UNIT ONE

INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

What is science?

• Is the systematic study of things in nature, changes involved and reasons for the
change.

What is chemistry?

• Is the study of structure and composition of substances and the way they behave under
different conditions.

Mention the six branches of chemistry.

• Analytical chemistry
➢ Is the study of the separation, identification and quantification of chemical
composition both natural and artificial materials.
• Industrial chemistry
➢ Is the study of application of physical and chemical processes to change raw
materials into fished products.
• Organic chemistry
➢ Is the study of carbon, oxides and carbonates.
• Inorganic chemistry
➢ Is the study of properties of materials from non-biological origin.
• Physical chemistry
➢ Is the study of how chemical compounds and their constituents react and
interact.
• Environmental chemistry
Is the study of chemical processes occurring in the environment which are as a result
of human activities.

Why is chemistry important in everyday life?

• Used in food processing e.g. adding of baking powder to bread to increase its volume.
• Used in manufacturing industry e.g. soap making, manufacturing of drugs.
• Used in distillation of crude oil into its fractions.
• Used in discovery and generating new ideas.

Which careers are related to chemistry?

• Chemistry teacher
• Medical nurses
• Medical doctors
• Veterinary officer
• Pharmacist
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 • Chemical engineer

What is a laboratory?

• Is a room or space where chemistry and other science experiment are done.

What are safety rules?

• Are rules set aside in the laboratory to make sure that the laboratory is a good place
for working and keeping both chemicals and apparatus.

Why should one follow safety rules when working in the laboratory?

• To prevent damage of materials and chemicals.

• To prevent people from being injured.
• To prevent death of people working in and around the laboratory.
• To prevent damage of the laboratory.

Mention any safety laboratory rules you know.

• Do not enter without teacher’s permission.

• Enter in an orderly manner.
• Do not rush or scramble when entering.
• Avoid unnecessary movement in the laboratory.
• Do not taste, eat, drink or smell anything in the laboratory.
• Do not perform unauthorised experiment.
• Always switch off all electrical outlet, taps, and gas burners when not in use.
• Never disturb a friend who is doing an experiment.
• Keep any flammable substance away from flames.
• Read the instruction on the bottle of reagent carefully before using it.
• See the warning symbol on the bottle or container before using the contents.
• Clean all materials soon after use.
• Wash hands before leaving the laboratory.

How can one protect oneself when working in the laboratory?

• By wearing a laboratory coat to protect clothes from dirt and chemicals.

• By wearing plastic goggles to protect eyes from solid particles, splashing liquids and
strong light.
• By wearing gloves to protect hands from corrosive chemicals.
• By holding hot objects with holders such as a pair of tongs, improvised holders such
as a piece of folded paper.
• By tying long hair at the back.
• By preparing irritating gases in the fume chamber or open space.

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Give any example of laboratory apparatus.

• Measuring cylinder
➢ Is a glass ware.
➢ Some are made up of plastics.
➢ Used for measuring volumes of liquids.
➢ Are of different volumes.
• Burette
➢ Is a glass ware.
➢ Some are made up of plastics.
➢ For measuring accurate or exact small volumes of liquids during chemical
reactions.
• Pipette
➢ Is a glass ware.
➢ Some are made up of plastics.
➢ For transferring or measuring small exact quantities of liquids into the burette.
• Volumetric flasks
➢ Is a glass ware.
➢ Some are made up of plastics.
➢ For preparing accurate volumes of liquids.
➢ Are of different capacities.
• Beam balance
➢ For measuring mass of a substance.
➢ Can be beam balance or electronic balance.
• Thermometer
➢ For measuring temperature.
➢ Can be ordinary or clinical thermometer.
• Stop watch
➢ For measuring duration of time.
• Tubes
➢ Is a glass ware.
➢ Some are made up of plastics.
➢ Can be test tubes, ignition tubes or boiling tubes.
• Beakers
➢ Is a glass ware.
➢ Some are made up of plastics.
➢ Are of different volumes.
➢ Have many uses which include
✓ Boiling liquids
✓ Holding liquids
• Flasks
➢ Is a glass ware.
➢ Some are made up of plastics.
➢ Usually used to hold liquids when heating or during reaction.
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 ➢ These include
✓ Conical flasks
✓ Round-bottomed flask
✓ Flat-bottomed flask
• Evaporating dishes
➢ Used to evaporate water from solutions in order to recover the dissolve solid.
➢ Usually made up of porcelain.
• Deflagrating spoon
➢ Used to hold substance when burning
• Spatula
➢ Used to scoop small quantities of solid chemicals from the container.
• Tongs
➢ Used to hold hot crucible or crucible cover.
• Tripod stand
➢ Used in support apparatus when boiling or heating liquids.
• Wire gauze
➢ Usually placed on the tripod stand to hold beakers when boiling liquids.
• Stand and clamp
➢ Stand is used to mount apparatus.
➢ A clamp is used to hold apparatus.
• Liebig condenser
➢ Cools the vapour as it passes through the centre of the condenser during
distillation.
• Funnels
➢ Thistle funnel
✓ Used to add liquids into flasks at once.
➢ Dropping funnel
✓ Used to add liquids into flasks in small quantities.
➢ Separating funnel
✓ Used to separate immiscible liquids.
➢ Filter funnel
✓ Used to pour liquids into containers with small mouths
✓ Also used to filter solutions containing undissolved solids.
✓ A filter paper is placed inside the funnel to hold undissolved solids.
➢ Dropper or teat pipette.
✓ Used to deliver a little liquid when required in drops into another
container.
➢ Heating apparatus
✓ For heating liquids and substances.
✓ These include
❖ Spirit lamp
❖ Candles
❖ Kerosene stove
❖ Electric heater
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 ❖ Bunsen burner

What are hazard symbols?

• Are all symbols drawn on the bottle or container of a substance that carries specific
warning to the user of the substance.

Give examples of warning symbols and their meanings.

• Explosive material
➢ Explosive substance can detonate any time.
➢ Should be handled with care and according to instructions.

• Toxic
➢ Poisonous substance.
➢ Can cause death
➢ If poured on your skin, wash with a lot of water.

• Oxidation
➢ Can explode in the presence of an oxidising agent.

• Irritant
➢ Harmful substance make your skin and health endangered.
➢ Do not come in contact with it.
➢ Avoid inhaling it more especially asthmatic people.

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What are SI units?

• Are units commonly used by all scientists throughout the world.

• It was adopted by modern scientific literature.
• It is short form for System International D’Unites’.

How are physical quantities represented?

• Are represented using symbols and units.

• Physical quantities can be meaningless without units.

Mention the two main types of quantities.

• Basic quantities. Also called fundamental quantities.

• Derived quantities.

Which are the basic quantities, their units and symbols used?

• Length measured in metres (m).

• Mass measured in kilogram (kg).
• Time measured in seconds (s).
• Temperature measured in Kelvin (K).

Mention the derived quantities, units used and their symbols.

• Area measured in square metres (cm2).

𝑘𝑔
• Density measures in kilograms per cubic metre ( )
𝑚3
𝑚𝑜𝑙
• Amount of substance (concentration) measured in moles per cubic metre ( )
𝑚3

Define SI prefixes

• These are prefixes used to represent a certain value.

• Examples may include:
Prefix symbol Magnitude
atto Α 10-18
femto £ 10-15
pico Ƥ 10-12
nano Ղ 10-9
micro Ս 10-6
mill M 10-3
centi C 10-2
deci D 10-1
deca Da 101
hecto H 102
kilo K 103
Mega M 106
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 Giga G 109
Tera T 1012
Peta P 1015
Exa E 1018

What is scientific investigation?

• Is a systematic process that scientists use to find solution to the problem or answer to
a question in a society.
• This may lead to new discovery of proof of already existing knowledge.
• However, originally, scientific investigation was not done in a systematic manner due
to lucky of better equipment

Which steps should be followed when carrying out an investigation?

• Identify the problem.

➢ Change the problem into a number of questions.
➢ Develop research topic from the questions.
• State the hypothesis.
➢ This is the guess answer.
➢ It is developed from question you asked above.
➢ You predict the answer using the available information that you have.
• Testing the hypothesis.
➢ Design and experiment.
➢ Select materials to be used.
➢ Suggest the method to be used.
➢ You want to verify if the hypothesis is true or false.
• Recording and analysing the data
➢ You record your findings as you carry out experiment.
➢ Data can be presented and analysed using
✓ Tables
✓ Pie charts
✓ Histogram
✓ Bar charts
✓ Frequency table
✓ Frequency polygon
✓ Linear graph
➢ You check if the results support the hypothesis or not.
• Draw conclusion
➢ You accept the hypothesis if the results support the hypothesis.
➢ You reject the hypothesis if the results turn to be different from the hypothesis.
• Formulation of theory
➢ Theories and are formulated through the experiments when you accept the
hypothesis.

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 UNIT TWO
ESSENTIAL MATHEMATICAL SKILLS FOR CHEMISTRY

What is standard form of expressing quantities?

• Is a method of presenting quantities where by the quantity has only one digit which is
multiplied by 10 expressed to a certain power.
• Examples may include
➢ Express 24,500,000,000,000 to standard form.
✓ Shift the decimal point from the last number to the first but one
number i.e. 2.45
✓ Multiply the number by 10 i.e. 2.45 x 10
✓ Count how many digits has the decimal point been shifted to the new
position i.e. 13 digits.
✓ This 13 becomes the power of 10 i.e. 2.45 x 1013
✓ 24,500,000,000,000 to standard form becomes 2.45 x 1013
➢ Express 0.000000245 to standard form.
✓ Shift the decimal point to give you only one digit i.e 2.45
✓ Multiply by 10 i.e 2.45 x 10
✓ Count how many digits has the decimal point shifted to give one digit
i.e. 7digits.
✓ The 7 becomes the power for 10 i.e. 2.45 x 10-7
✓ 0.000000245 to standard form becomes 2.45 x 10-7
• Take note
➢ When the decimal point is shifting from right to left, the power becomes a
positive number.
➢ When the decimal point is shifting from left to the right, the power become a
negative number.

What are significant figures?

• These are all numbers 1 up to 9. (All non-zero numbers are significant.

➢ 2679 has four significant figures.
➢ 8.57361 has six significant figures.
• All zeros between other significant figures are counted as significant.
➢ 2406 has four significant figures
➢ 35.0076 has six significant figures.
• The left most non-zero is the first significant figure.
➢ 0.00356 has three significant figures because the first none zero is 3 and going
to the right are only three numbers.
➢ 0.00005067 has four significant figures because the zero between 5 and 6 is
taken as significant.
• The right most digit of the decimal figure is usually the significant figure.
➢ 0.2450 is usually written as 0.245 and has three significant figures.
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 • The figure without the decimal point, the right most non-zero if the least significant
figure.
➢ 7900 has 9 as the least significant figure.
➢ Has two significant figures.
• Take note
➢ When measured quantities are used in addition or subtraction, a figure in an
answer is significant if all the numbers have contributed to it.
✓ 68.043 + 8.22 + 12.416 = 88.679.
✓ 9 at the end is not significant because 8.22 did not contribute. It is
coming only when 3 and 6 at the end of the first and last numbers are
added.
➢ When experimental quantities are multiplied or divided, the number of
significant figures in the result is the same as that of the quantity with the
smallest number of significant figures.
12.84
✓ = 1.07.
12
✓ The answer should be 1.1 because 12 has two digits so the answer
should also have two digits.
➢ Exact number
✓ When pure numbers used in a calculation are exact rather than
approximation, the accuracy of the calculation is not affected.
✓ Pure numbers have definite numbers of significant figures if they do
not represent measurements.
✓ Pure numbers are easy to identify because they do not have units.
20.3+20.5+21.1
✓ = 20.63 = 20.6
3
➢ Rounding off
✓ When the last digit of the figure is equal or greater than 5, increase the
last remaining digit by 1.
✓ 14.628 to four significant figures becomes 14.63.
✓ When the last digit of the figure is below5, it is dropped, leaving the
last remaining digit unchanged.
✓ 15.473 to four significant figures becomes 15.47.

Where is measurements of units applied in everyday life?

• Area of a figure
➢ May be derived by multiplying the fundamental dimensions of length and
width.
➢ Area = length x width. (A = l x l)
➢ SI unit for length is metre.
➢ The derived unit of area is square metres.
• Volume of the figure
➢ This is a three dimensional quantity that is used to characterise states of
matter.
➢ Is obtained by multiplying units of length by width by height. (l x w x h)
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 ➢ SI unit for volume is cubic metres.
• Density of matter.
➢ Is also a derived quantity that relates the mass of a substance to its volume.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
➢ Density = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑘𝑔
➢ SI unit for density is kilogram pre cubic metre. (𝑚3 )
• Molarity of a solution
➢ Is a derived unit quantity that relates the number of moles to its volume.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
➢ Molarity = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑚𝑜𝑙
➢ Derived unit of morality is moles per cubic metre. ( 𝑚3 )

What accuracy?

• Is the degree to which the experimental value agrees with the true or expected value.
• If the mass of a substance is 25.0g and your measurement gave you 25.5g then, your
are accurate because you are almost to the actual value.

What is precision?

• Is the closeness of two or more measurement results in a given experiment.

• If you measure the volume of the liquid three times and you got 24.0, 24.1 and 23.9,
you are precise in measuring that volume since the figures are all almost 24.0.

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 UNIT THREE

COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

What is matter?

• Is anything that can occupy space and has mass.

• You can show that matter occupies space by filling measuring cylinder with water and
add some more.
• You will see the water over flowing showing that the space has already been
occupied.
• You can show that matter has mass by taking empty containers raised up with you
hands.
• Ask a friend to add some masses in one container and observe what will happen if you
keep on adding.
• The arm that holds container filled with mass will lower that the other showing that
matter has mass.

Mention the three states of matter.

• Solid
• Liquid
• Gas

Which five things are considered when deciding properties of each state of matter?

• Shape
➢ Solids have definite shape.
➢ Liquids have no definite shape.
➢ Gases have no definite shape.
• Volume
➢ Solids have fixed volume.
➢ Liquids have fixed volume.
➢ Gases have no fixed volume.
• Density
➢ Solids have very high densities.
➢ Liquids have high densities.
➢ Gases have low densities.
• Flow
➢ Solids do not flow.
➢ Liquids do flow easily.
➢ Gases do flow easily
• Packing of particles
➢ Solid particles are very closely compacted.
➢ Liquid particles have some spaces between.

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 ➢ Gas particles are far apart.

What happens when states of matter are heated?

• There a change in some of the properties.

• Solids change to liquids.
• This change is called melting.
• Liquids change to gas.
• This change is called evaporation.
• Some solids change direct to gas.
• This is called sublimation.

What will happen if the temperature under a state of matter has is being lowered?

• Gases change to liquids.

• This is called condensation.
• Liquids change to solids.
• The process is called freezing.
• Some gases change direct to solids.
• This is called deposition.

Summarise the processes in change of state of matter.

Deposition

Melting Evaporation

Solids Liquids Gases

Freezing Condensation

Sublimation

Define the following terms

• An atom.
➢ Is the smallest unit into which matter can be broken without losing its
properties.
➢ Is the smallest unit of matter that enters into chemical reaction.
• Molecule
➢ Is when two or more atoms combine to form a single particle.

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 ➢ Is the smallest unit of matter that can exist independently.

• Element
➢ Is the substance made up of one type of atoms.
✓ Sodium (Na)
✓ Magnesium (Mg)
✓ Calcium (Ca)
• Compound
➢ Is the substance made up two or more types of atoms.
✓ Water (H2O)
✓ Carbon dioxide (CO2)
✓ Ethane (C2H6)
• Mixture
➢ Is when two or more types of substances are put in one container.
✓ Water plus sand.
✓ Bean seeds plus maize seeds
✓ Paraffin and water
• Pure substance
➢ Is a substance made up of one type of substance.
✓ Water as a pure substance.
✓ Paraffin as a pure substance

What are chemical symbols?

• It is the simplest way of presenting the name of an element in a substance using

symbols.
• These symbols are letters of the elements.
• First, scientists used first letters of discovered elements in capital letter.
➢ Carbon (C)
➢ Hydrogen (H)
➢ Nitrogen (N)
➢ Oxygen (O)
➢ Phosphorous (P)
➢ Sulphur (S)
• When more elements were discovered, they start to use first letter in capital letter
followed by the second letter (First two letters)
➢ Calcium (Ca)
➢ Cobalt (Co)
➢ Chlorine (Cl)
➢ Magnesium (Mg)
➢ Manganese (Mn)
• Some elements were given symbols from their Latin names.
➢ Potassium – Kalium (K)
➢ Sodium – Natrium (Na)

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 ➢ Iron – Ferrum (Fe)
➢ Lead - Plumbum (Pb)
➢ Silver – Argentum (Ag)
➢ Copper – Cuprum (Cu)
➢ Mercury – Hydrargyrum (Hg)
➢ Gold – Aurum (Au)

How can you purify a substance?

• Substances have characteristic properties unique to each of them in their pure state
e.g. differences in melting and boiling points.
• This is used in verification of purity of substances.
• Pure substances have fixed melting and boiling points.
• Impurities cause raise in boiling points in liquids.
• In most solids, the melting points are reduced.
• Quantity of impurities determine the melting points.
• In liquids, boiling points also depends on atmospheric pressure.
• Therefore, amount of impurities and atmospheric pressure should be considered when
purifying a substance.

What is the effect of impurities in a substance?

• Impurities affect melting and boiling point of substance.

What are the applications of impurities in everyday life?

• Used in extraction of metals.

➢ Extraction of aluminium.
➢ Extraction of sodium.
• Countries which experience winter, crude salt is poured in roads to lower the freezing
point of water.

Which are the examples of mixtures?

• Homogeneous (uniform) mixtures.

➢ Is the one in which the particles are evenly distributed into each other.
✓ Common salt solution.
✓ Milk.
• Heterogeneous mixture
➢ Is one in which the particles are not evenly distributed into each other.
✓ Common salt and sand.
✓ Flour and sugar.
• Sometimes mixtures can be classified as follows:
➢ Solid-liquid mixtures
✓ Can be in solution form or suspension form.
❖ Sugar and water forms solution.
❖ Flour and water form a suspension.
➢ Liquid-liquid mixture
✓ Can be miscible i.e. liquids dissolve in each other.

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 ❖ Water and ethanol.
✓ Can be immiscible i.e. liquids do not dissolve in each other.
❖ Water and kerosene.
➢ Solid – solid mixture
✓ Brass is a mixture (alloy) of copper and zinc.
✓ Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin.
➢ Gas – liquid mixture
✓ Carbon dioxide dissolved in fizzy drinks.
➢ Gas – gas mixture
✓ Air is a mixture of several gases.

Which factors can affect solubility of a substance?

• Volume of solvent .
➢ A liquid into which a solute can dissolve.
➢ The common solvent is water.
➢ Water is called universal solvent.
• Amount of solute
➢ A substance that dissolve.
➢ It is said to be soluble.
➢ If not is insoluble.
• Temperature at which solvent is.
➢ Increase in temperature increases randomness of particles of both solvent and
solute.
➢ Hence allow more solute to dissolve.

How can you separate different mixtures?

• Decanting
➢ Method of separating insoluble particles and solvent.
➢ The liquid is poured out of the container.
➢ The remaining substance in the container is sediment.
✓ Separating water and sand.
✓ Separating paraffin and water.
• Filtration
➢ Is done using filter paper.
➢ This is better than decanting.
➢ Sediments remain on the filter paper while filtrate is recovered in the
container.
✓ Filtration of water we use in everyday life from pipes uses this method.
✓ Water is collected from the reservoir.
✓ In the first tank, alum is added to let the mud stick together and settle
down.
✓ Unfiltered water is passed through soil particles of different sizes.
✓ Chlorine is added to kill germs.
• Evaporation
➢ Is method where by liquid (solvent ) is evaporated leaving the solute in the
evaporating basin.
✓ Separation of aqueous salt solution.

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 ✓ Water is evaporated leaving the salt in the evaporating basin.

• Distillation
➢ Is the method used to separate liquids with different boiling temperatures.
➢ The one that can boil at a lower temperature is recovered first.
✓ Separation of fractions of petroleum uses this method.
✓ Is mostly used in industries.
❖ That distil alcohol.
❖ Separate fractions of crude oil
❖ Manufacture of oxygen and nitrogen from air.
• Sublimation / deposition
➢ A method used to separate substances of which one does sublimes while the
other does not.
➢ Substances that can sublime include
✓ Iodine
✓ Ammonium chloride
✓ Solid carbon dioxide
• Magnetisation
➢ Is a method that used a magnet.
➢ It separates magnetic and nonmagnetic substances.
➢ Magnetic substances are attracted to a magnet leaving nonmagnetic.
• Chromatography
➢ Uses filter pare to separate components of a substance.
➢ The name comes from a Greek name chromes meaning colour.
➢ The paper absorb different components of a substance.
➢ Colours of different substances are displayed on the filter paper.
➢ Chromatography can be used in everyday life in
✓ Separation of ink components.
✓ Separation of leaf components.
✓ Separation of dyes

What are the differences between mixture and compound?

• Mixture can be separated by physical methods while compound cannot be separated

by physical methods.
• Mixture has average properties of substances in it while compound has different from
the properties of the substances which made it.
• Substances which make the mixture need not be in a fixed proportions while
substances in a compound are in a fixed position.
• Mixture is formed by physical methods i.e. no new substance is formed while a
compound is formed by a chemical method i.e. a new substance is formed.
• No energy (heat or light) is liberated out or absorbed during the formation of the
mixture while energy (heat or light) is liberated or absorbed during the formation of
the compound.

16
 UNIT FOUR ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Draw the structure of an atom and label its parts including subatomic particles.

Shells (Orbit) Electrons (Sub-atomic particles)

Nucleus Protons (sub-atomic particles)

Neutrons (sub-atomic particles)

• The nucleus
➢ The centre of an atom.
➢ Contains protons and neutrons.
➢ The sum of the masses of protons and neutrons makes the mass of an atom.
➢ Proton has 1 atomic mass unit (1amu) and positively changed..
➢ Neutron has 1amu with zero charge..
• Shells
➢ Number of shells depend upon size of an atom.
➢ Shells are also called orbits.
➢ Contain electrons.
➢ Electrons have no mass but negatively charged.
➢ First shell is filled up with two electrons only.
➢ Second, and third shell are filled up with eight electrons.
➢ Fourth shell has eight electrons from groups I to VIII plus eight electrons
from transition metals.

What are the characteristics of an atom?

• Has atomic number

➢ Number of protons in an atom give atomic number.
➢ Is represented using capital letter ‘Z’.
• Has atomic mass
➢ Number of protons plus number of neutrons gives atomic mass.
➢ Is represented by capital letter ‘A’.
ATOM SYMBOL ATOMIC NUMBER NEUTRO MASS
(PRTONS) NUMBER

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 Hydrogen H 1 0 1
Carbon C 6 6 12
Nitrogen N 7 7 14
Sodium Na 11 12 23
Chlorine Cl 17 18 25
What are isotopes?

• Are atoms of the same element which have the same number of protons but different
mass number.
➢ 11𝐻 is Hydronium
➢ 21𝐻 is Deuterium
➢ 31𝐻 is Tritium
➢ 126𝐶 is Carbon 12
➢ 136𝐶 is Carbon 13
➢ 146𝐶 is Carbon 14
➢ 3517𝐶𝑙 is Chlorine 35
➢ 3717𝐶𝑙 is Chlorine 37
➢ 168𝑂 is Oxygen 16
➢ 178𝑂 is Oxygen 17
➢ 188𝑂 is Oxygen 18.

What is relative mass?

1
• Is the average atomic mass of an element compared with 12 of the mass of Carbon -12
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
• Relative atomic mass = 1
𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜−12
12
➢ Chlorine consists of two isotopes, chlorine -35 and chlorine -37 in the ratio of
3:1, calculate relative atomic mass for this chlorine.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒
Relative mass = 1
𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛−12 𝑥 4 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
12
(35 𝑥 3)+(37 𝑥 1)
= 1
𝑥 12 𝑥 4 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
12

= 142
142
= 4
= 35.5

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 UNIT FIVE

THE PERIODIC TABLE

Define the periodic table.

• Is the table that contains elements arranged in order of their atomic numbers and other
properties.
• It has columns called groups and rows called periods.

What is periodicity?

• Is the act of putting elements in their positions in the periodic table.

Draw the periodic table and its elements including atomic masses and atomic numbers.

1 4
1𝐻 2𝐻𝑒
7 9 11 12 19 20
3𝐿𝑖
14 16
4𝐵𝑒 5𝐵 6𝐶 7𝑁 8𝑂 9𝐹 10𝑁𝑒
23 24 27 28 31 32 36 40
11𝑁𝑎 12𝑀𝑔 13𝐴𝑙 14𝑆𝑖 15𝑃 16𝑆 17𝐶𝑙 18𝐴𝑟
39 40
19𝐾 20𝐶𝑎

What is electron configuration?

• Is the arrangement of electrons in the shells of an atom.

➢ Mg - 20 gives 2; 8; 8; 2
➢ Ne - 10 gives 2; 8
➢ K – 19 gives 2; 8; 8; 2

What are the family names of elements in the groups of the periodic table?

• Group I elements are called Alkali metals.

• Group II elements are called Alkaline earth metals.
• Group VII elements are called Halogens.
• Group VIII elements are called Noble gases.

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 UNIT SIX

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

Define the following

• Physical change
➢ Is the change that do not affect chemical composition of the substance.
➢ What changes is state of matter of the substance.
➢ The change can be reversed.
➢ No new substance is formed.
➢ This may include
✓ Melting of wax.
✓ Sublimation of iodine.
✓ Dissolved salt in water can be recovered.
• Chemical change
➢ Is the change that affect chemical composition of a substance.
➢ New substance is formed.
➢ This cannot be reversed.
➢ This may include
✓ Burning of paper into ash.
✓ Reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to form water.

What are the differences between physical change and chemical change?

• Physical change forms no new substance while chemical change forms new
substance.
• Physical change gives out or absorbs no energy while chemical change gives out or
absorbs energy.
• In physical change the mass of the substance does not change while in chemical
change the mass of the substance changes.
• The change in physical change is reversible while the change in chemical change is
irreversible.

What is chemical reaction?

• Is the rearrangement of elements to form new product.

• Is it shown using equation.
• These equations can be
➢ Word equation
✓ The one that uses names of elements
❖ Hydrogen + oxygen water
➢ Diagram equation.
✓ The one that uses any symbols of your choice to represent elements.
✓ This should have a key to clarify what the symbol is representing.
❖ represents hydrogen
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 ❖ represents oxygen
❖ becomes water
❖ +
➢ Chemical equation
✓ Is the one in which chemical symbols of elements are used.
❖ H2 + O2 H2O

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 UNIT SEVEN

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

What are organic compounds?

• Are substances that contain carbon and hydrogen in their formulae.

• They are in the branch of chemistry called organic chemistry.

Which are the sources of organic compounds?

• Plants and animals

➢ Sugar
➢ Starch
➢ Fats dyes
➢ Drugs
• Petroleum
➢ Fossil fuel from dead organisms buried in under the rocks.
• Natural gases
➢ Found on top of crude oil
➢ Found under sea.
➢ Has 95% methane.
• Coal
➢ Formed under decayed plant materials subject to heat under pressure.

TAKE NOTE

• Fuel organic compounds undergo combustion readily and gives heat energy.
• Examples may include
➢ Solid fuel
✓ Charcoal
✓ Wood
✓ Coal
➢ Liquid fuel
✓ Petrol
✓ Kerosene
✓ Diesel
✓ Fuel oil.
✓ Ethanol (alcohol)
✓ Methylated spirit
➢ Gas fuel
✓ Natural gases
✓ Liquid petroleum gas
❖ Propane
❖ Butane
➢ Biogas
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 ✓ Methane
✓ Made using a machine called digester.

What are the uses of petroleum fractions?

• Liquid petroleum
➢ Fuel
• Petrol
➢ Powering vehicles.
• Kerosene
➢ Jet fuel
➢ Heating
➢ Lighting
• Diesel
➢ Powering heavy vehicles.
• Lubricants (lubricating oil, grease)
➢ Reducing friction in moving parts of machines or vehicles.
• Bitumen
➢ Tarmacking roads
➢ Repairing leaking roofs.

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