ROCK MECHANICS
UMIE 3112
Dr.-Ing. Henok Fikre
ROCK MECHANICS
COURSE OUTLINE
Introduction
Physical and mechnical prorperties of
rocks
Common insitu and laboratory tests
Stress and strain relationships
Rock failure theories
Insitu stress determination
Rock mass strength and classifications
Design of openings in rock
Stability analysis of rock slopes
Subsidence
ROCK MECHANICS
SUBSIDENCE
Definition
In the present context, subsidence is the lowering
of the ground surface following underground
extraction of an ore body. Subsidence is produced,
to a greater or a lesser degree, by almost all types
of underground mining. Surface displacement
may result from the redistribution of stresses
associated with excavation or from mining-related
activities such as de-watering.
Subsidence can be regarded as being of two types
– continuous and discontinuous.
ROCK MECHANICS
SUBSIDENCE
Definition
Continuous or trough subsidence involves the
formation of a smooth surface subsidence profile that
is free of step changes. The resulting displacements of
surface points may be of only elastic orders of
magnitude when compared with the dimensions of the
subsiding area or the mining depth. This type of
subsidence is usually associated with the extraction of
thin, horizontal or flat-dipping orebodies overlain by
weak, non-brittle sedimentary strata. It results from
the longwall mining of coal, but has also been
associated with the extraction of a wide variety of
other minerals such as sulphur and the evaporites
deposited in sedimentary environments.
ROCK MECHANICS
SUBSIDENCE
Definition
Continuous or trough subsidence
ROCK MECHANICS
SUBSIDENCE
Definition
Trough subsidence is closely linked to excavation
in stratified ground where extraction is 100% as in
mining a longwall panel or during pillar mining on
retreat from a room and pillar panel.
Some caving occurs in the immediate roof, but
remote strata flex in bending and create a
“trough” at the surface. Of course there are other
causes of land subsidence, for example, drawdown
of the water table. In any case, a major objective of
subsidence analysis is the description of the
trough.
ROCK MECHANICS
SUBSIDENCE
Definition
Discontinuous subsidence is characterised by
large surface displacements over limited surface
areas and the formation of steps or discontinuities
in the surface profile. It may be associated with a
number of mining methods, may involve a range
of mechanisms, may develop suddenly or
progressively, and may occur on a range of scales.
Figure illustrates some of the forms of
discontinuous subsidence.
Read Brady (16)
ROCK MECHANICS
SUBSIDENCE
Definition
Discontinuous subsidence
Plug subsidence
Crown holes
Chimney caving
Solution cavities
Block caving
Hanging wall caving
ROCK MECHANICS
SUBSIDENCE
Prediction of trough settlement
If an origin of coordinates Oxyz is fixed at the center of
a subsidence trough with the z-axis vertical, then a
subsidence trough is symbolically a function s(x,y)
where s is the downward vertical displacement of a
surface point at (x,y). Displacement of the considered
point may have horizontal components, but
traditionally only the vertical component is used to
define a subsidence trough. Methods of determining
the function s(x,y) include numerical analysis, curve
fitting to data, and an empirical approach based on
surveys of surface subsidence (Voight and Pariseau,
1970). This last approach is embodied in a handbook
published by the National Coal Board (NCB, 1975) of
the UK and is the approach described here.
ROCK MECHANICS
SUBSIDENCE
Prediction of trough settlement
Limit of subsidence
δ: angle of draw
h: mining height
H: mining depth
S: maximum subsidence
ROCK MECHANICS
SUBSIDENCE
Prediction of trough settlement
Limit of subsidence
In the UK, the angle of draw is typically 35◦. However,
observations in other coal basins of the world indicate
different angles of draw (Peng, 1978). A reason for
differences between coal basins is in the stratigraphic
column. In particular, the presence of much sandstone
is a likely cause for reduction in the angle of draw. In
the US, 28◦ degrees is a reasonable estimate for the
angle of draw. However, there are also differences
between coal mining districts within the US. Western
coal fields, for example, tend to have thick, massive
sandstone in the overburden and consequently smaller
angles of draw.
ROCK MECHANICS
SUBSIDENCE
Prediction of trough settlement
Maximum subsidence
A subsidence factor Sf is defined as the ratio of
maximum possible subsidence Smax to mining thickness
h. Unless excavation reaches a minimum size, no
surface subsidence occurs. This minimum size is
expected to depend on depth. In flat strata, maximum
subsidence is expected to occur in the center of a trough
directly above the center of the excavated panel. As
mining proceeds laterally in all directions beyond the
minimum size, subsidence increases until a critical area
Ac is reached beyond which no additional surface
subsidence is possible. This maximum (Smax) is the
greatest subsidence that is physically possible at the
given excavation height h.
ROCK MECHANICS
SUBSIDENCE
Prediction of trough settlement
Maximum subsidence
a is the subsidence factor
a= (S/h)max = Sf
= 0.9 in the UK,
= 0.65 in the US
ROCK MECHANICS
SUBSIDENCE
Prediction of trough settlement
Critical width
ROCK MECHANICS
SUBSIDENCE
Prediction of trough settlement
Correction
Although panel dimensions may
eventually lead to a maximum of
subsidence S, which may be less than
the maximum possible Smax, until face
advance reaches the critical width Wc, a
temporary maximum S occurs that is
less than S. A correction to S’ for face
advance is therefore needed to plot a
subsidence profile at limited face
advance. If this temporary subsidence
maximum is S’, then S’ = S(S’/S) where
the ratio S‘/S is obtained from next
Figure.
ROCK MECHANICS
SUBSIDENCE
Prediction of trough settlement
correction
ROCK MECHANICS
SUBSIDENCE
Prediction of trough settlement
Steps to constructing a subsidence profile
1. Determine the subsidence factor S/h from
where: W/H = excavation width to depth ratio and
h= excavation height.
2. Correct S for face advance, if desired, from
3. Determine s/S at selected points x/H along the profile
from Table 8.1
4. Calculate actual values of s and x, plot, and draw a
smooth curve through the plotted points. An exaggerated
vertical scale for subsidence s is needed relative to
distance scale for x to present the data in useful form.
ROCK MECHANICS
SUBSIDENCE
Prediction of trough settlement
ROCK MECHANICS
SUBSIDENCE
Example 1
Steps to constructing a subsidence profile
An underground coal mine uses the long wall mining
method in a seam 3 m thick at a depth of 300 m. Panels
are planned to be 240 m wide (face length) and 2,000 m
long. Determine the maximum subsidence that will
occur when the panel is completely mined and the
maximum subsidence that is expected after the face has
advanced 100 m. Assume UK conditions.
W/H = 240/300 = 0.8.
s/h = 0.9{1 − exp[−2.47(0.8)2]} = 0.715
Hence, the maximum subsidence after complete extraction is
S = 0.715(3) = 2.14 m.
When the face has advanced 100 m, a correction factor to S
may be obtained from S’/S = {1 − exp[−2.7(100/300)2]} = 0.259
Hence, at 100 m of face advance, the maximum subsidence is
S = (2.14)(0.259) = 0.56 m.
ROCK MECHANICS
SUBSIDENCE
Example 2
Consider the data given in Example 1 and assume UK
conditions. Estimate the width of the subsidence trough
as the panel nears completion.
Solution: Width of the subsidence trough is the
horizontal distance measured at the surface between
points of negligible surface movement. The sketch shows
the situation.
The trough width w = W + 2H tan(δ), that is, w = (240) +
(2)(300) tan(35) = 660 m. Note that under UK
conditions, an angle of draw of 35◦ is used.
ROCK MECHANICS
SUBSIDENCE
Example 3 Consider the data given in Example 1 and suppose
that three panels are mined side by side. Estimate the
maximum subsidence expected upon completion of the third
panel What is the maximum subsidence upon completion of
the second panel?
After mining three adjacent panels, the excavated area is
(3)(240) × 2,000 in plan view. The width of the excavation is
720 m, so the width to depth ratio is 720/300 = 2.40. This
number is off the graph in Figure 8.15, and indicates that the
ratio of maximum subsidence to excavation height S/h = 0.9.
Hence, S = (0.9)(3) = 2.7 m. This is the physically maximum
possible subsidence. Completion of the second panel leads to
an excavated width of 480 m and width to depth ratio of 1.6.
According to the data in Figure 8.15, the ratio S/h = 0.9, and
so the maximum subsidence is 2.7 m. The same result is
obtained using the associated equation. Evidently, excavation
of the third panel does not cause additional subsidence.
ROCK MECHANICS
SUBSIDENCE
Example 4 Develop a rib side subsidence profile for
conditions described in Example1
Solution: The width to depth ratio is 240/300 = 0.8.
At this ratio, the subsidence points
s/S = 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 0.95 1.00
are located at x/H ratios from the trough center
0.80 1.10 0.63 0.52 0.42 0.36 0.32 0.28 0.25 0.21 0.17 0.11 0.08 0.00
These data transform using S = 2.14 m from Example 8.19 and H =
300 from the given data. Thus,
s(m) = 0.00 0.11 0.21 0.42 0.64 0.86 1.07 1.28 1.50 1.71 1.93 2.03 2.14
x(m) = 330 189 156 126 108 96 84 75 63 51 33 24 0
ROCK MECHANICS
SUBSIDENCE
Example 4
