ATOMIC PHYSICS

Synoptic Notes for Physics 5054 and Science 5124/1

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Written by P.M. Cheelo Edited by G.A. Likolo

 SECTION ONE
The Concept of Radioactivity

1.1 A Synopsis on Radioactivity

Radioactivity is spontaneous emission of radiation from the nucleus of an unstable isotope. An
unstable isotope is known as a radioactive isotope. The radiation emitted from its nucleus is
called nuclear radiation.
Emission of nuclear radiation is spontaneous. This means that it does not require external
stimulation. Radioactivity is a random process. Its occurrence cannot be predicted.

1.2 Types of Nuclear Radiation

There are three types of nuclear radiation. These are alpha particles, beta particles and gamma
rays. Generally, nuclear radiation can cause ionisation.
1.2.1 Alpha Particles
Description Symbol Electric Charge Mass
(u)

• An alpha particle is • The symbol • An alpha particle is 4

a nucleus of a representing an positively charged.
helium atom. alpha particle is α
or .
1.2.2 Beta Particles
Description Symbol Electric Charge Mass
(u)

• A beta particle is an • The symbol • A beta particle is

electron. representing a beta negatively charged.
particle is − β or
− .

1.2.3 Gamma Rays

Description Symbol Electric Charge Mass
(u)

• A gamma ray is an • The symbol • A gamma ray has no • A gamma ray is

electromagnetic representing a charge. massless
wave of short gamma ray is γ .
wavelength.

1.3 Effect of an Electric Field on Nuclear Radiation

An electric eld causes de ection of alpha particles and beta particles but it does not affect
gamma rays.
When a mixture of sources emits alpha, beta and gamma radiation into an electric eld, the
alpha particles de ect toward the negative side of the eld and the beta particles de ect toward
the positive side of the eld. The gamma rays pass through the electric eld without getting
de ected. This is because they have no charge.
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 As they pass through an electric eld, beta particles are de ected more than alpha particles. This
is because beta particles are less massive compared to alpha particles.

1.4 Effect of a Magnetic Field on Nuclear Radiation

A magnetic eld de ects charged particles. So it can separate nuclear radiation from a mixture
of sources by de ecting the alpha particles and the beta particles. Gamma radiation is not
de ected because it has no charge.
The alpha particle and the beta particles passing through a magnetic eld de ect in opposite
directions.

1.5 Ionising and Penetrating capacities of Nuclear Radiations

The three types of nuclear radiation have different ionising and penetrating capacities. These are
summed up in the table below.
Type of Nuclear Radiation Ionising Capacity Penetrating Capacity

Alpha particles • Alpha are the most • Alpha particles are the
ionising least penetrating

Beta particles • Beta particles are • Beta particles a

moderately ionising moderately penetrating

Gamma rays • Gamma rays are the least • Gamma rays are the most
ionising penetrating

1.6 Detecting Nuclear Radiation

There are many ways of detecting nuclear radiation. Particularly:
• alpha particles can be detected using a cloud chamber, a spark counter, an ionisation
chamber, or a Geiger-Muller tube;
• beta particles can be detected using a cloud chamber, a photographic plate, or a Geiger-
Muller tube;
• gamma can also be detected using methods that apply to detection of beta particles.
However, should be noted that detection of gamma rays is not easy because their capacity to
cause ionisation is negligible.

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 SECTION TWO
Nuclear Decay Processes

2.1 Alpha Decay

Alpha decay is characterised by emission of an alpha particle from the a radioactive nucleus.
When it occurs, the proton number of the nucleus decreases by 2 and the nucleon number
decreases by 4.
The decay can be expressed in equation form as
→ −− + (2.1)
where A is nucleon number, Z is proton number, X is the parent nuclide, and Y is the daughter
nuclide.
For example, alpha decay of uranium-238 can be represented by the equation
→ + .

Example 2.1.1

Question:
Radium-226 ( ) is an alpha emitter. When it decays, radon ( Rn ) is produced.
(a) Write an equation representing alpha decay of radium-226.
(b) State the nuclear composition of the daughter nuclide.

Answer:
(a) → +
(b) 84 protons and 136 neutrons

Exercise 2.1.1

Bismuth-212 ( ) decays by alpha emission to produce Thallium ( Tl ).

(a) Write an equation representing alpha decay of bismuth-212.
(b) Copy and complete the table to show information about the daughter nuclide.

Number of protons Number of neutrons

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 2.2 Beta Decay
Beta decay is characterised by emission of a beta particle from the a radioactive nucleus. When
it occurs, the proton number of the nucleus increases by 1 and the nucleon number remains
unchanged..
The decay can be expressed in equation form as
→ + + − (2.2)
where A is nucleon number, Z is proton number, X is the parent nuclide, and Y is the daughter
nuclide.
For example, beta decay of carbon-14 can be represented by the equation
→ + − .

Example 2.2.1

Question:
Sodium-24 ( ) undergoes beta decay. Magnesium ( Mg ) is produced in the
process.
(a) Write an equation representing beta decay of sodium-24.
(b) State the nuclear composition of the daughter nuclide.

Answer:
(a) → + −
(b) 12 protons and 12 neutrons

Exercise 2.2.1

The equation
→ + −
represents beta decay of boron-12.
(a) Write the values of P and Q.
(b) Name the daughter nuclide produced in this process.
(c) State the nuclear composition of the daughter nuclide.

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 SECTION THREE
Half-life ( )

3.1 De nition of Half-life

Half-life of a radioactive substance is the time it takes half of the radioactive nuclei in its sample
to decay.

3.2 Determining Half-life by Graphical Analysis

A graph of a quantity such as mass, number of atoms, or activity plotted against time can be
used to determine half-life of a radioactive substance.

160

mass
/g 120

80

40

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
time
/ days

Fig. 3.1

From gure 3.1, half-life of the radioactive substance can be determined as shown below.

= −
= −
= .

3.3 Application of the Exponential Decay Law of Radioactivity

The exponential decay law of radioactivity can be expressed in mathematical form as

( )
= (3.1)

with
= (3.2)

where is the number of radioactive nuclei present at time t, is the number of radioactive
nuclei at time t = 0, and is half-life.

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 From eqs. (3.1) and (3.2),

[ ]
= (3.3)
( )
and

( )
[ ]
= (3.4)

can be obtained.

Example 3.3.1

Question:
A sample of radioactive material contains . × atoms of strontium-90. Given that
the half-life of strontium-90 is 29 years, calculate the number of strontium-90 atoms that
are going to remain in the sample after 87 years.

Answer:
= = = .

Therefore,

( )
=

( )
= . × ×

= . × .

Exercise 3.3.1

The half-life of a radioactive isotope X is four days. A fresh sample of radioactive

material contains 32 mg of isotope X.
(a) What mass of isotope X will be remaining when the sample is 12 days old?
(b) Determine the mass of isotope X which decays in 12 days.
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 Example 3.3.2

Question:
After 30 minutes, the activity of a sample of an unknown type of radioactive material
was found to have decreased to 12.5 % of its initial activity. Calculate the half-life of the
material.

Answer:

[ ]
=
( )

[ )]
= ×
(
%
. %
= .

Exercise 3.3.2

The mass of a sample of iodine-131 decreased from 500 mg to 125 mg in 16 days.

What is the half-life of iodine-131?

Example 3.3.3

Question:
The half-life of carbon-14 is 6000 years. How long would it take the activity of a sample
of carbon-14 to decrease from 4 Bq to 1 Bq?

Answer:

( )
[ ]
=

( )
[ ]
= ×

= .

Exercise 3.3.3
The half-life of radium-226 is . × years. How much time elapses before the
activity of a sample of radium-226 falls to of its initial value?
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 SECTION FOUR
Background Radiation

4.1 Concept of Background Radiation

Background radiation is detected radiation which is not from a source that is practically
identi able. It can be detected by a Geiger-Muller tube with an auxiliary in form of a counter in
the absence of a tangible source.

4.2 Sources of Background Radiation

Background radiation is from sources other than those that may be under investigation. It is
generally postulated background radiation is from such sources as:
• the outer cosmos, and
• the earth’s crust.

4.3 Corrected Activity

In investigations on radioactivity, corrected activity is obtained by applying the relation
=
(4.1) −
where is the corrected activity, is activity detected in the absence of a source, and is
activity detected in the presence of a source.
It should be noted that the activity detected in the absence of a source is due to background
radiation.

Example 4.3.1

Question:
A student set up a Geiger-Muller counter in a school playground obtained the results
2 Bq, 1 Bq and 3 Bq in the absence of a source of nuclear radiation. When the student
held a radioactive rock near the window of a the Geiger-Muller tube, the counter
displayed an activity of 27 Bq.
(a) Estimate the activity due to background radiation.
(b) Suggest the reason why the background activity varies.
(c) Determine the corrected activity.

Answer:
+ +
(a) = = .
(b) The background activity varies on account of randomness of radioactivity.
(c) = − = − = .

Exercise 4.3.1
Before a sample of radioactive material is brought near a Geiger-Muller tube, the
reading on its accompanying counter is 22 counts per minute. The reading escalates to
132 counts per minute when the material is held near the Geiger-Muller tube. What is
the count rate of the radioactive material?

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 SECTION FIVE
Applications of Radioactivity

5.1 Practical Uses of Radioactivity

There are many practical uses of radioactive isotopes. The following are some of them:
• radio-carbon dating
• smoke detection
• tracing (in medicine and biochemical research)
• automated thickness gauging ( production of metal sheets and paper sheets)
• treatment of cancer
• sterilisation of medical equipment
• electrical power production (by ssion in nuclear reactors)

5.2 Hazards associated with use of Radioactive Materials

• Nuclear radiation causes cancer;
• Nuclear radiation can impact plant growth negatively.

5.3 Safety Precautions in Use of Radioactive Materials

• Keeping distance (by using long tongs when handling radioactive materials);
• Minimising time of exposure to nuclear radiation (by wearing badges meant to monitor
extent of exposure);
• Using using lead shields or lead-impregnated aprons when using radioactive materials.

5.4 Storage of Radioactive Materials

When not in use, radioactive materials should be stored in lead-lined boxes.

5.5. Disposal of Radioactive Materials

Disposal of radioactive materials should be done with great caution. Usually, it is recommended
to bury them in restricted places far from places inhabited by humans after encapsulating them
in thick concrete.

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