ni =4 to n = 3, 2, 1, identify the spectral series to which the emission lines belong.
Answer: According to Bohr's frequency condition, if an electron jumps from an energy Level E to E1 , then the frequency of the
emitted radiation is given by hv = E − E1 … (1)
Let ni and nf be the corresponding orbits then,
2π2 me4 k 2 2π2 me4 k 2
Ei = − 2 2 and Ef = −
ni h n2f h2
substituting in equation (1) we have
2π2 me4 k 2 2π2 me4 k 2
hv = − 2 2 − (− )
ni h n2f h2
2π2 me4 k 2 1 1
= ( 2 − 2)
h2 nf ni
Rewriting the above equation, we have
2π2 me4 k 2 1 1
v= 3 ( 2 − 2)
h nf ni
This gives the frequency of the emitted radiation.
When ni = 4 and nf = 3, Paschen series
When ni = 4 and nf = 2, Balmer series
When ni = 4 and nf = 1, Lyman senes.

7. Calculate the ratio of the frequencies of the radiation emitted due to the transition of the electron In a hydrogen atom from
Its (i) second permitted energy level to the first level and (ii) highest permitted energy level to the second permitted level.
(CBSE Delhi 2018C)
Answer: We have
hv = Ef − Ei
E0 E0
= 2− 2
nf ni
1 1 3
hv1 = E0 ( 2 − 2 ) = E0 ×
1 2 4
1 1 1
hv2 = E0 ( 2 − 2 ) = E0 ×
2 ∞ 4
v1
∴ =3
v2

8. Monochromatic radiation of wavelength 975 A excites the hydrogen atom from its ground state to a higher state. How many
different spectral lines are possible In the resulting spectrum? Which transition corresponds to the longest wavelength
amongst them? (CBSE Sample Paper 201819)
Answer:
The energy corresponding to the given wavelength:

265
 hc 6.6 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
E( in eV) =
=
λ 975 × 10−10 × 1.6 × 10−19
= 12.71eV
The excited state:
En − E1 = 12.71
13.6
− 2 − (−13.6) = 12.71
n
or n = 4
Total no. of spectral lines emitted:
n(n − 1) 4(4 − 1) 12
= = =6
2 2 2
The longest wavelength will correspond to the transition n = 4 to n = 3

9. (a) Using postulates of Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom, show that

i. the radii of orbits increase as n², and
ii. the total energy of the electron increases as 1/n², where n is the principal quantum number of the atom.
(b) Calculate the wavelength of H2 line In Balmer series of hydrogen atom, given Rydberg constant R = 1.097 × 10 7 m-1.
Answer: Let us consider a mechanical. model of the hydrogen atom as shown in the figure.

This atom consists of a single electron with mass m and charge – e revolving around a single proton of charge + e. As the electron
revolves around the nucleus the electrostatic force of attraction between the electron and the proton provides the necessary
centripetal force. Therefore, we have,
e2 mv 2
k 2=
rn rn
e2
or k = mv 2
rn
nh
By Bohr's quantisation condition we have mvr =
2π
nh
or v =
2πmrn
Substituting equation 3 in equation 2 we have
e2 nh 2
k = m( )
rn 2πmrn
n2 h 2
Solving for r we have rn =
4π2 me2 k
1
This gives the radius of the nth orbit of the hydrogen atom which shows that E ∝
n2
(ii) the total energy possessed by an electron in the nth orbit of the hydrogen atom is given by E = T + U … (1)
i.e., the sum of its kinetic and electrostatic potential energies.
An electron of mass m moving around the nucleus with an orbital velocity v has kinetic energy given by
1 1 ke2
K.E. = mv 2 =
2 2 r
Now the potential energy of the electron at a distance r from the nucleus is given by,
PE = potential due to the nucleus at a distance r × charge on the electron = V × −e. . . (3)
e
Now the potential at a distance r from the nucleus having a charge e is given by V = k
r

10. State Bohr’s quantization condition for defining stationary orbits. How does de Brogue hypothesis explain the stationary
orbits?
Find the relation between the three wavelengths λ1 λ2 and λ3 from the energy level diagram shown below.

266
Answer: It states that only those orbits are permitted in which the angular momentum of the electron about the
h
nucleus is an integral multiple of , where his Planck's constant.
2π
According to de Broglie, an electron of mass m moving with speed v would have a wavelength λ given by λ = h/mv.
Now according to Bohr's postulate,
nh
mvrn =
2π
or
nh
2πrn =
mv
But h/mv = A is the de BrogUe wavelength of the electron, therefore, the above equation becomes 2πrn = nλ where 2πrn is the
circumference of the permitted orbit. If the wavelength of a wave does not close upon itself, destructive interference takes place
as the wave travels around the loop and quickly dies out. Thus only waves that persist are those for which the circumference of
the circular orbit contains a whole number of wavelengths.
ΔE3 = ΔE1 + ΔE2
hc hc hc
= +
λ3 λ1 λ2
1 1 1
or = +
λ3 λ1 λ2
1 λ2 + λ1
=
λ3 λ1 λ2
Numerical Problem:
Formulae for solving numerical problems.
1 2zE2
• Distance of closest approach r0 =
4πε0 Ek
n2 h 2
• Radius of the nth orbit of hydrogen atom rn =
4π2 me2 k
c
• Velocity of eLectron in the ntt orbit v = v =
137n
1 1 1
• Wavelength of radiation emitted when electron jumps form ni to nf = R H ( − )
λ n2f n2i
2π2 me4 k2 13.6
• Energy of electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom E = − or E = − eV
n2 h 2 n2

267
 Chapter-13 Nuclei
Introduction

In the previous chapter, we have learnt that in every atom, the positive charge and mass are densely concentrated at the centre of
the atom forming its nucleus. The overall dimensions of a nucleus are much smaller than those of an atom. Experiments on
scattering of α-particles demonstrated that the radius of a nucleus was smaller than the radius of an atom by a factor of about
104. This means the volume of a nucleus is about 10–12 times the volume of the atom. In other words, an atom is almost empty.
If an atom is enlarged to the size of a classroom, the nucleus would be of the size of pinhead. Nevertheless, the nucleus contains
most (more than 99.9%) of the mass of an atom. Does the nucleus have a structure, just as the atom does? If so, what are the
constituents of the nucleus? How are these held together? In this chapter, we shall look for answers to such questions. We shall
discuss various properties of nuclei such as their size, mass and stability, and also associated nuclear phenomena such as
radioactivity, fission and fusion.

Atomic Masses and Composition of Nucleus

The mass of an atom is very small, compared to a kilogram; for example, the mass of a carbon atom, 12C, is 1.992647 × 10–26 kg.
Kilogram is not a very convenient unit to measure such small quantities. Therefore, a different mass unit is used for expressing
atomic masses. This unit is the atomic mass unit (u), defined as 1/12 th of the mass of the carbon (12C)
atom. According to this definition

One atom of C12 atom

1u =
12
1.992647 × 10−26 kg
=
12
= 1.660539 × 10−27 kg

The atomic masses of various elements expressed in atomic mass unit (u) are close to being integral multiples of the mass of a
hydrogen atom. There are, however, many striking exceptions to this rule. For example, the atomic mass of chlorine atom is 35.46
u. Accurate measurement of atomic masses is carried out with a mass spectrometer, The measurement of atomic masses reveals
the existence of different types of atoms of the same element, which exhibit the same chemical properties, but differ in mass. Such
atomic species of the same element differing in mass are called isotopes. (In Greek, isotope means the same place, i.e. they occur
in the same place in the periodic table of elements.) It was found that practically every element consists of a mixture of several
isotopes. The relative abundance of different isotopes differs from element to element. Chlorine, for example, has two isotopes
having masses 34.98 u and 36.98 u, which are nearly integral multiples of the mass of a hydrogen atom. The relative abundances
of these isotopes are 75.4 and 24.6 per cent, respectively. Thus, the average mass of a chlorine atom is obtained by the weighted
average of the masses of the two isotopes, which works out to be

75.4 × 34.98 + 24.6 × 36.98

=
100
= 35.47u

Which agrees with the atomic mass of chlorine.

Even the lightest element, hydrogen has three isotopes having masses 1.0078u, 2.0141u, and 3.0160u. The nucleus of the lightest
atom of hydrogen, which has a relative abundance of 99.985%, is called the proton. The mass of a proton is
𝑚𝑝 = 1.00727u = 1.67262 × 10−27 kg
This is equal to the mass of the hydrogen atom (=1.00783u), minus the mass of a single electron (𝑚𝑒 = 0.00055u). The other two
isotopes of hydrogen are called deuterium and tritium. Tritium nuclei, being unstable, do not occur naturally and are produced
artificially in laboratories.

We know that the number of these electrons outside the nucleus of the atom is 𝑍, the atomic number. The total charge of the
atomic electrons is thus (–Ze), and since the atom is neutral, the charge
of the nucleus is (+Ze). The number of protons in the nucleus of the atom is, therefore, exactly Z, the atomic number.

Discovery of Neutron Since the nuclei of deuterium and tritium are isotopes of hydrogen, they must contain only one proton each.
But the masses of the nuclei of hydrogen, deuterium and tritium are in the ratio of 1:2:3. The mass of a neutron is now known to
a high degree of accuracy. It is m n = 1.00866 u = 1.6749×10–27 kg
268
Chadwick was awarded the 1935 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the neutron.
A free neutron, unlike a free proton, is unstable. It decays into a proton, an electron and a antineutrino (another elementary
particle), and has a mean life of about 1000s. It is, however, stable inside the nucleus. The composition of a nucleus can now be
described using the following terms and symbols:
Z - atomic number = number of protons
N - neutron number = number of neutrons
A - mass number = Z + N = total number of protons and neutrons

The composition of isotopes of an element can now be readily explained. The nuclei of isotopes of a given element contain the
same number of protons, but differ from each other in their number of neutrons. Deuterium, 12 H, which is an isotope of hydrogen,
contains one proton and one neutron. Its other isotope tritium, 13 H, contains one proton and two neutrons. The element gold has
32 isotopes, ranging from 𝐴 = 173 to 𝐴 = 204. We have already mentioned that chemical properties of elements depend on their
electronic structure. As the atoms of isotopes have identical electronic structure, they have identical chemical behaviour and are
placed in the same location in the periodic table.

All nuclides with same mass number 𝐴 are called isobars. For example, the nuclides 13 H and 32 He are isobars. Nuclides with same
neutron number 𝑁 but different atomic number 𝑍, for example 19880 Hg and 79 Au, are called isotones.
197

Size of the Nucleus

Rutherford was the pioneer who postulated and established the existence of the atomic nucleus. At Rutherford’s suggestion,
Geiger and Marsden performed their classic experiment: on the scattering of α-particles from thin gold foils. Their experiments
revealed that the distance of closest approach to a gold nucleus of an α-particle of kinetic energy 5.5 MeV is about 4.0 × 10−14 m.
The scattering of α-particle by the gold sheet could be understood by Rutherford by assuming that the coulomb repulsive force
was solely responsible for scattering. Since the positive charge is confined to the nucleus, the actual size of the nucleus has to be
less than 4.0 × 10−14 m. If we use α-particles of higher energies than 5.5 MeV, the distance of closest approach to the gold nucleus
will be smaller and at some point the scattering will begin to be affected by the short range nuclear forces, and differ from
Rutherford’s calculations. Rutherford’s calculations are based on pure coulomb repulsion between the positive charges of the
αparticle and the gold nucleus. From the distance at which deviations set in, nuclear sizes can be inferred.

By performing scattering experiments in which fast electrons, instead of α-particles, are projectiles that bombard targets made
up of various elements, the sizes of nuclei of various elements have been accurately measured.
It has been found that a nucleus of mass number 𝐴 has a radius
𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝐴1/3
where 𝑅0 = 1.2 × 10−15 m. This means the volume of the nucleus, which is proportional to 𝑅3 is proportional to 𝐴. Thus the
density of nucleus is a constant, independent of 𝐴, for all nuclei. Different nuclei are likes drop of liquid of constant density. The
density of nuclear matter is approximately 2.3 × 1017 kg m−3 . This density is very large compared to ordinary matter, say water,
which is 103 kg m−3 . This is understandable, as we have already seen that most of the atom is empty. Ordinary matter consisting
of atoms has a large amount of empty space.

Mass-Energy and Nuclear Binding Energy

1. Mass Energy
Einstein showed from his theory of special relativity that it is necessary to treat mass as another form of energy. Before the advent
of this theory of special relativity it was presumed that mass and energy were conserved separately in a reaction. However,
Einstein showed that mass is another form of energy and one can convert mass-energy into other forms of energy, say kinetic
energy and vice-versa.

Einstein gave the famous mass-energy equivalence relation

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
Here the energy equivalent of mass 𝑚 is related by the above equation and 𝑐 is the velocity of light in vacuum and is approximately
equal to 3 × 108 m s−1 .

2. Nuclear binding energy

We have seen that the nucleus is made up of neutrons and protons. Therefore, it may be expected that the mass of the nucleus is
equal to the total mass of its individual protons and neutrons. However, the nuclear mass 𝑀 is found to be always less than this.
For example, let us consider 168 O : a nucleus which has 8 neutrons and 8 protons. We have

269
 Mass of 8 neutrons = 8 × 1.00866u
Mass of 8 protons = 8 × 1.00727u
Mass of 8 electrons = 8 × 0.00055u
Therefore, the expected mass of 16 8 O nucleus = 8 × 2.01593u = 16.12744u.
The atomic mass of 168 O found from mass spectroscopy experiments is seen to be 15.99493u. Substracting the mass of 8 electrons
(8 × 0.00055u) from this, we get the experimental mass of 16 8 O nucleus to be 15.99053u.
Thus, we find that the mass of the 168 O nucleus is less than the total mass of its constituents by 0.13691u. The difference in mass
of a nucleus and its constituents, Δ𝑀, is called the mass defect, and is given by Δ𝑀 = [𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 ] − 𝑀

Nuclear Force

The force that determines the motion of atomic electrons is the familiar Coulomb force. we have seen that for average mass nuclei
the binding energy per nucleon is approximately 8 MeV, which is much larger than the binding energy in atoms. Therefore, to bind
a nucleus together there must be a strong attractive force of a totally different kind. It must be strong enough to overcome the
repulsion between the (positively charged) protons and to bind both protons and neutrons into the tiny nuclear volume.

Fig. 13.2
i. The nuclear force is much stronger than the Coulomb force acting between charges or the gravitational forces between masses.
The nuclear binding force has to dominate over the Coulomb repulsive force between protons inside the nucleus. This happens
only because the nuclear force is much stronger than the coulomb force. The gravitational force is much weaker than even
Coulomb force.
ii. The nuclear force between two nucleons falls rapidly to zero as their distance is more than a few femtometers. This leads to
saturation of forces in a medium or a large-sized nucleus, which is the reason for the constancy of the binding energy per
nucleon. A rough plot of the potential energy between two nucleons as a function of distance is shown in the Fig. 13.2. The
potential energy is a minimum at a distance r0 of about 0.8 fm. This means that the force is attractive for distances larger than
0.8 fm and repulsive if they are separated by distances less than 0.8 fm.
iii. The nuclear force between neutron-neutron, proton-neutron and proton-proton is approximately the same. The nuclear force
does not depend on the electric charge. Unlike Coulomb’s law or the Newton’s law of gravitation there is no simple
mathematical form of the nuclear force.

Radioactivity

A. H. Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896 purely by accident. Three types of radioactive decay occur in nature:
i. α-decay: It is basically responsible for the emission of the Helium nucleus. An alpha particle is consists of two neutrons &
two protons which is the same as a helium nucleus.
ii. β-decay: in which electrons or positrons (particles with the same mass as electrons, but with a charge exactly opposite to
that of electron) are emitted;
iii. γ-decay in which high energy (hundreds of keV or more) photons are emitted.

Law of radioactive decay

In any radioactive sample, which undergoes α, β or γ-decay, it is found that the number of nuclei undergoing the decay per unit
time is proportional to the total number of nuclei in the sample. If N is the number of nuclei in the sample and ∆N undergo decay
in time ∆t then

270
Δ𝑁
∝𝑁
Δ𝑡
or, Δ𝑁/Δ𝑡 = 𝜆𝑁,
where 𝜆 is called the radioactive decay constant or disintegration constant.
The change in the number of nuclei in the sample is d𝑁 = −Δ𝑁 in time Δ𝑡.
Thus, the rate of change of 𝑁 is (in the limit Δ𝑡 → 0 )
d𝑁
= −𝜆𝑁
d𝑡

∆N is the number of nuclei that decay, and hence is always positive. dN is the change in N, which may have either sign. Here it is
negative, because out of original N nuclei, ∆N have decayed, leaving (N–∆N) nuclei.

d𝑁
or, = −𝜆d𝑡
𝑁
Now, integrating both sides of the above equation, we get,
𝑁
d𝑁
= −𝜆𝑡𝑡0 dt
𝑁0
𝑁

or, ln 𝑁 − ln 𝑁0 = −𝜆(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )
Here 𝑁0 is the number of radioactive nuclei in the sample at some arbitrary time 𝑡0 and 𝑁 is the number of radioactive nuclei at
any subsequent time 𝑡. Setting 𝑡0 = 0 and rearranging gives us
𝑁
ln = −𝜆𝑡
𝑁0
which gives
𝑁(𝑡) = 𝑁0 𝑒 − 𝜆𝑡

Note, for example, the light bulbs follow no such exponential decay law. If we test 1000 bulbs for their life (time span before they
burn out or fuse), we expect that they will ‘decay’ (that is, burn out) at more or less the same time. The decay of radionuclides
follows quite a different law, the law of radioactive decay represented by the total decay rate R of a sample is the number of nuclei
disintegrating per unit time. Suppose in a time interval dt, the decay count measured is ∆N. Then dN = – ∆N.
The positive quantity 𝑅 is then defined as
d𝑁
𝑅=−
d𝑡
we get
𝑅 = 𝜆𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
or,
𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
This is equivalent to the law of radioactivity decay, since you can integrate to get back Clearly, 𝑅0 = 𝜆𝑁0 is the decay rate at 𝑡 = 0.
The decay rate 𝑅 at a certain time 𝑡 and the number of undecayed nuclei 𝑁 at the same time are related by
𝑅 = 𝜆𝑁

The decay rate of a sample, rather than the number of radioactive nuclei, is a more direct experimentally measurable quantity
and is given a specific name: activity. The SI unit for activity is becquerel, named after the discoverer of radioactivity, Henry
Becquerel.
1 becquerel is simply equal to 1 disintegration or decay per second. There is also another unit named “curie” that is widely used
and is related to the SI unit as:
1 curie = 1Ci = 3.7 × 1010 decays per second
= 3.7 × 1010 Bq

271
Different radionuclides differ greatly in their rate of decay. A common way to characterize this feature is through the notion of
half-life. Half-life of a radionuclide (denoted by 𝑇1/2 ) is the time it takes for a sample that has initially, say 𝑁0 radionuclei to reduce
to 𝑁0 /2. Putting 𝑁 = 𝑁0 /2 and 𝑡 = 𝑇1/2 we get
ln 2 0.693
𝑇1/2 = =
𝜆 𝜆
Clearly if 𝑁0 reduces to half its value in time 𝑇1/2 , 𝑅0 will also reduce to half its value at the same time according to Another related
measure is the average or mean life 𝜏. This again can be obtained from the number of nuclei which decay in the time interval 𝑡 to
𝑡 + Δ𝑡 is 𝑅(𝑡)Δ𝑡(= 𝜆𝑁0 e−𝜆𝑡 Δ𝑡). Each of them has lived for time 𝑡. Thus, the total life of all these nuclei would be 𝑡𝜆𝑁0 e−𝜆𝑡 Δ𝑡. It is
clear that some nuclei may live for a short time while others may live longer. Therefore, to obtain the mean life, we have to sum
(or integrate) this expression over all times from 0 to ∞ , and divide by the total number 𝑁0 of nuclei at 𝑡 = 0. Thus,
𝜆𝑁 0 ∞ 𝑡𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 d𝑡
0
𝜏= = 𝜆∞
0 𝑡𝑒
−𝜆𝑡 d𝑡
𝑁0
One can show by performing this integral that 𝜏 = 1/𝜆
We summarise these results with the following:
ln 2
𝑇1/2 = = 𝜏ln 2
𝜆

Radioactive elements (e.g., tritium, plutonium) which are short-lived i.e., have half-lives much less than the age of the universe (
15 billion years) have obviously decayed long ago and are not found in nature. They can, however, be produced artificially in
nuclear reactions.

1. Alpha decay
A well-known example of alpha decay is the decay of uranium 238 28 U to thorium 90 Th with the emission of a helium nucleus 2 He
234 4
238 234
92 U → 90 Th + 2 He
4
(𝛼 − decay)
In 𝛼-decay, the mass number of the product nucleus (daughter nucleus) is four less than that of the decaying nucleus (parent
nucleus), while the atomic number decreases by two. In general, 𝛼-decay of a parent nucleus A Z X results in a daughter nucleus
A−4
Z−2 Y
A X → A−4 Y + 4 He
z Z−2 2
From Einstein's mass-energy equivalance relation [Eq. (13.6)] and energy conservation, it is clear that this spontaneous decay is
possible only when the total mass of the decay products is less than the mass of the initial nucleus. This difference in mass appears
as kinetic energy of the products. By referring to a table of nuclear masses, one can check that the total mass of 234 90 Th and 2 He is
4

indeed less than that of 92 U.

238

The disintegration energy or the 𝑄-value of a nuclear reaction is the difference between the initial mass energy and the total mass
energy of the decay products. For 𝛼-decay
𝑄 = (𝑚X − 𝑚𝑌 − 𝑚He )𝑐 2
𝑄 is also the net kinetic energy gained in the process or, if the initial nucleus X is at rest, the kinetic energy of the products. Clearly,
𝑄 > 0 for exothermic processes such as 𝛼-decay.

2. Beta decay
In beta decay, a nucleus spontaneously emits an electron ( 𝛽 − decay) or a positron ( 𝛽 + decay). A common example of 𝛽− decay is
32 32 −
15 P → 16 S + 𝑒 + 𝑣 ‾
and that of 𝛽 decay is
+
22 22 +
11 Na → 10 Ne + 𝑒 + 𝑣
The decays are governed by so that one can never predict which nucleus will undergo decay, but one can characterize the decay
by a half-life 𝑇1/2 . For example, 𝑇1/2 for the decays above is respectively 14.3 d and 2.6y. The emission of electron in 𝛽− decay is
accompanied by the emission of an antineutrino (𝑣); in 𝛽 + decay, instead, a neutrino (𝑣) is generated. Neutrinos are neutral
particles with very small (possiblly, even zero) mass compared to electrons. They have only weak interaction with other particles.
They are, therefore, very difficult to detect, since they can penetrate large quantity of matter (even earth) without any interaction.
In both 𝛽 − and 𝛽+ decay, the mass number 𝐴 remains unchanged. In 𝛽 − decay, the atomic number 𝑍 of the nucleus goes up by 1 ,
while in 𝛽 + decay 𝑍 goes down by 1 . The basic nuclear process underlying 𝛽 − decay is the conversion of neutron to proton
𝑛 → 𝑝 + 𝑒 − + 𝑣‾
while for 𝛽 + decay, it is the conversion of proton into neutron
𝑝 → 𝑛 + 𝑒+ + 𝑣
Note that while a free neutron decays to proton, the decay of proton to neutron is possible only inside the nucleus, since proton
has smaller mass than neutron.

3. Gamma decay
Like an atom, a nucleus also has discrete energy levels - the ground state and excited states. The scale of energy is, however, very
different. Atomic energy level spacings are of the order of eV, while the difference in nuclear energy levels is of the order of MeV.
When a nucleus in an excited state spontaneously decays to its ground state (or to a lower energy state), a photon is emitted with

272
energy equal to the difference in the two energy levels of the nucleus. This is the so-called gamma decay. The energy (MeV)
corresponds to radiation of extremely short wavelength, shorter than the hard X-ray region.

Typically, a gamma ray is emitted when a 𝛼 or 𝛽 decay results in a daughter nucleus in an excited state. This then returns to the
ground state by a single photon transition or successive transitions involving more than one photon. A familiar example is the
successive emmission of gamma rays of energies 1.17MeV and 1.33MeV from the deexcitation of 60 28 Ni nuclei formed from
𝛽 − decay of 60
27 Co.

Nuclear Energy

The curve of binding energy per nucleon E_bn, has a long flat middle region between A=30 and A=170. In this region the binding
energy per nucleon is nearly constant (8.0 MeV). For the lighter nuclei region, A<30, and for the heavier nuclei region, A>170, the
binding energy per nucleon is less than 8.0MeV, as we have noted earlier. Now, the greater the binding energy, the less is the total
mass of a bound system, such as a nucleus. Consequently, if nuclei with less total binding energy transform to nuclei with greater
binding energy, there will be a net energy release. This is what happens when a heavy nucleus decays into two or more
intermediate mass fragments (fission) or when light nuclei fuse into a havier nucleus (fusion.)

Exothermic chemical reactions underlie conventional energy sources such as coal or petroleum. Here the energies involved are
in the range of electron volts. On the other hand, in a nuclear reaction, the energy release is of the order of MeV. Thus, for the same
quantity of matter, nuclear sources produce a million times more energy than a chemical source. Fission of 1" " kg of uranium, for
example, generates 1014 J of energy; compare it with burning of 1" kg of coal that gives 107 J.

1. Fission
New possibilities emerge when we go beyond natural radioactive decays and study nuclear reactions by bombarding nuclei with
other nuclear particles such as proton, neutron, 𝛼-particle, etc.
A most important neutron-induced nuclear reaction is fission. An example of fission is when a uranium isotope 23592 U bombarded
with a neutron breaks into two intermediate mass nuclear fragments
1 235 236 144 89 1
0 n + 92 U → 92 U → 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0 n
The same reaction can produce other pairs of intermediate mass fragments
1 235 236 133 99 1
0 n + 92 U → 92 U → 51 Sb + 41 Nb + 4 0 n
Or, as another example,
1 235 140 94 1
0 n + 92 U → 54 Xe + 38 Sr + 2 0 n
The fragment products are radioactive nuclei; they emit 𝛽 particles in succession to achieve stable end products.
The energy released (the 𝑄 value) in the fission reaction of nuclei like uranium is of the order of 200MeV per fissioning nucleus.
This is estimated as follows:
Let us take a nucleus with 𝐴 = 240 breaking into two fragments each of 𝐴 = 120. Then
𝐸𝑏𝑛 for 𝐴 = 240 nucleus is about 7.6MeV,
𝐸𝑏𝑛 for the two 𝐴 = 120 fragment nuclei is about 8.5MeV.
∴ Gain in binding energy for nucleon is about 0.9MeV.
Hence the total gain in binding energy is 240 × 0.9 or 216MeV.

The disintegration energy in fission events first appears as the kinetic energy of the fragments and neutrons. Eventually it is
transferred to the surrounding matter appearing as heat. The source of energy in nuclear reactors, which produce electricity, is
nuclear fission. The enormous energy released in an atom bomb comes from uncontrolled nuclear fission. We discuss some details
in the next section how a nuclear reactor function.

2. Nuclear reactor
1
There is a release of extra neutron (s) in the fission process. Averagely, 2 neutrons are released per fission of uranium nucleus.
2
It is a fraction since in some fission events 2 neutrons are produced, in some 3, etc. The extra neutrons in turn can initiate fission
processes, producing still more neutrons, and so on. This leads to the possibility of a chain reaction, as was first suggested by
Enrico Fermi. If the chain reaction is controlled suitably, we can get a steady energy output. This is what happens in a nuclear
reactor. If the chain reaction is uncontrolled, it leads to explosive energy output, as in a nuclear bomb.
There is, however, a hurdle in sustaining a chain reaction, as described here. It is known experimentally that slow neutrons
(thermal neutrons) are much more likely to cause fission in 235 92 U than fast neutrons. Also fast neutrons liberated in fission would
escape instead of causing another fission reaction.

The average energy of a neutron produced in fission of 235

92 U is 2MeV. These neutrons unless slowed down will escape from the
reactor without interacting with the uranium nuclei, unless a very large amount of fissionable material is used for sustaining the
chain reaction. What one needs to do is to slow down the fast neutrons by elastic scattering with light nuclei. In fact, Chadwick's
experiments showed that in an elastic collision with hydrogen the neutron almost comes to rest and proton carries away the

273
energy. This is the same situation as when a marble hits head-on an identical marble at rest. Therefore, in reactors, light nuclei
called moderators are provided along with the fissionable nuclei for slowing down fast neutrons. The moderators commonly used
are water, heavy water (D2 O) and graphite. The Apsara reactor at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai, uses
water as moderator. The other Indian reactors, which are used for power production, use heavy water as moderator. Because of
the use of moderator, it is possible that the ratio, 𝐾, of number of fissions produced by a given generation of neutrons to the
number of fissions of the preceding generation may be greater than one. This ratio is called the multiplication factor; it is the
measure of the growth rate of the neutrons in the reactor. For 𝐾 = 1, the operation of the reactor is said to be critical, which is
what we wish it to be for steady power operation. If 𝐾 becomes greater than one, the reaction rate and the reactor power increases
exponentially. Unless the factor 𝐾 is brought down very close to unity, the reactor will become supercritical and can even explode.
The explosion of the Chernobyl reactor in Ukraine in 1986 is a sad reminder that accidents in a nuclear reactor can be catastrophic.
The reaction rate is controlled through control-rods made out of neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium.

The more abundant isotope 238

92 U in naturally occurring uranium is non-fissionable. When it captures a neutron, it produces the
highly radioactive plutonium through these reactions

238 239 239

92 U + n → 92 U → 93 Np + 𝑒 − + 𝑣‾
239 239 −
93 Np → 94 Pu + 𝑒 + 𝑣 ‾

Plutonium undergoes fission with slow neutrons.

the schematic diagram of a nuclear reactor based on thermal neutron fission. The core of the reactor is the site of nuclear fission.
It contains the fuel elements in suitably fabricated form. The fuel may be saying enriched uranium (i.e., one that has greater
abundance of 259 U than naturally occurring uranium). The core contains a moderator to slow down the neutrons. The core is
surrounded by a reflector to reduce leakage. The energy (heat) released in fission is continuously removed by a suitable coolant.
A containment vessel prevents the escape of radioactive fission products. The whole assembly is shielded to check harmful
radiation from coming out. The reactor can be shut down by means of rods (made of, for example, cadmium) that have high
absorption of neutrons. The coolant transfers heat to a working fluid which in turn may produce stream. The steam drives
turbines and generates electricity.

Like any power reactor, nuclear reactors generate considerable waste products. But nuclear wastes need special care for
treatment since they are radioactive and hazardous. Elaborate safety measures, both for reactor operation as well as handling
and reprocessing the spent fuel, are required. These safety measures are a distinguishing feature of the Indian Atomic Energy
programme. An appropriate plan is being evolved to study the possibility of converting radioactive waste into less active and
shortlived material.

3. Nuclear fusion – energy generation in stars

When two light nuclei fuse to form a larger nucleus, energy is released, since the larger nucleus is more tightly bound, as seen
from the binding energy curve in figure 13.2.
Some examples of such energy liberating nuclear fusion reactions are:
1 1 2 +
1 H + 1 H → 1 H + 𝑒 + 𝑣 + 0.42MeV
2 2 3
1 H + 1 H → 2 He + 𝑛 + 3.27MeV
2 2 3 1
1 H + 1 H → 1 H + 1 H + 4.03MeV

In the first reaction, two protons combine to form a deuteron and a positron with a release of 0.42MeV energy. In reaction two
deuterons combine to form the light isotope of helium. In reaction two deuterons combine to form a triton and a proton. For
fusion to take place, the two nuclei must come close enough so that attractive short-range nuclear force is able to affect them.
However, since they are both positively charged particles, they experience coulomb repulsion. They, therefore, must have enough
energy to overcome this coulomb barrier. The height of the barrier depends on the charges and radii of the two interacting nuclei.
It can be shown, for example, that the barrier height for two protons is ∼ 400keV, and is higher for nuclei with higher charges.

274
We can estimate the temperature at which two protons in a proton gas would (averagely) have enough energy to overcome the
coulomb barrier:
3
( ) 𝑘𝑇 = 𝐾 400keV, which gives T ∼ 3 × 109 K
2
When fusion is achieved by raising the temperature of the system so that particles have enough kinetic energy to overcome the
coulomb repulsive behaviour, it is called thermonuclear fusion.
Thermonuclear fusion is the source of energy output in the interior of stars. The interior of the sun has a temperature of
1.5 × 107 K, which is considerably less than the estimated temperature required for fusion of particles of average energy. Clearly,
fusion in the sun involves protons whose energies are much above the average energy.
The fusion reaction in the sun is a multi-step process in which the hydrogen is burned into helium. Thus, the fuel in the sun is the
hydrogen in its core. The proton-proton ( p, p) cycle by which this occurs is represented by the following sets of reactions:
1 1 2 +
1 H + 1 H → 1 H + 𝑒 + 𝑣 + 0.42MeV . . .. (i)
+ −
𝑒 + 𝑒 → 𝛾 + 𝛾 + 1.02MeV . . .. (ii)
2 1 3
1 H + 1 H → 2 He + 𝛾 + 5.49MeV . . . .. (iii)
2 He + 2 He → 2 He + 1 H + 1 H + 12.86MeV .... (iv)
3 3 4 1 1

For the fourth reaction to occur, the first three reactions must occur twice, in which case two light helium nuclei unite to form
ordinary helium nucleus. If we consider the combination 2 (i) +2 (ii) +2 (iii) + (iv), the net effect is
1 − 4
4 H + 2𝑒 → 2 He + 2𝑣 + 6𝛾 + 26.7MeV
or 1 H + 4𝑒 → 2 He + 2𝑒 − ) + 2𝑣 + 6𝛾 + 26.7MeV
(41 − ) ( 4

Thus, four hydrogen atoms combine to form an 42 He atom with a release of 26.7MeV of energy.
Helium is not the only element that can be synthesized in the interior of a star. As the hydrogen in the core gets depleted and
becomes helium, the core starts to cool. The star begins to collapse under its own gravity which increases the temperature of the
core. If this temperature increases to about 108 K, fusion takes place again, this time of helium nuclei into carbon. This kind of
process can generate through fusion higher and higher mass number elements. But elements more massive than those near the
peak of the binding energy curve in Fig. 13.1 cannot be so produced.
The age of the sun is about 5 × 109 y and it is estimated that there is enough hydrogen in the sun to keep it going for another 5
billion years. After that, the hydrogen burning will stop and the sun will begin to cool and will start to collapse under gravity,
which will raise the core temperature. The outer envelope of the sun will expand, turning it into the so called red giant.

4. Controlled thermonuclear fusion

The natural thermonuclear fusion process in a star is replicated in a thermonuclear fusion device. In controlled fusion reactors,
the aim is to generate steady power by heating the nuclear fuel to a temperature in the range of 108 K. At these temperatures, the
fuel is a mixture of positive ions and electrons (plasma). The challenge is to confine this plasma, since no container can stand such
a high temperature. Several countries around the world including India are developing techniques in this connection. If successful,
fusion reactors will hopefully supply almost unlimited power to humanity.

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 Multiple Choice Questions
1. Radioactive material decays by simultaneous emission of two particles with respective half-lives 1620 and 810 years. The
time, in years, after which one-fourth of the material remains?
A. 1080 B. 2430
C. 3240 D. 4860
Answer: A
Explanation
N = N0 e−(λ1+λ2)t
4 = e(λ1+λ2)t
(2 × 1620 × 810)
t= = 1080 year.
(2430)

2. Which of the following substances cannot be emitted by radioactive substances during their decay?
A. Protons B. Neutrinos
C. Helium nuclei D. Electrons
Answer: A
Explanation:
Protons are not emitted by radioactive substances during their decay. They are positively charged subatomic particles found in
the atomic nucleus. The others can be emitted by radioactive substances during their decay.

3. The electron emitted in β – radiation originates from where?

A. Inner orbits of atoms B. Free electrons existing in nuclei.
C. The decay of a neutron in nuclei D. Photon escaping from the nucleus.
Answer: C
Explanation:
In β-emission, a neutron of nucleus decays into a proton and a β-particle. The reaction given as:
1 2 0
0 n → 1 H + −1 e

4. A 300-day old radioactive substance shows an activity of 5000dps, 150 days later its activity becomes 2500dps. What was
its initial activity?
A. 25000dps B. 20000dps
C. 32000dps D. 5000dps
Answer: B
Explanation:
The expression is given as:
R 0 = 4R
4R = 4 × 5000
R 0 = 20000dps.

5. Which will be the unknown nucleus formed when 22 Ne

10 decays into two a-particles and an unknown nucleus?
A. Fluorine (9f) B. Carbon (6C)
C. Neon (10Ne) D. Oxygen (8O)
Answer: B
Explanation:
The reaction is given as:
22
Ne10 → 2 2 He4 + 6 X14 .
Therefore, the unknown nucleus is 6 C14 .

6. What is the half-time of a radioactive sample (in minutes), if its mean life is 200 s?
A. 0.69 min B. 2 min
C. 2.57 min D. 2.31 min
Answer: D
Explanation:
𝑇1/2 = 0.693t
𝑇1/2 = 0.693 × 200 s
138.6
T1/2 = min
60
𝑇1/2 = 2.31 minutes

7. What will happen in a time of 7 hours, if a radioactive substance has an average life of 7 hours?
A. Half of the active nuclei decay B. Less half of the active nuclei decay
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 C. More than half of the active nuclei decay D. All active nuclei decay
Answer: C
Explanation:
In one average life, i.e., at 7 hours, 63.2 % of the active nuclei will decay. Therefore, in a time of 7 hours, it can be considered that
more than half of the active nuclei will decay.

8. A freshly prepared radioactive source of half-time 2h emits radiation of intensity which is 64 times the permissible safe
level. Minimum time after which it would be possible to work safely with this source is which of the following?
A. 6 h B. 12 h
C. 24 h D. 20 h
Answer: B
Explanation:
𝑁 1
= .
𝑁0 64
t = nT1/2
t = 6 × 2 hours
t = 12 hours

9. Which of the following is an essential requirement for initiating the fusion reaction?
A. Critical mass B. Thermal neutrons
C. High temperature D. Critical temperature
Answer: C
Explanation:
Two or more atomic nuclei are combined to form one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles. High
temperature is essential for initiating the fusion reaction. The others are not an essential requirement.

10. What is the reaction responsible for the production of light energy from the sun?’
A. Fusion B. Fission
C. Nuclear D. Emission
Answer: A
Explanation:
At very high temperatures in the interior of the sun, protons fuse to form helium nuclei, liberating a huge amount of energy.
Therefore, the reaction responsible for the production of light energy from the sun is fusion.

11. In a nuclear reaction, there is the conservation of which of the following?

A. Mass only B. Energy only
C. Momentum only D. Mass, energy, and momentum
Answer: D
Explanation:
Two or more atomic nuclei are combined to form one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles. In any nuclear
reaction, mass, energy, and momentum are conserved. So, all three are conserved.

12. Nuclear fusion is possible in which of the following cases?

A. Only between light nuclei B. Only between heavy nuclei
C. Between both light and heavy nuclei D. Only between nuclei, which are stable against
decay
Answer: A
Explanation:
Nuclear fusion is possible between light nuclei. High temperature is essential for initiating the fusion reaction. Therefore,
nuclear fusion is possible only between light nuclei and not between heavy nuclei.

13. Which of the following is used as a moderator in a nuclear reactor?

A. Cadmium B. Plutonium
C. Uranium D. Heavy water
Answer: D
Explanation:
Heavy water is used as a moderator in a nuclear reactor. It slows down neutrons and also has a low probability of absorption of
neutrons. The other options are not valid.

14. In nuclear reactors, what are the controlling rods made of?
A. Cadmium B. Graphite
C. Stainless steel D. Plutonium
Answer: A
Explanation:

277
In nuclear reactors, cadmium rods are used as control rods. They are used to absorb the extra nucleons and to absorb neutrons,
making them unavailable to cause fission. The other options are not valid.

15. The operation of a nuclear reactor is said to be critical if the multiplication factor (k) has a value of what?
A. 1 B. 0
C. 1.5 D. 2.1
Answer: A
Explanation:
For a nuclear reactor, k = 1. It is the ratio of the number of neutrons produced in a nuclear pile to the number disappearing that
must equal to unity for a chain reaction.

16. A neutron can cause fission in which of the following?

A. Hydrogen B. Uranium-235
C. Thorium D. Uranium-238
Answer: B
Explanation:
A neutron, irrespective of whether it is slow or fast, can cause fission in a nuclei. It absorbs a neutron and fissions into two new
atoms by releasing some binding energy.

17. Who measured the size of the nucleus first?

A. Bohr B. Einstein
C. Rutherford D. Geiger and Marsden
Answer: C
Explanation:
Rutherford was the form to measure the size of the nuclei of an atom by 1911. He discovered that these were about 104 times
smaller than the atoms that constituted them and this was due to the fascinating way that the alpha particles scattered from
metal foils.

18. Which of the following is a stable nucleus?

A. The nucleus with even protons and odd electrons B. The nucleus with even number of protons and
neutrons
C. The nucleus with even neutrons and odd protons D. The nucleus with odd protons and neut
Answer: B
Explanation:
The nuclei of atoms having even numbers of both protons and neutrons are the most stable ones and this also means that they
are less radioactive than nuclides containing even numbers of protons and odd numbers of neutrons.

19. Which of the following best define nuclear forces?

A. The attraction between protons and neutrons B. Repulsion between protons and neutrons
C. The attraction between protons and electrons D. The attraction between electrons and neutrons
Answer: A
Explanation:
The protons and neutrons are held together by the strong attractive forces inside the nucleus of an atom. These forces are
known as nuclear forces. The other statements are not valid and do not define nuclear forces.

20. What is the energy released in a nuclear reaction called?

A. R-value B. Q- value
C. P-value D. Nuclear energy
Answer: B
Explanation:
In a nuclear reaction, the sum of masses before the reaction is greater than the sum of masses after the reaction. The difference
in masses appears in the form of energy following the law of inter-conversion of mass and energy. Thus, the energy released in a
nuclear reaction is called a Q value of a reaction.

21. Uranium 235 mass should be greater than X, then it is capable of continuous fission by itself. Identify X.
A. Critical size B. Threshold point
C. Critical shape D. Specific size
Answer: A
Explanation:
If more than one of the neutrons produced in the fission of uranium 235 is capable of inducing a fission reaction, then the
number of fissions taking place at successive stages goes increasing at a very brisk rate and this generates a series of fission
reactions. This is known as a chain reaction. If the mass of the Uranium235 sample is greater than a certain size called the
critical size then it is capable of continuous fission by itself. So, X is critical size.

278
22. Which of the following forms the basis of a nuclear reactor?
A. Uncontrolled chain reaction B. Fast nuclear reaction
C. Controlled chain reaction D. Catalyst controlled nuclear reaction
Answer: C
Explanation:
In a chain reaction, the fast-moving neutrons are absorbed by certain substances known as moderators such as heavy water,
then the number of fissions can be controlled and the chain reaction in such a case is known as a controlled chain reaction. This
forms the basis of a nuclear reactor.

23. Why is a fusion reaction difficult to perform?

A. The nuclei are set up far from each other B. The attraction between the nuclei
C. Sun’s energy is not sufficient D. Repulsion between the nuclei
Answer: D
Explanation:
For the fusion reaction to occur, the light nuclei are brought closer to each other, at a distance of about 10 -14 m. This is only
possible at a very high temperature to counter the repulsive force between the two nuclei. Due to this reason, the fusion
reaction is difficult to perform.

24. When a radioactive substance emits an α-particle, its position in the periodic table is lowered by which of the following?
A. One place B. Two places
C. Three places D. Four places
Answer: B
Explanation:
When a radioactive substance emits an α-particle, its atomic number decreases by a factor of 2. Therefore, its position in the
periodic table is also lowered by two places.

25. If elements with principal quantum number n > 4 were not allowed in nature, then what will be the number of possible
elements?
A. 60 B. 20
C. 4 D. 64
Answer: A
Explanation:
Maximum number of electrons in an orbit = 2n2.
As n > 4 is not allowed, the number of possible elements = 2(1) 2 + 2(2)2 + 2(3)2 + 2(4)2
Number of possible elements = 60.

26. Which of the following is a correct statement?

A. Beta rays are the same as for cathode rays B. Gamma rays are high energy neutrons
C. Alpha particles are singly ionized helium atoms D. Protons and neutrons have the same mass
Answer: A
Explanation:
β-rays are electrons of nuclear origin. Therefore, they have the same nature as the cathode rays. The other statements are not
valid.

27. Which is a non-central force?

A. Electrostatic force B. Nuclear force
C. Gravitational force D. Spring force
Answer: B
Explanation:
Nuclear force is a non-central force. They are dependent on the spin of the nuclei, and not on whether the nucleons are protons
or neutrons. The tensor force exists between two nucleons, and therefore, it has a tensor component.

28. If alpha, beta, and gamma rays carry the same momentum, which has the longest wavelength?
A. Alpha rays B. Beta rays
C. Gamma rays D. All have the same wavelength
Answer: D
Explanation:
Wavelength of de Broglie waves is given as:
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝
As momentum is the same for all rays, all have the same wavelength 𝜆.

29. The neutron was discovered by whom?

A. Marie Curie B. Pierre Curie
C. Rutherford D. James Chadwick
Answer: D

279
Explanation:
Neutrons are chargeless subatomic particles. It was discovered by James Chadwick in 1932. They are present in all-atom nuclei
except those of ordinary hydrogen. The neutron was initially very difficult to detect and therefore, the last to be discovered.

30. Which of the following has the highest neutron ratio?

A. 8O
16
B. 2 He
4

C. 26 Fe
56
D. 92 U
235

Answer: D
Explanation:
The nucleus of Uranium 235 ( 92 U 235 ) has 234 − 92 = 142 neutrons. Therefore, It has the highest proton to neutron ratio, i.e.
= The number of protons: the number of neutrons = 142: 92

Question/Answer
Very Short Answer Questions
1. Complete the following nuclear reactions:
a) 4 Be9 + 1 H1 → 3 Li6 +.
b) 5 B10 + 2 He4 → 7 N13 +.
Answer:
9 1 6 4
4 Be + 1 H → 3 Li + 2 Hee
Ans: (b)
10 + He4 → N13 + n1
5B 2 7 0

2. What is the Q-value of a nuclear reaction?

Answer: Q-value = (Mass of reactants - Mass of products)

3. The wavelengths of some of the spectral lines obtained in hydrogen spectrum are 9546Ao,
6463Ao and 1216Ao. Which one of these wavelengths belongs to the Lyman series?
Answer: 1216A∘ belong to the Lyman series.

4. Write the empirical relation for paschen series lines of hydrogen atoms.
Answer:
1 1 1
= R ( 2 − 2 ) where n = 4,5,6,7 … …
λ 3 n

5. What will be the ratio of the radii of two nuclei of mass numbers A1 and A2?
Answer:
R1 A 1/3
The ratio is = ( 1)
R2 A2

6. Two nuclei have mass numbers in the ratio 1: 2. What is the ratio of their nuclear densities?
Answer: The densities of both nuclei are equal as they do not depend upon mass number.

7. A nucleus of mass number A has a mass defect Δm. Give the formula, for the binding energy per nucleon of this nucleus.
Δm×c2
Answer: The formula is E =
A

8. Write the relation between half-life and decay constant of a radioactive sample.
0.693
Answer: The relation is T1/2 =
λ

9. Write the nuclear decay process for β-decay of 1532P.

Answer: The process is,
32 32 0
15 𝑃 → 16 𝑆 + −1 𝑒 + 𝑣‾ + 𝑄

10. State the relation between the mean life (τ) of a radioactive element and its decay constant λ.
Answer: The two are related as 𝜏 = 1/𝜆.

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Short Answer Questions
1. Draw the curve showing the binding energy/nucleon with a mass number of different nuclei. Briefly state, how nuclear fusion
and nuclear fission can be explained on the basis of this graph.
Answer: The diagram is as shown.

The binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number

2. Define decay constant for a radioactive sample. Which of the following radiations α, β, and γ rays
i. are similar to X-rays,
ii. are easily absorbed by matter, and
iii. are similar in nature to cathode rays?
Answer: The decay constant is defined as the reciprocal of that time duration for which the number of nuclei of the radioactive
sample decays to 1 / e or 37 % of its original value.
(i) Gamma
(ii) Alpha
(iii) Beta

3. State the law of radioactive decay.

Plot a graph showing the number of undecayed nuclei as a function of time (t) for a given radioactive sample having a half-
life T1/2.
Depict In the plot the number of undecayed nuclei at (i) t = 3T1/2 and (ii) t = 5 T1/2
Answer: The number of nuclei disintegrating per second is proportional to the number of nuclei present at the time of
disintegration and is independent of alt physical conditions like temperature, pressure, humidity, chemical composition, etc.
The plot is as shown.

4. Draw a plot of the potential energy of a pair of nucleons as a function of their separations. Mark the regions where the nuclear
force is (i) attractive and (ii) repulsive. Write any two characteristic features of nuclear forces.
Answer:

281
For r > r0 (attraction), For r < r0 (repulsion)
1. Strong attractive force (stronger than the repulsive electric force between the protons)
2. Are short-range forces.

5. (a)Write the relation for binding energy (BE) (in MeV) of a nucleus of mass ZA M atomic number (Z) and mass number (A)
in terms of the masses of its constituents – neutrons and protons.
(b)Draw a plot of BE/A versus mass number A for 2 ≤ A ≤ 170. Use this graph to explain the release of energy in the process
of nuclear fusion of two light nuclei.
Answer: (a) The required expression is
ΔE = (Zmp + (A – Z) mn – M) × 931 MeV
(b)

Since the binding energy of the smaller nuclei like hydrogen is less, therefore they fuse together to form helium in order to increase
their binding energy per nucleon and become stable. This means that the final system is more tightly bound than the initial system.
Again energy would be released in such a process of fusion.

6. If both the number of neutrons and the number of protons are conserved in each nuclear reaction, in what way is mass
converted into energy (or vice versa) in a nuclear reaction? Explain.
Answer: We know that the binding energy of a nucleus gives a negative contribution to the mass of the nucleus (mass defect).
Now, since proton number and neutron number are conserved in a nuclear reaction the total rest mass of neutrons and protons
is the same on either side of a reaction. But the total binding energy of nuclei on the left side need not be the same as that on the
right-hand side.
The difference in these binding energies appears as the energy released or absorbed in a nuclear reaction. Since binding energy
contributes to mass, we say that the difference in the total mass of nuclei on the two sides gets converted into energy or vice-
versa.

7. State two properties of nuclear forces. Write the relation between half-life and decay constant of a radioactive nucleus.
Answer: They are saturated forces.

282
They are charge - independent.
The required relation is,
ln 2 2.303log 2 0.693
T= = =
λ λ λ

8. (a)Draw a graph showing the variation of binding energy per nucleon (BE/A) vs mass number A for the nuclei in 20 ≤ A ≤
170.
(b)A nucleus of mass number 240 and having binding energy/nucleon 7.6 MeV splits into two fragments Y, 1 of mass numbers
110 and 130 respectively. If the binding energy/ nucleon of Y, 1 is equal to 8.5 MeV each, calculate the energy released in the
nuclear reaction.
Answer:
(a)

Since the binding energy of the smaller nuclei like hydrogen is less, therefore they fuse together to form helium in order to increase
their binding energy per nucleon and become stable. This means that the final system is more tightly bound than the initial system.
Again, energy would be released in such a process of fusion.
(B) Energy released per fission
= (110 + 130) × 8.5 – 240 × 7.6
= 240 × (8.5 – 7.6) MeV
= 240 × 0.9
= 216.0 MeV

9. Explain with the help of an example, whether the neutron-proton ratio in a nucleus increases or decreases due to beta decay.
Answer: Consider the following decay
β
234
90 Th ⟶ 234
91 Pa
Number of neutrons before beta decay = 234 − 90 = 144
Number of neutrons after beta decay = 234 − 91 = 143
Number of protons before beta decay = 90
Number of protons after beta decay = 91
Neutron-proton ratio before beta decay
144
= = 1.6
90
Neutron-proton ratio after beta decay
143
= = 1.57
91
Thus neutron-proton ratio decreases during beta decay.

10. How is the size of a nucleus experimentally determined? Write the relation between the radius and mass number of the
nucleus. Show that the density of the nucleus is independent of its mass number.
Ansewer: The size of the nucleus can be determined by the Rutherford experiments on alpha particles scattering. The distance
of the nearest approach is approximately the size of the nucleus. Here it is assumed that only coulomb repulsive force caused
scattering. With alpha rays of 5.5 MeV, the size of the nucleus was found to be less than 4 × 10-14 m. By doing scattering
experiments with fast electrons bombarding targets of different elements, the size of the nuclei of various elements determined
accurately.
The required relation is,
R = RoA1/3, where Ro = 1.2 × 10-15 m
283
The density of a nucleus of mass number A and radius R is given by,
Mass of nucleus
Nuclear density =
Volume of the nucleus
Aamu A×1.660565×10−27
= 4 = 4
πR3 πR30 A
3 3

= 2.3 × 1017 kgm−3

which is independent of the mass number A.

Long Answer’s Questions-

1. The wavelength of the first member of the Balmer series in the hydrogen spectrum is 6563A0 . Calculate the wavelength of
the first member of Lyman series in the same spectrum.
Ansewer: It is known that,
1 1 1
= R ( 2 − 2 ) , n = 3,4,5, … …
λ 2 ni
For first member ni = 3 (Balmer series)
1 1 1
⇒ = R ( 2 − 2)
λ1 2 3
1 1 1
⇒ = R( − )
λ1 4 9
36
⇒ λ1 = … … . . . (1)
5R
For first member of Lyman series
1 1 1
⇒ ′ = R ( 2 − 2)
λ1 1 2
1 1
⇒ ′ = R (1 − )
λ1 4
4
⇒ λ1 ′ = … … … (2)
3R
From (1) and (2)
λ1 ′ 4 5R
⇒ = ×
λ1 3R 36
5
⇒ λ1 ′ = λ
27 1
5
⇒ λ1 ′ = × 6563
27
′
⇒ λ1 = 1215.4A
Therefore, the wavelength of the first member of the Lyman series is 1215.4A.

2. A neutron is absorbed by a 63 Li nucleus with subsequent emission of α−particle. Write the corresponding nuclear reaction.
Calculate the energy released in this reaction. Given mass of 63 Li=6.015126a.m.u., Mass of 42 He=4.00026044 a.m.u., Mass of
neutron 10 n=1.0086654 a.m.u. Mass of tritium 11 H=3.016049 a.m.u.
Ansewer: Nuclear reaction is: 10 n + 63 Li → 42 He + 13 H
Mass of reactants = m( 10 n) + m( 63 Li) =
⇒ Mass = 1.0086654 + 6.015126 = 7.0237914 a.m.u
Mass Defect, Δm = mass of reactant mass of product
⇒ Δm = 7.02371947.0186534
⇒ Δm = 0.005138a. m. u.
It is known that 1a.m.u. = 931MeV
Energy released, E = Δm × 931MeV
⇒ E = 0.005138 × 931
⇒ E = 4.783MeV

3. Define decay constant of a radioactive sample. Which of the following radiation α−rays, β−rays and γ−rays.
(a)Are they similar to X – rays?
(b)Are they easily absorbed by matter?
Ansewer:
(a)Radioactive decay constant(λ) is the reciprocal of time during which the number of atoms in the radioactive substance is
reduced to 36.8 of the original number of atoms in it.
(b)γ−rays are similar to X-rays. Penetration power of α−rays is less than that of β−rays and γ−rays. So γ−rays are easily absorbed
by matter.

4. State radioactive decay law and hence derive the relation N=N0e−λt where symbols have their usual meanings.
284
Ansewer: From the radioactive decay law, the rate of disintegration of a radioactive substance at an instant is directly proportional
to the number of nuclei in the radioactive substance at that time i.e.
N=N0e−λt where symbols have their usual meanings
Consider a radioactive substance having N0 atoms initially at time(t=0). After time(t), let the number of atoms left undecayed be
N.
If dN is the number of atoms decayed in time dt, then,
−dN −dN
From the law of radioactive decay: ≺ N or = λN
dt dt
Where,
λ is the decay constant and negative sign indicates that a radioactive sample goes on decreasing with time.
dN
(1) ⇒ = −λdt
N
Integrating both the sides
log e N = −λt + K
Where K is constant of integration
For t = 0, N = N0
⇒ K = log e N0
Substituting K in equation (2)
⇒ log e N = −λt + log e N0
m
⇒ log e N − log e N0 = −λt [log e m − log e n = log e ( )]
n
N
⇒ log e ( ) = −λt
N0
N
⇒ = e−λt
N0
⇒ N = N0 e−λt
Hence derived.

5. Define half life and decay constant of a radioactive element. Write their S.I. unit. Define expression for half life.
Ansewer: The time during which half of the atoms of the radioactive substance disintegrate is called half life of a radioactive
substance.
It is known that, N = N0 e−λt
N0
If t = T1/2 ( Half life) , N =
2
N0
⇒ = N0 e−λT1/2
2
1
⇒ = e−λT1/2
2
⇒ eλT1/2 = 2
⇒ λT1/2 = log e 2
⇒ λT1/2 = 2.303 × log10 2
⇒ λT1/2 = 2.303 × 0.3010
0.6931
⇒ T1/2 =
λ
S.I. unit - second (s)
S.I. unit - second (s)
Radioactive decay constant (λ) is the reciprocal of the time during which the number of atoms in the radioactive substance
reduces to 36.8 of the original number of atoms in it.
S.I. unit −s−1 or min−1

6. Draw a curve between mass number and binding energy per nucleon. Give two salient features of the curve. Hence define
binding energy.
Ansewer: The total energy required to disintegrate the nucleus into its constituent particles is called binding energy of
the nucleus.

285
Salient features of the curve
(i) The intermediate nuclei have a large value of binding energy per nucleon, so they are most stable. (For 30<A>63)
(ii) The binding energy per nucleon has low value for both the light and heavy nuclei. So, they are unstable nuclei.

7. (a)Two stable isotopes of lithium 63 Li and 73 Li have respective abundances of 7.5 and 92.5. These isotopes have masses
6.01512u and 7.01600u respectively. Find the atomic mass of lithium.
(B) Boron has two stable isotopes, 105 B and 115 B. Their respective masses are 10.01294u and 11.00931u, and the atomic mass
of boron is 10.811u . Find the abundances of 105 B and 115 B.
Ansewer: (a) Given that,
Mass of lithium isotope 63 Li, m1 = 6.01512u
Mass of lithium isotope 73 Li, m2 = 7.01600u
Abundance of 63 Li, η1 = 7.5
Abundance of 73 Li, η2 = 92.5
m1 η1 +m2 η2
The atomic mass of lithium atom, m =
η1 +η2
6.0512 × 7.5 + 7.01600 × 92.5
⇒m=
7.5 + 92.5
⇒ m = 6.940934u
Therefore, the atomic mass of lithium is 6.940934u.
(b) It is given that,
Mass of boron isotope 10 5 B, m1 = 10.01294u
Mass of boron isotope 11 5 B, m2 = 11.00931u
Abundance of 10 5 B, η1 = x
Abundance of 5 B, η2 = (100 − x)
11

Atomic mass of boron, m = 10.811u

m1 η1 +m2 η2
The atomic mass of boron atom, m =
η1 +η2
10.01294 × x + 11.00931 × (100 − x)
⇒ 10.811 =
x + 100 − x
⇒ 108.11 = 10.01294x + 1100.931 − 11.00931x
19.821
⇒x= = 19.89
0.99637
⇒ 100 − x = 80.11
Therefore, the abundance of 10
5 B is 19.89 and abundance of
11
5 B is 80.11.

8. Obtain the binding energy of the nuclei 56

26 Fe and 83 Bi in units of MeV from the following
209

data: m( 26 Fe)=55.934939u, m( 83 Bi)=208.980388u.

56 209

Ansewer: Given that,

Atomic mass of 56 26 Fe, m1 = 55.934939u
26 Fe nucleus has 26 protons and (56 − 26) = 30 neutrons.
56

Therefore, the mass defect of the nucleus, Δm = 26 × mH + 30 × mn − m1

Where,
Mass of proton, mH = 1.007825u
Mass of a neutron, mn = 1.008665u
⇒ Δm = 26 × 1.007825 + 30 × 1.008665 − 55.934939
⇒ Δm = 26.20345 + 30.25995 − 55.934939
⇒ Δm = 0.528461u
MeV
It is known that, 1u = 931.5 2
c
286
The binding energy of this nucleus is Eb1 = Δmc 2
c is the speed of light
MeV
⇒ Eb1 = 0.528461 × 931.5 ( 2 ) × c 2
c
⇒ Eb1 = 492.26MeV
492.26
Average binding energy per nucleon = = 8.79MeV
56
Atomic mass of 209
83 Bi, m2 = 208.980388u
209
83 Bi nucleus has 83 protons and (209 − 83) = 126 neutrons.
Therefore, the mass defect of this nucleus, Δm′ = 83 × mH + 126 × mn − m2
Where,
Mass of proton, mH = 1.007825u
Mass of a neutron, mn = 1.008665u
⇒ Δm′ = 83 × 1.007825 + 126 × 1.008665 − 208.980388
⇒ Δm′ = 83.649475 + 127.091790 − 208.980388
⇒ Δm′ = 1.760877u
MeV
It is known that, 1u = 931.5 2
c
The binding energy of this nucleus is Eb2 = Δm′ c 2
Where,
c is the speed of light
MeV
⇒ Eb1 = 0.528461 × 931.5 ( 2 ) × c 2
c
⇒ Eb1 = 492.26MeV
492.26
Average binding energy per nucleon = = 8.79MeV
56
Atomic mass of 83 Bi, m2 = 208.980388u
209

83 Bi nucleus has 83 protons and (209 − 83) = 126 neutrons.

209

Therefore, the mass defect of this nucleus, Δm′ = 83 × mH + 126 × mn − m2

Where,
Mass of proton, mH = 1.007825u
Mass of a neutron, mn = 1.008665u
⇒ Δm′ = 83 × 1.007825 + 126 × 1.008665 − 208.980388
⇒ Δm′ = 83.649475 + 127.091790 − 208.980388
⇒ Δm′ = 1.760877u
492.26
Average binding energy per nucleon = = 8.79MeV
56
Atomic mass of 20983 Bi, m2 = 208.980388u
209
83 Bi nucleus has 83 protons and (209 − 83) = 126 neutrons.
Therefore, the mass defect of this nucleus, Δm′ = 83 × mH + 126 × mn − m2
Where,
Mass of proton, mH = 1.007825u
Mass of a neutron, mn = 1.008665u
⇒ Δm′ = 83 × 1.007825 + 126 × 1.008665 − 208.980388
⇒ Δm′ = 83.649475 + 127.091790 − 208.980388
⇒ Δm′ = 1.760877u
MeV
It is known that, 1u = 931.5 2
c
The binding energy of this nucleus is Eb2 = Δm′ c 2
Where,
c is the speed of light
MeV
⇒ Eb2 = 1.760877 × 931.5 ( 2 ) × c 2
c
⇒ Eb2 = 1640.26MeV
1640
Clearly, average binding energy per nucleon = = 7.848MeV
209

287
Chapter - 14 Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices
and Simple Circuits
Introduction

Devices in which a controlled flow of electrons can be obtained are the basic building blocks of all the electronic circuits. Before
the discovery of transistor in 1948, such devices were mostly vacuum tubes (also called valves) like the vacuum diode which has
two electrodes, viz., anode (often called plate) and cathode; triode which has three electrodes – cathode, plate and grid; tetrode
and pentode (respectively with 4 and 5 electrodes).

The seed of the development of modern solid-state semiconductor electronics goes back to 1930’s when it was realised that some
solid-state semiconductors and their junctions offer the possibility of controlling the number and the direction of flow of charge
carriers through them. Simple excitations like light, heat or small applied voltage can change the number of mobile charges in a
semiconductor. Note that the supply and flow of charge carriers in the semiconductor devices are within the solid itself, while in
the earlier vacuum tubes/valves, the mobile electrons were obtained from a heated cathode and they were made to flow in an
evacuated space or vacuum. No external heating or large evacuated space is required by the semiconductor devices. They are
small in size, consume low power, operate at low voltages and have long life and high reliability. Even the Cathode Ray Tubes
(CRT) used in television and computer monitors which work on the principle of vacuum tubes are being replaced by Liquid Crystal
Display (LCD) monitors with supporting solid state electronics.

Classification of Metals, Conductors and Semiconductors

On the basis of conductivity

On the basis of the relative values of electrical conductivity (σ) or resistivity (ρ = 1/σ), the solids are broadly classified as:
(i) Metals: They possess very low resistivity (or high conductivity).
ρ ∼ 10−2 − 108 S/m
σ ∼ 102 − 10−8 Ωm
(ii) Semiconductors: They have resistivity or conductivity intermediate to metals and insulators.
ρ ∼ 10−5 − 10−6 S/m
σ ∼ 105 − 106 Ωm
(iii) Insulators: They have high resistivity (or low conductivity).
ρ ∼ 10−11 − 10−19 S/m
σ ∼ 10−11 − 10−19 Ωm
The values of ρ and σ given above are indicative of magnitude and could well go outside the ranges as well. Relative values of the
resistivity are not the only criteria for distinguishing metals, insulators and semiconductors from each other. There are some
other differences, which will become clear as we go along in this chapter.
Our interest in this chapter is in the study of semiconductors which could be:
(i) Elemental semiconductors: Si and Ge
(ii) Compound semiconductors:
Examples are:
• Inorganic: CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP, etc.
• Organic: anthracene, doped pthalocyanines, etc.
• Organic polymers: polypyrrole, polyaniline, polythiophene, etc.

Most of the currently available semiconductor devices are based on elemental semiconductors Si or Ge and compound inorganic
semiconductors. However, after 1990, a few semiconductor devices using organic semiconductors and semiconducting polymers
have been developed signaling the birth of futuristic technology of polymer electronics and molecular electronics. In this chapter,
we will restrict ourselves to the study of inorganic semiconductors, particularly elemental semiconductors Si and Ge. The general
concepts introduced here for discussing the elemental semiconductors, by-and-large, apply to most of the compound
semiconductors as well.

On the basis of energy bands

According to the Bohr atomic model, in an isolated atom the energy of any of its electrons is decided by the orbit in which it
revolves. But when the atoms come together to form a solid, they are close to each other. So, the outer orbits of electrons from

288
neighbouring atoms would come very close or could even overlap. This would make the nature of electron motion in a solid very
different from that in an isolated atom.

Inside the crystal each electron has a unique position, and no two electrons see exactly the same pattern of surrounding charges.
Because of this, each electron will have a different energy level. These different energy levels with continuous energy variation
form what are called energy bands. The energy band which includes the energy levels of the valence electrons is called the valence
band. The energy band above the valence band is called the conduction band. With no external energy, all the valence electrons
will reside in the valence band. If the lowest level in the conduction band happens to be lower than the highest level of the valence
band, the electrons from the valence band can easily move into the conduction band. Normally the conduction band is empty. But
when it overlaps on the valence band electrons can move freely into it. This is the case with metallic conductors.

If there is some gap between the conduction band and the valence band, electrons in the valence band all remain bound and no
free electrons are available in the conduction band. This makes the material an insulator. But some of the electrons from the
valence band may gain external energy to cross the gap between the conduction band and the valence band. Then these electrons
will move into the conduction band. At the same time, they will create vacant energy levels in the valence band where other
valence electrons can move. Thus the process creates the possibility of conduction due to electrons in conduction band as well as
due to vacancies in the valence band.

Let us consider what happens in the case of Si or Ge crystal containing N atoms. For Si, the outermost orbit is the third orbit (
n = 3 ), while for Ge it is the fourth orbit (n = 4). The number of electrons in the outermost orbit is 4 (2s and 2p electrons). Hence,
the total number of outer electrons in the crystal is 4N. The maximum possible number of electrons in the outer orbit is 8 ( 2s +
6p electrons). So, for the 4N valence electrons there are 8N available energy states. These 8N discrete energy levels can either
form a continuous band or they may be grouped in different bands depending upon the distance between the atoms in the crystal
(see box on Band Theory of Solids).

At the distance between the atoms in the crystal lattices of Si and Ge, the energy band of these 8N states is split apart into two
which are separated by an energy gap Eg (Fig. 14.1). The lower band which is completely occupied by the 4N valence electrons at
temperature of absolute zero is the valence band. The other band consisting of 4N energy states, called the conduction band, is
completely empty at absolute zero.

FIGURE 14.1 The energy band positions in a semiconductor at 0 K. The upper band, called the conduction band, consists of
infinitely large number of closely spaced energy states. The lower band, called the valence band. consists of closely spaced
completely filled energy states.

The lowest energy level in the conduction band is shown as EC and highest energy level in the valence band is shown as EV . Above
EC and below EV there are a large number of closely spaced energy levels, as shown in Fig. 14.1. The gap between the top of the
valence band and bottom of the conduction band is called the energy band gap (Energy gap Eg ). It may be large, small, or zero,
depending upon the material. These different situations, are depicted in Fig. 14.2 and discussed below:

Case I: This refers to a situation, as shown in Fig. 14.2(a). One can have a metal either when the conduction band is partially filled
and the balanced band is partially empty or when the conduction and valance bands overlap. When there is overlap electrons
from valence band can easily move into the conduction band. This situation makes a large number of electrons available for
electrical conduction. When the valence band is partially empty, electrons from its lower level can move to higher level making
conduction possible. Therefore, the resistance of such materials is low or the conductivity is high.

289
 Fig. 14.2 Difference between energy bands of (a) metals. (b) insulators and (c) semiconductors.

Case II: In this case, as shown in Fig. 14.2(b), a large band gap Eg exists (Eg > 3eV). There are no electrons in the conduction
band, and therefore no electrical conduction is possible. Note that the energy gap is so large that electrons cannot be excited from
the valence band to the conduction band by thermal excitation. This is the case of insulators.

Case III: This situation is shown in Fig. 14.2(c). Here a finite but small band gap (Eg < 3eV) exists. Because of the small band gap,
at room temperature some electrons from valence band can acquire enough energy to cross the energy gap and enter the
conduction band. These electrons (though small in numbers) can move in the conduction band. Hence, the resistance of
semiconductors is not as high as that of the insulators.
In this section we have made a broad classification of metals, conductors and semiconductors. In the section which follows you
will learn the conduction process in semiconductors.

Intrinsic Semiconductor

We shall take the most common case of Ge and Si whose lattice structure is shown in Fig. 14.3.

FIGURE 14.3 Three-dimensional diamond-like crystal structure for Carbon. Silicon or Germanium with respective lattice
spacing an equal to 3.56 ,5 .43 and 5.66 AA.

These structures are called the diamond-like structures. Each atom is surrounded by four nearest neighbours. We know that Si
and Ge have four valence electrons. In its crystalline structure, every Si or Ge atom tends to share one of its four valence electrons
with each of its four nearest neighbour atoms, and also to take share of one electron from each such neighbour. These shared
electron pairs are referred to as forming a covalent bond or simply a valence bond. The two shared electrons can be assumed to
shuttle back-and-forth between the associated atoms holding them together strongly.

290
FIGURE 14.4 Schematic two-dimensional representation of Si or Ge structure showing covalent bonds at low
temperature (all bonds intact). +4 symbol indicates inner cores of Si or Ge.

Figure 14.4 schematically shows the 2-dimensional representation of Si or Ge structure shown in Fig. 14.3 which overemphasises
the covalent bond. It shows an idealised picture in which no bonds are broken (all bonds are intact). Such a situation arises at low
temperatures. As the temperature increases, more thermal energy becomes available to these electrons and some of these
electrons may break-away (becoming free electrons contributing to conduction). The thermal energy effectively ionises only a
few atoms in the crystalline lattice and creates a vacancy in the bond as shown in Fig. 14.5(a). The neighbourhood, from which
the free electron (with charge −q ) has come out leaves a vacancy with an effective charge (+q). This vacancy with the effective
positive electronic charge is called a hole. The hole behaves as an apparent free particle with effective positive charge.

In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of free electrons, ne is equal to the number of holes, nh . That is
ne = nh = ni
where ni is called intrinsic carrier concentration.

Semiconductors possess the unique property in which, apart from electrons, the holes also move. Suppose there is a hole at site
1 as shown in Fig. 14.5(a). The movement of holes can be visualised as shown in Fig. 14.5(b).

FIGURE 14.5 (a) Schematic model of generation of hole at site 1 and conduction electron due to thermal energy at
moderate temperatures. (b) Simplified representation of possible thermal motion of a hole. The electron from the lower
left hand covalent bond (site 2) goes to the earlier hole site1. leaving a hole at its site indicating an apparent movement
of the hole from site 1 to site 2 .

An electron from the covalent bond at site 2 may jump to the vacant site 1 (hole). Thus, after such a jump, the hole is at site 2 and
the site 1 has now an electron. Therefore, apparently, the hole has moved from site 1 to site 2. Note that the electron originally set
free [Fig. 14.5(a)] is not involved in this process of hole motion. The free electron moves completely independently as conduction
electron and gives rise to an electron current, Ie under an applied electric field. Remember that the motion of hole is only a
convenient way of describing the actual motion of bound electrons, whenever there is an empty bond anywhere in the crystal.
Under the action of an electric field, these holes move towards negative potential giving the hole current, Ih . The total current, I
is thus the sum of the electron current Ie and the hole current Ih :
I = Ie + Ih

291
It may be noted that apart from the process of generation of conduction electrons and holes, a simultaneous process of
recombination occurs in which the electrons recombine with the holes. At equilibrium, the rate of generation is equal to the rate
of recombination of charge carriers. The recombination occurs due to an electron colliding with a hole.
An intrinsic semiconductor will behave like an insulator at T = 0 K as shown in Fig. 14.6(a).

FIGURE 14.6 (a) An intrinsic semiconductor at T=0 K behaves like an insulator. (b) At T>O K. four thermally generated
electron-hole pairs. The filled circles (•) represent electrons and empty circles (O) represent holes.

It is the thermal energy at higher temperatures (T > 0K), which excites some electrons from the valence band to the conduction
band. These thermally excited electrons at T > 0 K, partially occupy the conduction band. Therefore, the energy-band diagram of
an intrinsic semiconductor will be as shown in Fig. 14.6(b). Here, some electrons are shown in the conduction band. These have
come from the valence band leaving equal number of holes there.

Extrinsic Semiconductor

The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor depends on its temperature, but at room temperature its conductivity is very low.
As such, no important electronic devices can be developed using these semiconductors. Hence there is a necessity of improving
their conductivity. This can be done by making use of impurities.
When a small amount, say, a few parts per million (ppm), of a suitable impurity is added to the pure semiconductor, the
conductivity of the semiconductor is increased manifold. Such materials are known as extrinsic semiconductors or impurity
semiconductors. The deliberate addition of a desirable impurity is called doping and the impurity atoms are called dopants. Such
a material is also called a doped semiconductor. The dopant has to be such that it does not distort the original pure semiconductor
lattice. It occupies only a very few of the original semiconductor atom sites in the crystal. A necessary condition to attain this is
that the sizes of the dopant and the semiconductor atoms should be nearly the same.

There are two types of dopants used in doping the tetravalent Si or Ge:
(i) Pentavalent (valency 5); like Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous (P), etc.
(ii) Trivalent (valency 3); like Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminum (Al), etc.
We shall now discuss how the doping changes the number of charge carriers (and hence the conductivity) of semiconductors. Si
or Ge belongs to the fourth group in the Periodic table and, therefore, we choose the dopant element from nearby fifth or third
group, expecting and taking care that the size of the dopant atom is nearly the same as that of Si or Ge. Interestingly, the
pentavalent and trivalent dopants in Si or Ge give two entirely different types of semiconductors as discussed below.

(i) n-type semiconductor

Suppose we dope Si or Ge with a pentavalent element as shown in Fig. 14.7.

292
FIGURE 14.7 (a) Pentavalent donor atom (As, Sb. P. etc.) doped for tetravalent Si or Ge giving n type semiconductor, and
(b) Commonly used schematic representation of n-type material which shows only the fixed cores of the substituent
donors with one additional effective positive charge and its associated extra electron.

When an atom of +5 valency element occupies the position of an atom in the crystal lattice of Si, four of its electrons bond with
the four silicon neighbours while the fifth remains very weakly bound to its parent atom. This is because the four electrons
participating in bonding are seen as part of the effective core of the atom by the fifth electron. As a result, the ionisation energy
required to set this electron free is very small and even at room temperature it will be free to move in the lattice of the
semiconductor. For example, the energy required is ∼ 0.01eV for germanium, and 0.05eV for silicon, to separate this electron
from its atom. This is in contrast to the energy required to jump the forbidden band (about 0.72eV for germanium and about
1.1eV for silicon) at room temperature in the intrinsic semiconductor. Thus, the pentavalent dopant is donating one extra electron
for conduction and hence is known as donor impurity. The number of electrons made available for conduction by dopant atoms
depends strongly upon the doping level and is independent of any increase in ambient temperature. On the other hand, the
number of free electrons (with an equal number of holes) generated by Si atoms, increases weakly with temperature.

In a doped semiconductor the total number of conduction electrons ne is due to the electrons contributed by donors and those
generated intrinsically, while the total number of holes nh is only due to the holes from the intrinsic source. But the rate of
recombination of holes would increase due to the increase in the number of electrons. As a result, the number of holes would get
reduced further.
Thus, with proper level of doping the number of conduction electrons can be made much larger than the number of holes. Hence
in an extrinsic semiconductor doped with pentavalent impurity, electrons become the majority carriers and holes the minority
carriers. These semiconductors are, therefore, known as n-type semiconductors. For n-type semiconductors, we have, ne ≫ nh

(ii) p-type semiconductor

This is obtained when Si or Ge is doped with a trivalent impurity like Al, B, In, etc. The dopant has one valence electron less than
Si or Ge and, therefore, this atom can form covalent bonds with neighbouring three Si atoms but does not have any electron to
offer to the fourth Si atom. So the bond between the fourth neighbour and the trivalent atom has a vacancy or hole as shown in
Fig. 14.8.

FIGURE 14.8 (a) Trivalent acceptor atom (In, Al, B etc.) doped in tetravalent Si or Ge lattice giving p-type semiconductor.
(b) Commonly used schematic representation of p-type material which shows only the fixed core of the substituent
acceptor with one effective additional negative charge and its associated hole.

Since the neighbouring Si atom in the lattice wants an electron in place of a hole, an electron in the outer orbit of an atom in the
neighbourhood may jump to fill this vacancy, leaving a vacancy or hole at its own site. Thus the hole is available for conduction.
Note that the trivalent foreign atom becomes effectively negatively charged when it shares fourth electron with neighbouring Si
atom. Therefore, the dopant atom of p-type material can be treated as core of one negative charge along with its associated hole
as shown in Fig. 14.8(b). It is obvious that one acceptor atom gives one hole. These holes are in addition to the intrinsically
generated holes while the source of conduction electrons is only intrinsic generation. Thus, for such a material, the holes are the
majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers. Therefore, extrinsic semiconductors doped with trivalent impurity are
called p-type semiconductors. For p-type semiconductors, the recombination process will reduce the number (ni ) of intrinsically
generated electrons to ne . We have, for p-type semiconductors nh > ne

Note that the crystal maintains an overall charge neutrality as the charge of additional charge carriers is just equal and opposite
to that of the ionised cores in the lattice.

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In extrinsic semiconductors, because of the abundance of majority current carriers, the minority carriers produced thermally
have more chance of meeting majority carriers and thus getting destroyed. Hence, the dopant, by adding a large number of current
carriers of one type, which become the majority carriers, indirectly helps to reduce the intrinsic concentration of minority
carriers.

The semiconductor's energy band structure is affected by doping. In the case of extrinsic semiconductors, additional energy states
due to donor impurities (ED ) and acceptor impurities (EA ) also exist. In the energy band diagram of n-type Si semiconductor, the
donor energy level ED is slightly below the bottom EC of the conduction band and electrons from this level move into the
conduction band with very small supply of energy. At room temperature, most of the donor atoms get ionised but very few
(∼ 1012 ) atoms of Si get ionised. So the conduction band will have most electrons coming from the donor impurities, as shown in
Fig. 14.9(a).

FIGURE 14.9 Energy bands of (a) n-type semiconductor at T>0 K, (b) p-type semiconductor at T>0 O.
Similarly, for p-type semiconductor, the acceptor energy level EA is slightly above the top EV of the valence band as shown in Fig.
14.9(b). With very small supply of energy an electron from the valence band can jump to the level EA and ionise the acceptor
negatively. (Alternately, we can also say that with very small supply of energy the hole from level EA sinks down into the valence
band. Electrons rise up and holes fall down when they gain external energy.) At room temperature, most of the acceptor atoms
get ionised leaving holes in the valence band. Thus, at room temperature the density of holes in the valence band is predominantly
due to impurity in the extrinsic semiconductor. The electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor in thermal equilibrium
is given by
ne nh = n2i

Though the above description is grossly approximate and hypothetical, it helps in understanding the difference between metals,
insulators and semiconductors (extrinsic and intrinsic) in a simple manner. The difference in the resistivity of C, Si and Ge depends
upon the energy gap between their conduction and valence bands. For C (diamond), Si and Ge, the energy gaps are 5.4eV, 1.1eV
and 0.7eV, respectively. Sn also is a group IV element but it is a metal because the energy gap in its case is 0eV.

p-n Junction

A p-n junction is the basic building block of many semiconductor devices like diodes, transistor, etc. A clear understanding of the
junction behaviour is important to analyse the working of other semiconductor devices. We will now try to understand how a
junction is formed and how the junction behaves under the influence of external applied voltage (also called bias).

p-n junction formation

Consider a thin p-type silicon (p-Si) semiconductor wafer. By adding precisely, a small quantity of pentavalent impurity, part of
the p-Si wafer can be converted into n-Si. There are several processes by which a semiconductor can be formed. The wafer now
contains p-region and n-region and a metallurgical junction between p-, and n- region.

Two important processes occur during the formation of a p-n junction: diffusion and drift. We know that in an n-type
semiconductor, the concentration of electrons (number of electrons per unit volume) is more compared to the concentration of
holes. Similarly, in a p-type semiconductor, the concentration of holes is more than the concentration of electrons. During the
formation of p-n junction, and due to the concentration gradient across p-, and n - sides, holes diffuse from p-side to n-side (p →

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n) and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side (n → p). This motion of charge carries gives rise to diffusion current across the
junction.

When an electron diffuses from n → p, it leaves behind an ionised donor on n-side. This ionised donor (positive charge) is
immobile as it is bonded to the surrounding atoms. As the electrons continue to diffuse from n → p, a layer of positive charge (or
positive space-charge region) on n-side of the junction is developed.

Similarly, when a hole diffuses from p → n due to the concentration gradient, it leaves behind an ionised acceptor (negative
charge) which is immobile. As the holes continue to diffuse, a layer of negative charge (or negative space-charge region) on the p-
side of the junction is developed. This space-charge region on either side of the junction together is known as depletion region as
the electrons and holes taking part in the initial movement across the junction depleted the region of its free charges (Fig. 14.10).
The thickness of depletion region is of the order of one-tenth of a micrometer. Due to the positive space-charge region on n-side
of the junction and negative space charge region on p-side of the junction, an electric field directed from positive charge towards
negative charge develops. Due to this field, an electron on p-side of the junction moves to n-side and a hole on n-side of the junction
moves to pside. The motion of charge carriers due to the electric field is called drift. Thus, a drift current, which is opposite in
direction to the diffusion current (Fig. 14.10) starts.

FIGURE 14.10 p-n junction formation process.

Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small. As the diffusion process continues, the space-charge regions on either
side of the junction extend, thus increasing the electric field strength and hence drift current. This process continues until the
diffusion current equals the drift current. Thus, a p-n junction is formed. In a p-n junction under equilibrium there is no net
current.
The loss of electrons from the n-region and the gain of electron by the p-region causes a difference of potential across the junction
of the two regions. The polarity of this potential is such as to oppose further flow of carriers so that a condition of equilibrium
exists.

FIGURE 14.11 (a) Diode under equilibrium ( 𝐕 = 𝟎 ). (b) Barrier potential under no bias.

Figure 14.11 shows the p-n junction at equilibrium and the potential across the junction. The n-material has lost electrons, and p
material has acquired electrons. The n material is thus positive relative to the p material. Since this potential tends to prevent the
movement of electrons from the n region into the p region, it is often called a barrier potential.

Semiconductor Diode

A semiconductor diode [Fig. 14.12(a)] is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at the ends for the application
of an external voltage. It is a two-terminal device. A p-n junction diode is symbolically represented as shown in Fig. 14.12(b).

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 FIGURE 14.12 (a) Semiconductor diode, (b) Symbol for p-n junction diode.
The direction of arrow indicates the conventional direction of current (when the diode is under forward bias). The equilibrium
barrier potential can be altered by applying an external voltage V across the diode. The situation of p-n junction diode under
equilibrium (without bias) is shown in Fig. 14.11(a) and (b).

p-n junction diode under forward bias

When an external voltage V is applied across a semiconductor diode such that p-side is connected to the positive terminal of the
battery and n-side to the negative terminal [Fig. 14.13(a)], it is said to be forward biased. The applied voltage mostly drops across
the depletion region and the voltage drop across the p-side and n-side of the junction is negligible. (This is because the resistance
of the depletion region – a region where there are no charges – is very high compared to the resistance of n-side and p-side.) The
direction of the applied voltage (V) is opposite to the built-in potential V0 . As a result, the depletion layer width decreases and the
barrier height is reduced [Fig. 14.13(b)].

FIGURE 14.13 (a) p-n junction diode under forward bias, (b) Barrier potential (1) without battery, (2) Low battery
voltage, and (3) High voltage battery.
The effective barrier height under forward bias is (V0 − V).
If the applied voltage is small, the barrier potential will be reduced only slightly below the equilibrium value, and only a small
number of carriers in the material-those that happen to be in the uppermost energy levels-will possess enough energy to cross
the junction. So the current will be small. If we increase the applied voltage significantly, the barrier height will be reduced and
more number of carriers will have the required energy. Thus the current increases.

Due to the applied voltage, electrons from n-side cross the depletion region and reach p-side (where they are minority carries).
Similarly, holes from p-side cross the junction and reach the n-side (where they are minority carries). This process under forward
bias is known as minority carrier injection. At the junction boundary, on each side, the minority carrier concentration increases
significantly compared to the locations far from the junction.

Due to this concentration gradient, the injected electrons on p-side diffuse from the junction edge of p-side to the other end of p-
side.
Likewise, the injected holes on n-side diffuse from the junction edge of n-side to the other end of n-side (Fig. 14.14).

Fig. 14.14 Forward bias minority carrier injection.

This motion of charged carriers on either side gives rise to current. The total diode forward current is sum of hole diffusion
current and conventional current due to electron diffusion. The magnitude of this current is usually in mA.

p-n junction diode under reverse bias

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When an external voltage (V) is applied across the diode such that n-side is positive and p-side is negative, it is said to be reverse
biased [Fig.14.15(a)]. The applied voltage mostly drops across the depletion region. The direction of applied voltage is same as
the direction of barrier potential. As a result, the barrier height increases and the depletion region widens due to the change in
the electric field. The effective barrier height under reverse bias is (V0 + V), [Fig. 14.15(b)].

Fig. 14.15 (a) Diode under reverse bias, (b) Barrier potential under reverse bias.

This suppresses the flow of electrons from n → p and holes from p → n. Thus, diffusion current, decreases enormously compared
to the diode under forward bias.
The electric field direction of the junction is such that if electrons on p-side or holes on n-side in their random motion come close
to the junction, they will be swept to its majority zone. This drift of carriers gives rise to current. The drift current is of the order
of a few μA. This is quite low because it is due to the motion of carriers from their minority side to their majority side across the
junction. The drift current is also there under forward bias but it is negligible (μA) when compared with current due to injected
carriers which is usually in mA.

The diode reverse current is not very much dependent on the applied voltage. Even a small voltage is sufficient to sweep the
minority carriers from one side of the junction to the other side of the junction. The current is not limited by the magnitude of
the applied voltage but is limited due to the concentration of the minority carrier on either side of the junction. independent up
to a critical reverse bias voltage, known as breakdown voltage (Vbr ). When V = Vbr , the diode reverses current increases sharply.
Even a slight increase in the bias voltage causes large change in the current. If the reverse current is not limited by an external
circuit below the rated value (specified by the manufacturer) the p-n junction will get destroyed. Once it exceeds the rated value,
the diode gets destroyed due to overheating. This can happen even for the diode under forward bias, if the forward current
exceeds the rated value.

The circuit arrangement for studying the V - I characteristics of a diode, (i.e., the variation of current as a function of applied
voltage) are shown in Fig. 14.16(a) and (b). The battery is connected to the diode through a potentiometer (or reheostat) so that
the applied voltage to the diode can be changed. For different values of voltages, the value of the current is noted. A graph between
V and I is obtained as in Fig. 14.16(c).

FIGURE 14.16 Experimental circuit arrangement for studying V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode (a) in forward
bias, (b) in reverse bias. (c) Typical V-1 characteristics of a silicon diode.

Note that in forward bias measurement, we use a milliammeter since the expected current is large (as explained in the earlier
section) while a micrometer is used in reverse bias to measure the current. You can see in Fig. 14.16(c) that in forward bias, the
current first increases very slowly, almost negligibly, till the voltage across the diode crosses a certain value. After the

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characteristic voltage, the diode current increases significantly (exponentially), even for a very small increase in the diode bias
voltage. This voltage is called the threshold voltage or cut-in voltage (∼ 0.2 V for germanium diode and ∼ 0.7 V for silicon diode).

For the diode in reverse bias, the current is very small (∼ μA) and almost remains constant with change in bias. It is called reverse
saturation current. However, for special cases, at very high reverse bias (break down voltage), the current suddenly increases.
This special action of the diode is discussed later in Section 14.8. The general-purpose diode is not used beyond the reverse
saturation current region.

The above discussion shows that the p-n junction diode primarily allows the flow of current only in one direction (forward bias).
The forward bias resistance is low as compared to the reverse bias resistance. This property is used for rectification of ac voltages
as discussed in the next section. For diodes, we define a quantity called dynamic resistance as the ratio of small change in voltage
ΔV to a small change in current ΔI :
ΔV
rd =
ΔI

Application of Junction Diode as a Rectifier

From the V-I characteristic of a junction diode we see that it allows current to pass only when it is forward biased. So if an
alternating voltage is applied across a diode the current flows only in that part of the cycle when the diode is forward biased. This
property is used to rectify alternating voltages and the circuit used for this purpose is called a rectifier. If an alternating voltage is
applied across a diode in series with a load, a pulsating voltage will appear across the load only during the half cycles of the ac
input during which the diode is forward biased. Such rectifier circuit, as shown in Fig. 14.18, is called a half-wave rectifier. The
secondary of a transformer supplies the desired ac voltage across terminals A and B.

FIGURE 14.18 (a) Half-wave rectifier circuit, (b) Input ac voltage and output voltage waveforms from the rectifier circuit.

When the voltage at A is positive, the diode is forward biased and it conducts. When A is negative, the diode is reverse-biased and
it does not conduct. The reverse saturation current of a diode is negligible and can be considered equal to zero for practical
purposes. (The reverse breakdown voltage of the diode must be sufficiently higher than the peak ac voltage at the secondary of
the transformer to protect the diode from reverse breakdown.)

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Therefore, in the positive half-cycle of ac there is a current through the load resistor R L and we get an output voltage, as shown
in Fig. 14.18(b), whereas there is no current in the negative halfcycle. In the next positive half-cycle, again we get the output
voltage. Thus, the output voltage, though still varying, is restricted to only one direction and is said to be rectified. Since the
rectified output of this circuit is only for half of the input ac wave it is called as half-wave rectifier.

The circuit using two diodes, shown in Fig. 14.19(a), gives output rectified voltage corresponding to both the positive as well as
negative half of the ac cycle. Hence, it is known as full-wave rectifier. Here the p-side of the two diodes are connected to the ends
of the secondary of the transformer. The n-side of the diodes are connected together and the output is taken between this common
point of diodes and the midpoint of the secondary of the transformer. So, for a full-wave rectifier the secondary of the transformer
is provided with a centre tapping and so it is called centre-tap transformer. As can be seen from Fig.14.19(c) the voltage rectified
by each diode is only half the total secondary voltage. Each diode rectifies only for half the cycle, but the two do so for alternate
cycles. Thus, the output between their common terminals and the centre-tap of the transformer becomes a full-wave rectifier
output. (Note that there is another circuit of full wave rectifier which does not need a centre-tap transformer but needs four
diodes.) Suppose the input voltage to A with respect to the centre tap at any instant is positive. It is clear that, at that instant,
voltage at B being out of phase will be negative as shown in Fig. 14.19(b). So, diode D1 gets forward biased and conducts (while
D2 being reverse biased is not conducting). Hence, during this positive half cycle we get an output current (and a output voltage
across the load resistor R L ) as shown in Fig. 14.19(c).

FIGURE 14.19 (a) A Full-wave rectifier circuit; (b) Input wave forms given to the diode 𝐃𝟏 at 𝐀 and to the diode 𝐃𝟐 at 𝐁:
(c) Output waveform across the load 𝐑 𝐋 connected in the full-wave rectifier circuit.
In the course of the ac cycle when the voltage at A becomes negative with respect to centre tap, the voltage at B would be positive.
In this part of the cycle diode D1 would not conduct but diode D2 would, giving an output current and output voltage (across R L
) during the negative half cycle of the input ac. Thus, we get output voltage during both the positive as well as the negative half of
the cycle. Obviously, this is a more efficient circuit for getting rectified voltage or current than the halfwave rectifier.

The rectified voltage is in the form of pulses of the shape of half sinusoids. Though it is unidirectional it does not have a steady
value. To get steady dc output from the pulsating voltage normally a capacitor is connected across the output terminals (parallel
to the load R L ). One can also use an inductor in series with R L for the same purpose. Since these additional circuits appear to
filter out the ac ripple and give a pure dc voltage, so they are called filters.

Now we shall discuss the role of rectifier circuit. capacitor in filtering. When the voltage across the capacitor is rising, it gets
charged. If there is no external load, it remains charged to the peak voltage of the rectified output. When there is a load, it gets
discharged through the load and the voltage across it begins to fall. In the next half-cycle of rectified output, it again gets charged
to the peak value (Fig. 14.20).

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 FIGURE 14.20 (a) A full-wave rectifier with capacitor filter, (b) Input and output voltage of rectifier in (a).

The rate of fall of the voltage across the capacitor depends inversely upon the product of capacitance C and the effective resistance
R L used in the circuit and is called the time constant. To make the time constant large value of C should be large. So, capacitor
input filters use large capacitors. The output voltage obtained by using capacitor input filter is nearer to the peak voltage of the
rectified voltage. This type of filter is most widely used in power supplies.

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 Multiple Choice Question
1. What bonds are present in a semiconductor?
A. Monovalent B. Bivalent
C. Trivalent D. Covalent
Answer: D
Explanation:
Covalent bonds are present in a semiconductor.

2. The number of electrons in the valence shell of a semiconductor is

A. 1 B. 2
C. 3 D. 4
Answer: D
Explanation:
The number of electrons in the valence shell of a semiconductor is 4.

3. What happens to the forbidden energy gap of a semiconductor with the fall of temperature?
A. Decreases B. Increases
C. Unchanged D. Sometimes decreases and sometimes increases
Answer: B
Explanation:
The forbidden energy gap of a semiconductor increases with the fall of temperature.

4. In a p-type semiconductor, the current conduction is due to

A. Holes B. Atoms
C. Electrons D. Protons
Answer: A
Explanation: In a p-type semiconductor, the current conduction is due to holes.

5. What is the main function of a transistor?

A. Simplify B. Amplify
C. Rectify D. All of the above
Answer: B
Explanation: The main function of a transistor is to amplify.

6. In a semiconductor, what is responsible for conduction?

A. Electrons only B. Holes only
C. Both electrons and holes D. Neither electrons nor holes
Answer: C
Explanation: Both electrons and holes are responsible for conduction in a semiconductor.

7. What happens to the resistance of semiconductors on heating?

A. Increases B. Decreases
C. Remains the same D. First increases later decrease
Answer: B
Explanation: The resistance of semiconductors decreases on heating.

8. In intrinsic semiconductors at room temperature, the number of electrons and holes are
A. Unequal B. Equal
C. Infinite D. Zero
Answer: B
Explanation:
In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of electrons and holes are equal.

9. Which of the following is not a universal gate?

A. NOT B. AND
C. OR D. NAND
Answer: D
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Explanation:
NAND is not a universal gate.

10. A p-type semiconductor is

A. Positively charged B. Negatively charged
C. Uncharged D. None of the above
Answer: C
Explanation:
A p-type semiconductor is electrically neutral that is uncharged.

11. In which range of temperature, freeze out point begins to occur?

A. Higher range B. Lower range
C. Middle range D. None
Answer: B
Explanation:
At lower range of temperature, the concentration and conductivity decrease with lowering of the temperature.

12. At what temperature the donor states are completely ionized?

A. 0 K B. ROOM
C. 300K D. 900K
Answer: B
Explanation:
At room temperature, the donors have donated their electrons to the conduction band.

13. What do you mean by the term ‘FREEZE-OUT’?

A. All the electrons are frozen at room temperature B. None of the electrons are thermally elevated to the
conduction band
C. All the electrons are in the conduction band D. All the holes are in the valence band
Answer: B
Explanation:
Freeze out means none of the electrons are transmitted to the conduction band.

14. Which of the following band is just above the intrinsic Fermi level for n-type semiconductor?
A. Donor band B. Valence band
C. Acceptor band D. Conduction band
Answer: A
Explanation:
For n-type semiconductors, the donor band is just above the intrinsic Fermi level.

15. For the below given figure, identify the correct option for satisfying the above semiconductor figure?

A. P type, A-Conduction band, B-donor energy band, B. P type, A-Conduction band, B-acceptor energy
C- Valence band band, C- Valence band
C. n type, A-Conduction band, B-donor energy band, D. n type, A-Conduction band, B-acceptor energy
C- Valence band band, C- Valence band
Answer: B
Explanation:
The given figure has B band below the intrinsic Fermi level, so that would be acceptor energy band and will be a p-type
semiconductor.

16. For which type of material, the number of free electron concentration is equal to the number of donor atoms?
A. P type semiconductor B. Metal
C. N-type semiconductor D. Insulator

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Answer: C
Explanation:
The n-type semiconductor has equal concentration of free electron and donor atoms.

17. If Ef>Efi, then what is the type of the semiconductor?

A. n-type B. P-type
C. Elemental D. Compound
Answer: A
Explanation:
For n-type, the Fermi energy level is greater than the intrinsic Fermi energy level because in an energy band, Fermi level of donors
is always greater than that of the acceptors.

18. The fF (E) decreases in which of the following band for p-type semiconductor?
A. Conduction band B. Donor band
C. Acceptor band D. Valence band
Answer: A
Explanation:
The probability of finding the electron in the conduction band decreases for a p-type semiconductor because in a p-type
semiconductor, the holes will be in conduction band rather than the electrons.

19. Which states get filled in the conduction band when the donor-type impurity is added to a crystal?
A. Na B. Nd
C. N D. P
Answer: B
Explanation:
When the donor-type impurity is added to a crystal, first Nd states get filled because it is of the highest energy.

20. When the temperature of either n-type or p-type increases, determine the movement of the position of the Fermi energy
level?
A. Towards up of energy gap B. Towards down of energy gap
C. Towards centre of energy gap D. Towards out of page
Answer: C
Explanation:
whenever the temperature increases, the Fermi energy level tends to move at the centre of the energy gap.

21. In a semiconductor which of the following carries can contribute to the current?
A. Electrons B. Holes
C. Both D. None
Answer: C
Explanation:
In a semiconductor, two types of charges are there by which the flow of the current takes place. So, both the holes and electrons
take part in the flow of the current.

22. The thermal equilibrium concentration of the electrons in the conduction band and the holes in the valence band depends
upon?
A. Effective density of states B. Fermi energy level
C. Both A and B D. Neither A nor B
Answer: C
Explanation:
The electrons and holes depend upon the effective density of the states and the Fermi energy level given by the formula,
n2i = NC NV exp [−Eg/KT]

23. Which of the following expressions represents the correct distribution of the electrons in the conduction band? (gc(E) =
density of quantum states, fF(E) = Fermi Dirac probability
A. n(E) = gc(E) ∗ fF(E) B. n(E) = gc(−E)∗fF(E)
C. n(E) = gc(E) ∗fF(−E)
D. n(E) = gc(−E)∗fF(−E)
Answer: A
Explanation:
The distribution of the electrons in the conduction band is given by the product of the density into Fermi-dirac distribution.
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24. What is the SI unit of conductivity?
A. Ωm B. (Ωm) − 1
C. Ω D. m
Answer: B
Explanation:
The formula of the conductivity is the σ = 1/ρ.
So, the unit of resistivity is Ωm.
Now, the unit of conductivity becomes the inverse of resistivity.

25. What is the voltage difference if the current is 1 mA and length and area is 2 cm and 4 cm2 respectively? (ρ = 2Ωm)
A. 0.025 V B. 25 V
C. 0.25 V D. None
Answer: D
Explanation:
V = IR

R = ρl/(A) = 2 ∗ 2/4 = 100Ω

V = 1 mA × 100
= 0.1 V.

26. In the below figure, a semiconductor having an area ‘A’ and length ‘L’ and carrying current ‘I’ applied a voltage of ‘V’ volts
across it. Calculate the relation between V and A?

∗ ∗
A. V = ((ρ∗ L)/A) 1 B. V = ((ρ∗ A)/L)
C. V = ((ρ∗ ∣)/(A∗ L)) D. V = ((ρ∗ |∗ A∗ L)
Answer: A
Explanation:
Option A, satisfies the Ohm's law which is V = IR where R = (ρO)/A.

27. Which of the following expressions represent the correct formula for the density of electrons occupying the donor level?
A. Nd + p = Na + n B. Nd − p = Na + n
C. Nd + p = Na − n D. Nd − p = Na − n
Answer: A
Explanation:
The density of the electrons is equal to the electrons present in the substrate minus the number of donors present.

28. Calculate the number of electrons is the number of holes is 15 × 1010 ?

A. 15 × 1010 B. 1.5 × 108
C. 1.5 × 109 D. 1.5 × 1010
Answer: C
Explanation:
n × p = (1.5 × 1010 )2
10
n × 1 × 1010 = 1.5 × 1.5 × 1010 × 10
n = 1.5 × 109 electrons.

29. Which of the following expression represent the correct formulae for calculating the exact position of the Fermi level for p-
type material?
A. EF = EV + kTln (ND /NA ) B. EF = −EV + kTln (ND /NA )
C. EF = EV − kln (ND /NA ) D. EF = −EV − kTln (ND /NA )
Answer: A
Explanation:
The correct position of the Fermi level is found with the formula in the ' a ' option.

30. Consider a bar of silicon having carrier concentration n0 = 1015 cm−3 and ni = 1010 cm−3 . Assume the excess carrier

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 concentrations to be n = 1013 cm−3 , calculate the quasi-fermi energy level at T = 300 K ?
A. 0.2982eV B. 0.2984eV
C. 0.5971eV D. 1Ev
Answer: B
Explanation:
n0 + δn
EFn − EFi = kTln ( )
ni
= 1.38∗ 10−23 × 300 × ln (1013 + 1015 /1013 )
= 0.2984eV.

Question/Answer
Very Short Questions
1. Give the ratio of number of holes and the number of conduction electrons in an intrinsic semiconductor.
Answer:
nh
= 1 (In intrinsic semiconductor, ne = nh )
ne

2. What type of impurity is added to obtain n-type semiconductor?

Answer: Pentavalent atoms (group -15) like Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), etc.

3. Doping of silicon with indium leads to which type of semiconductor?

Answer: Doping of Silicon with Indium produces a p-type semiconductor as Indium is a trivalent impurity.

4. Draw an energy level diagram for an intrinsic semiconductor.

Answer: In intrinsic semiconductor, ne = nh
The energy level diagram for an intrinsic semiconductor is shown below:

5. A semiconductor has equal electron and hole concentration of 6×108m−3. On doping with a certain impurity electron
concentration increases to 3×1012m−3. Identify the type of semiconductor after doping.
Answer: According to the question, after doping, ne > nh.
Clearly, we get an n-type semiconductor after doping.

6. How does the energy gap of an intrinsic semiconductor vary, when doped with a trivalent impurity?
Answer: An acceptor energy level is formed in the forbidden energy gap above the valence band when an intrinsic
semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity.
Due to this, electrons quickly jump to the acceptor energy level.

7. How does the width of the depletion layer of p-n-junction diode change with decrease in reverse bias?
Answer: The width of the depletion layer will decrease with decrease in reverse bias.

8. Under what condition does a junction diode work as an open switch?

Answer: A junction diode works as an open switch when it is connected under reverse bias conditions.

9. Which type of biasing gives a semiconductor diode very high resistance?

Answer: Reverse biasing gives a semiconductor diode very high resistance.

10. If the output of a 2-input NAND gate is fed as the input to a NOT gate,
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 a) name the new logic gate obtained and
b) write down its truth table.
Answer:
• An AND gate is obtained when the output of a 2-input NAND gate is fed as the input to a NOT gate.
• Truth table for an AND gate is given below.
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Short Questions
1. If the frequency of the input signal is f. What will be the frequency of the pulsating output signal in case of:
a) half wave rectifier?
b) full wave rectifier?
Answer: Frequency of output in half wave Rectifier is f and in full have rectifier is 2f.

2. Find the equivalent resistance of the network shown in figure between point A and B when the p-n junction diode is ideal
and:
a) A is at higher potential.
b) B is at higher potential

Answer: Equivalent resistance is,

• 10
• 20

3. Potential barrier of p.n. junction cannot be measured by connecting a sensitive voltmeter across its terminals. Why?
Answer: Because there is no free charge carrier in depletion region.

4. The diagram shows a piece of pure semiconductor S in series with a variable resistor R and a source of constant voltage V.
Would you increase or decrease the value of R to keep the reading of ammeter A constant, when semiconductor S is heated?
Give reason.

Answer: On heating S, resistance of semiconductors S is decreased so to compensate the value of resistance in the circuit R is
increased.

5. Why is a photo diode used in reverse bias?

Answer: In this case diode is sensitive and it gives very large amount of current in this situation.

6. What is an ideal diode? Draw the output wave form across the load resistor R, if the input waveform is as shown in the figure.

Answer: An ideal diode has zero resistance when forward biased and an infinite resistance when it is reverse biased. Output
wave from is:
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7. With the help of a labeled circuit diagram, explain full wave rectification using junction diode. Draw input and output wave
forms?
Answer: Full wave rectifier consists of two diodes and a transformer with central tap. For any half cycle of a.c. input only one
diode is forward biased where as the other one is reverse biased.

Suppose for positive half of a.c. input diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased, then the current will flow across D1
whereas for negative half of a.c. input diode D2 is forward biased and the current flows across D2. Thus, for both the halves output
is obtained and current flows in the same direction across load resistance R2 and thus a.c. is converted into d.c.

8. Name the gate shown in the figure and write its truth table?

Answer:
It is AND gate and its truth table are:

9. In the following diagrams indicate which of the diodes are forward biased and which are reverse bias?

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Answer:
• Forward Biased
• Reverse Biased
• forward Biased

10. In the given figure, is,

a) The emitter base
b) collector base forward or reverse biased? Justify.

Answer:
• Figure shows n-p-n transistor.
• Emitter is reversed biased because n-region is connected to higher potential.
• Collector is also reversed biased because n-region of p-n junction is at higher potential than p-region.

Long Answers
1. Distinguish between conductors, insulators, and semiconductors on the basis of energy band diagrams?
Answer:
Conductor – Conduction band in a conductor is either partially filled or conduction and valence band overlap each other. There
is no energy gap in a conductor.

Insulators – conduction band and valence band of all insulators are widely separated by and energy gap of the order 6 to 9eV
Also conduction band of an insulator is almost empty.

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Semiconductor – In semiconductors the energy gap is very small i.e. about 1ev only.

2. The following truth table gives the output of a 2-input logic gate.
Answer: The gate is NOR gate. If the output of NOR gate is connected to a NOT gate, then the figure will be:

New truth table is:

A B Output
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

3.
A B Output
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
Identify the logic gate used and draw its logic symbol. If the output of this gate is fed as input to a NOT gate, name the new logic
gate so formed?
Answer: Light emitting diode is forward biased i.e. energy is released at the junction.

Advantages of LED
They are used in numerical displays as compact in size.
It works at low voltage and has longer life than incandescent bulbs.

4. With the help of a diagram, show the biasing of a light emitting diode (LED). Give its two advantages over conventional
incandescent lamps?
Answer: Trans conductance (gm) (2) voltage gain (Av) of the amplifier.
Here ΔIB = 15μA = 15 × 10−6 A

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ΔIC = 2mA = 2 × 10−3 A
Rin = 665Ω, R 2 = 5kΩ = 5 × 103 Ω
ΔIC 2 × 10−3
βac = = = 133.3
ΔIB 15 × 10−6
βac 133.3
(1) Trans conductance, gm = = = 0.2Ω−1
Rin 665
(2) Voltage gain (Av) = gmR L = 0.2 × 5 × 103 = 1000

5. The input resistance of a silicon transistor is 665. Its base current is changed by 15 A, which results in the change in
collector current by 2mA. This transistor is used as a common emitter amplifier with a load resistance of 5k. Calculate
current gain ( ac).
Answer:
• Symbol for zener diode

• Width of the depletion layer of zener diode becomes very small due to heavy doping of p and n-regions.
• Junction field will be high.

6. Draw the symbol for zener diode? Zener diodes have higher dopant densities as compared to ordinary p-n junction diodes.
How dos it affects the (i) width of the depletion layer (i) junction field?
Answer:
ΔIB = 40μA = 40 × 10−6 A
ΔIC = 2mA = 2 × 10−3 A
ΔVBE = 0.04V
R L = 6kΩ = 6 × 103 Ω
ΔVBE 0.04
Rin = = = 1 × 103 Ω = 1kΩ
ΔIB 40 × 10−6
ΔvC 2 × 10−3
β= = = 50
ΔIB 40 × 10−6
50 × 6 × 103
Voltage gain = βRL /Rt = = 300
1 × 103

7. A P-N-P transistor is used in common – emitter mode in an amplifier circuit. A change of 4oA in the base current brings a
change of 2mA in collector current and 0.04V in base – emitter voltage. Find (i) input resistance (ii) current amplification
factor (). If a load resistance of 6k is used, then find voltage gain?
Answer:
• New semiconductor obtained is N-type because,
nenh = ne2
ni2 36 × 1015
nh = =
ne 8 × 1012
nh = 4.5 × 104 /m3
• Energy gap decreases due to creation of donor level in between the valence band and the conduction band.

8. A semiconductor has equal electron and whole concentration of 6 × 108 / m3.

On doping with certain impurity, electron concentration increases to 8 × 1012 / m3.
a) Identify the new semiconductor.
b) Calculate the new whole concentration.
c) How does the energy gap vary with doping?
Answer: Diagram:

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Relation – output waveform has 180o phase reversal as compared to input and also the output is being amplified.

9. Draw a labeled circuit diagram of a common emitter transistor amplifier. Draw the input and the output wave forms and also
state the relation between input and output signal?
Answer:
Energy gap of the given intrinsic semiconductor, Eg = 1.2eV
The temperature dependence of the intrinsic carrier-concentration is written as:
Eg
ni= n0 exp [− ]
2k B T
Where K B = Boltzmann constant = 8.62 × 10−5 eV/K
T = Temperature
n0 = Constant
Initial temperature, T1 = 300K
The intrinsic carrier-concentration at this temperature can be written as:
Eg
ni = n0 exp [− ]…
−2k B × 300
Final temperature, 𝑇2 = 600𝐾
The intrinsic carrier-concentration at this temperature can be written as:
Eg
ni2 = n0 exp [− ]…
−2k B × 600
The ratio between the conductivities at 600K and at 300K is equal to the ratio between the respective intrinsic carrier-
concentrations at these temperatures.
Eg
ni2 = n0 exp [− ]…
−2k B × 600
The ratio between the conductivities at 600K and at 300K is equal to the ratio between the respective intrinsic carrier-
concentrations at these temperatures.
Eg
ni2 no exp [− 2k B 600]
=
nI Eg
n0 exp [− ]
2k B 300
Eg 1 1
= exp [ − ]
2k B 300 600

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 1.2 2−1
= exp [ × ]
2 × 8.62 × 10−5 600
5
= exp [11.6] = 1.09 × 10
Therefore, the ratio between the conductivities is 1.09 × 105 .

10. In an intrinsic semiconductor the energy gap Eg is 1.2 eV. Its hole mobility is much smaller than electron mobility and
independent of temperature. What is the ratio between conductivity at 600K and that at 300K? Assume that the temperature
dependence of intrinsic carrier concentration ni is given by,

where n0 is a constant.
Answer:
In a p-n junction diode, the expression for current is given as:
eV
I = I0 exp ( − 1)
2k B T
Where,
I0 = Reverse saturation current = 5 × 10−12 A
T = Absolute temperature = 300K
K B = Boltzmann constant = 8.6 × 10−5 eV/K = 1.376 × 10−23 JK −1
V = Voltage across the diode
(a) Forward voltage, V = 0.6V
1.6×10−19 ×0.6
∴ Current, I = 5 × 10−12 [exp ( ) − 1]
1.376×10−23 ×300
=5× 10−12 × exp [22.36] = 0.0256A
Therefore, the forward current is about 0.0256A.
(b) For forward voltage, V ′ = 0.7V, we can write:
1.6 × 10−19 × 0.7
= 5 × 10−12 [exp ( ) − 1]
1.376 × 10−23 × 300
= 5 × 10−12 × exp [22.36] = 0.0256A
Therefore, the forward current is about 0.0256A.
(b) For forward voltage, V ′ = 0.7V, we can write:
1.6 × 10−19 × 0.7
= 5 × 10−12 [exp ( ) − 1]
1.376 × 10−23 × 300
= 5 × 10−12 × exp [26.25] = 1.257A
Hence, the increase in current, ΔI = I′ − I
= 1.257 − 0.0256 = 1.23A
(c)
Change in voltage
Dynamic resistance =
Change in current
0.7 − 0.6 0.1
= = = 0.081Ω
1.23 1.23
(e) If the reverse bias voltage changes from 1V to 2V, then the current (I) will almost remain equal to I0 in both cases. Therefore,
the dynamic resistance in the reverse bias will be infinite.

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