Inheritance, Variation and Evolution
Variation
● The difference among the population of the same species is known as Variation
● Can be
○ Genetic - Caused by differences in the genotype
○ Environmental - An organism’s genotype affects the phenotype
○ Both
● Mutation
○ Rare and random change in an organisms’ DNA
○ Occur continuously
○ Mutation causes changes in the proteins that it codes for.
Cystic Disorder - Mutations
● Cystic fibrosis is caused by genetic mutations
○ The gene codes for a protein that controls the movement of salt and water into an out of cells
○ The protein produced by the mutated gene does not work properly
○ This leads to excess mucus production in the lungs and digestive system
○ Makes it difficult to breathe and digest food
Evolution
● Theory of Evolution - All of today’s species have evolved from simple life forms that first started to develop
over three billion years ago.
○ Idea proposed by Charles Darwin
○ Organisms with the most suitable characteristics are the ones that are more likely to survive and
reproduce.
● Discoveries that help prove this theory
○ The discovery of fossils
○ Allows to see how organisms changed over a few years
● Speciation
○ The development of new species is known as Speciation
○ Happens when populations of the same species change enough to become reproductively isolated.
● Extinction - No individuals of species remain
○ Happens due to
Environmental changes
New predator / disease
Competition for resources
Catastrophic event
Selective Breeding
● When humans artificially select the plants or animals for the desired characteristics that they want.
● This is done for
○ Animals that produce more meat and milk
○ Crops with disease resistance
○ Dogs with good, gentle temperament
○ Decorative plants with big or unusual flowers.
● Process
○ Select the organisms that have desired characteristics
○ Breed them with each other
○ Select the best offsprings
○ Breed them together
○ Repeat this process over generation until the characteristic gets more stronger
● Negatives of Selective breeding
○ Reduces the gene pool - The number of different alleles in a population
○ This is known as Inbreeding.
● Inbreeding
○ Can cause health problems
○ Chance for organisms to inherit harmful genetic disorders
Genetic Engineering
● Transfer genes between organisms.
● Process
○ Useful gene is isolated and cut from one organism’s genome and inserted into a vector
○ Vector could be either bacteria or virus
○ The vector is then introduced to the organism
○ Useful gene is inserted into its cells.
● Purposes
○ Bacteria have been genetically modified to produce human insulin to treat diabetes
○ Genetically Modified crops
○ Sheep genetically modified to produce substances in their milk to help treat human diseases
● Cons
○ Some people say GM crops will affect wild flowers.
○ People are not convinced whether GM crops are safe.
○ Concern whether GM crops would enter the outer environment.
● Pros
○ GM crops can increase yield
○ Can be designed to have nutrients that humans lack in their diet
○ GM crops are grown in some places without any problems.
Fossils - Remains of dead plants and animals.
● Gradual Replacement
○ Things like teeth bones don't decay easily.
○ They are eventually replaced by minerals as they decay.
○ The surrounding sediments also turned to rock but the fossils stays distinct inside the rock
● From casts and impressions
○ Sometimes fossils are formed when organisms are buried in a soft material like clay.
○ Clay hardens and the organism decays leaving behind sediments
● Preservation
○ Places were no decay happens
○ There is no oxygen or moisture so microbes can’t survive
Negatives of Fossils
● Soft bodied organisms decay faster
● Fossils get destroyed by geological activity
Antibiotic Resistance
● Bacteria mutate to have some random changes in their DNA
● Bacteria reproduce rapidly, they can evolve quickly
● They are more likely to survive and reproduce
● This increases their population
● Reduce the population of Antibiotic resistance
○ Doctors must not over prescribe antibiotics
○ Patients must take the whole course of antibiotics
Classification X Y
● Carl Linnaeus System of Classification
○ Kingdom X XX XY
○ Phylum
X XX XY
○ Class
○ Order
○ Family
○ Genus
○ Species
● Changes in Classification
○ Archaea - Primitive Bacteria (Bacteria that lives in extreme conditions)
○ Bacteria - True bacteria
○ Eukaryota - PLants, animals, fungi and protists
● Evolutionary trees - how scientists think different species are related to each other.
DNA
● Deoxyribonucleic Acid
○ Contains coded information
○ Found in the nucleus as Chromosomes
○ Is a polymer
○ Two strands coiled up together to form a shape of a double helix
● Gene - A small section of a chromosome
● Genome - An entire set of genetic material in an Organisms
● Human Genome
○ Identify genes linked to different type of diseases
○ Find effective treatments for inherited disorders
○ Understand migration patterns of our ancestors
Reproduction
● Sexual Reproduction
○ Involves fusion of male and female gametes
○ Mother and Father produce gametes by meiosis
○ Humans - 23 pairs of chromosomes
○ Offspring inherits features from both parents
○ Mixture of genetic information creates variation
● Asexual Reproduction
○ Only one parent
○ Offsprings are genetically identical to each other - Clone
○ Happens by Mitosis
○ E.g. Bacteria, some plants and animals
○ No fusion of gametes, no mixing of chromosomes
○ No genetic variation
Meiosis
● Two cell divisions take place
● Process
○ The genetic material duplicates
○ Chromosomes line up at the centre
○ Pairs are then pulled apart to either sides of the cell
○ In the second division, chromosomes line up at the centre again and pulled apart to either sides of the
cell
○ Four gametes are produced, each with a single set of chromosomes
○ Happening for the transfer of genetic information from parents to their offsprings
○ Mitosis happening to repair and replace damaged or faulty cells
X and Y Chromosomes
● 23 pairs of chromosomes in every human body cell
● Males - XY
● Females - XX
● Pregnancy is a random process : Boy or Girl - 50% chance
Genetic Diagrams
● Allele
○ Different forms of same gene
● Homozygous
○ Both alleles must be the same for the characteristic to be displayed
● Heterozygous
○ Two alleles for a particular characteristic is different
● Dominant
○ The allele for the characteristic that is displayed
● Recessive
○ Both alleles are the same for the characteristic to be displayed
● Genotype
○ Combination of genes
● Phenotype
○ Characteristic determine your alleles
Inherited disorders
● Polydactyly
○ Baby is born with extra fingers or toes
○ Caused by a dominant allele - DD or Dd
○ Is not life threatening
● Cystic Fibrosis
○ Disorder of producing thick mucus in the air passages and in the pancreas
○ Caused by recessive allele : cc
● Embryonic screening - In Vitro Fertilisation
○ Pros
Help to stop people suffering
Treating disorders cost lots of money
○ Cons
People with genetic problems are undesirable
Enables the parents to select the desirable ones
Screening is expensive
