### 1. Cross Where a Heterozygous F11 is Crossed with the Parent of Recessive Trait The cross where a heterozygous F11 is crossed with a parent of the recessive trait is known as a **test cross**. In a test cross, the genotype of an individual showing a dominant phenotype (but whose genotype is unknown) is determined by crossing it with an individual expressing the recessive phenotype. For example, if we consider a plant witha dominant trait (T for tall) and a recessive trait (t for dwarf), a heterozygous F1 plant (Tt) is crossed with a homozygous recessive parent (tt). The expected genotypes of the offspring from this test cross would be:- **Tt (Tall)** - **tt (Dwarf)** The phenotypic ratio of the offspring will be 1:1, indicating that half the offspring will exhibit the dominant trait, and the other half will exhibit the recessive trait. ### 2. Phenotypic Proportion in Offspring of Cross Between Tall Plant with Yellow Seeds and Tall Plant with Green Seeds Considering Mendel's laws of inheritance, if we cross a tall plant with yellow seeds (genotype TtYy) with a tall plant with green seeds (genotype TtYy), we need to determine the proportion of the following phenotypes in the offspring: - **Tall & Green (T_Y_yy)**- **Dwarf & Green (ttY_yy)** Using the Punnett square method for dihybrid crosses, we get the following phenotypic proportions: (a) **Tall & Green:** There are multiple genotypic combinations for tall and green: TTyy, Ttyy. - Probability: 3/16 (T_Y_yy) + 3/16 (Ttyy) = 6/16 or 3/8 (b) **Dwarf & Green:** - Probability: 1/16 (ttY_yy) + 1/16 (ttyy) = 2/16 or 1/8 ### 3. Genotypes of Parents and Possible Genotypes in Case of Father with A Blood Group, Mother with B Blood Group, and Child with O Blood GroupTo have a child with an O blood group, both parents must carry the recessive allele for blood group O. Blood group O is characterized by the genotype ii. The parents with blood group A and B must each have one allele for O (i) and one for A (IA) and B (IB), respectively. - **Father:** IAi (A blood group) - **Mother:** IBi (B blood group) - **Child:** ii (O blood group) Possible genotypes of other offspring from these parents could be: - **/AIB (AB blood group)** - **/Ai (A blood group)** - **|Bi (B blood group)** ### 4. Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance The chromosomal theory of inheritancewas proposed by **Walter Sutton** and **Theodor Boveri** independently in the early 20th century. This theory explains that genes are located on chromosomes, which are the basis for the transmission of genetic information. ### 5. Three Kinds of Mutagens Mutagens are agents that cause mutations in the DNA. Three kinds of mutagens include: - **Physical Mutagens:** Such as X-rays, UV light, and radioactive substances. - **Chemical Mutagens:** Including substances like mustard gas, benzene, and aflatoxin. - **Biological Mutagens:** Certain viruses and transposable elements (jumping genes) can also cause mutations.### 6. Determining the Trait in a Pedigree Chart Without a specific pedigree chart, it's challenging to determine the exact type of inheritance. However, here's a general approach to analyzing a pedigree chart: - **Autosomal Dominant:** The trait typically appears in every generation. Both males and females are equally likely to be affected. - **Autosomal Recessive:** The trait can skip generations, and carriers may not show symptoms. Both males and females are equally affected. - **Sex-Linked (typically X-linked):** More males are affected due to having only one X chromosome. Affected males cannot pass the trait to their sons, but daughterscan be carriers. ### 7. Allelomorphic Pair An allelomorphic pair consists of two alleles (alternative forms of a gene) located at the same locus on homologous chromosomes. They can be dominant or recessive and determine variations in the inherited characteristics (e.g., T and t for plant height). ### 8. Human Male as Heterogametic Human males are referred to as heterogametic because they produce two types of gametes (sperm) with respect to the sex chromosomes: one type with an X chromosome and one type with a Y chromosome. In contrast, females are homogametic, producing only one type ofgamete (egg) with an X chromosome. ### 9. Linked Genes and Identification Linked genes are genes located close together on the same chromosome and tend to be inherited together during meiosis. They do not follow Mendel's law of independent assortment. A pair of linked genes can be identified through genetic linkage studies and analysis of recombination frequencies. If genes are linked, the offspring will show a higher proportion of parental type phenotypes compared to recombinant phenotypes. ### 10. Inheritance with Same Genotypic and Phenotypic Ratios The type of inheritance where the genotypic ratio is the same as thephenotypic ratio is **incomplete dominance**. In incomplete dominance, the heterozygous genotype results ina phenotype that is intermediate between the two homozygous phenotypes, leading to a 1:2:1 ratio in both genotype and phenotype. ### 11. Heterogametic and Homogametic in Fruit Fly and Fowl - **Male Fruit Fly (Drosophila) & Female Fowl:** Heterogametic because they produce two types of gametes concerning the sex chromosomes (XY in male fruit fly and ZW in female fowl). - **Female Fruit Fly & Male Fowl:** Homogametic because they produce only one type of gamete with respect to the sex chromosomes (XX in female fruit fly and ZZ in male fowl).### 12. Haemophilic Patient A) Ahaemophilic patient suffers due to a deficiency in one of the clotting factors necessary for blood coagulation. This leads to prolonged bleeding even from minor injuries, spontaneous bleeding, and increased risk of joint and internal bleeding. Hemophilia is typically an X- linked recessive disorder, which means it predominantly affects males. ### B) Mechanism of Hemophilia Inheritance and Probability of Hemophilic DaughterHemophilia is typically an X-linked recessive disorder. This means the gene responsible for hemophilia is located on the X chromosome. Here’s how the inheritance mechanism works: - **Normal Male (XY):** Has one X and one Y chromosome, with no hemophilia gene on the X chromosome. - **Carrier Female (XhX):** Has one normal X chromosome and one X chromosome with the hemophilia gene (Xh). When a carrier female (XhX) marries a normal male (XY), the possible offspring can be: - Sons (XY or XhY): - 50% chance of being normal (XY) - 50% chance of being hemophilic (XhY)- Daughters (XX or XhX): - 50% chance of being normal (XX) - 50% chance of being a carrier (XhX) If ason is hemophilic, it means he inherited the Xh chromosome from his carrier mother. For a daughter to be hemophilic, she would need to inherit the Xh chromosome from both parents. Since the father is normal and does not have an Xh chromosome, the probability of a hemophilic daughter is 0%. ### 12. Blood Groups of Progeny with Blood Group O Mother and AB Father The mother with blood group O has the genotype ii, and the father with blood group AB has the genotype IAIB. The possible blood groups of the progeny are determined by the combinations of thesealleles: - **Mother (ii):** Can only pass on the i allele. - **Father (IAIB):** Can pass on either IA Ome The possible combinations and resulting blood groups of the progeny are: - **|Aj (A blood group)** - **|Bi (B blood group)** Therefore, the children can either have blood group A or blood group B. There are no other possibilities since the mother can only contribute the i allele. HH 13 ##+# a) Possible Genotypes of Members 4,5,and6 **Member 4:** - **Phenotype:** Male without hemophilia - **Genotype:** XY (normal, since hemophilia is recessive and located on the X chromosome) **Member 5:** - **Phenotype:** Male without hemophilia - **Genotype:** XY (normal, same reasoning as above) **Member 6:** - **Phenotype:** Female without hemophilia - **Genotype:** XX or XHX (carrier), where XH is the normal allele and Xh is the hemophilia allele. - Since member 6’s mother is unaffected and her father is unaffected, member 6 canbe either a carrier (XHXh) or normal (XX). Without further information, we consider both possibilities. ##+# b) Probability of Hemophilic Male Child **Parents: Member 14 (carrier) and Member 15 (normal)** - **Member 14 (Mother):** XHXh (carrier for hemophilia) - **Member 15 (Father):** XY (normal) When a carrier female (XHXh) marries a normal male (XY), the possible offspring can be: - **Male Offspring:** - 50% chance of being normal (XY) - 50% chance of being hemophilic (XhY)- **Female Offspring:** - 50% chance of being normal (XX or XHXH) - 50% chance of being a carrier (XHXh) To find the probability of the first child being a hemophilic male: - The probability of having a male child is 50%. - The probability of that male child being hemophilic is 50%. Thus, the combined probability is: \[0.5 \times 0.5 = 0.25 \text{ or 25%} \] Therefore, there is a 25% probability that their first child will be a hemophilic male. ### 14. Gene |in ABO Blood GroupingThe gene | that controls the ABO blood grouping has three alleles: IA, IB, and i. a) **Number of Different Genotypes:** There are six possible genotypes: - lAIA - IAi - IBIB - IBi - IAIB - ii b) **Number of Different Phenotypes:** There are four possible phenotypes: - Blood group A (IAIA or IAi) - Blood group B (IBIB or IBi) - Blood group AB (IAIB) - Blood group O (ii) ### 15. Law of Independent Assortment with the Help of a CrossMendel’s law of independent assortment states that alleles of different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation. This law is exemplified by a dihybrid cross. **Example: Cross Between Plants with Two Traits:** - **Parent Generation (P):** YYRR (yellow, round seeds) x yyrr (green, wrinkled seeds) - **F] Generation:** All offspring are YyRr (yellow, round seeds) When F1 individuals (YyRr) are crossed, the F2 generation shows independent assortment of these traits. Using a Punnett square, the F2 generation will have a phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1:- **9 Yellow, Round (YYRR, YYRr, YyRR, YyRr)** - **3 Yellow, Wrinkled (YYrr, Yyrr)** - **3 Green, Round (yyRR, yyRr)** - **1 Green, Wrinkled (yyrr)** This ratio demonstrates that the alleles for seed color (Y and y) and seed shape (R and r) segregate independently. ### 16. Point Mutation A point mutation is a genetic mutation where a single nucleotide base is changed, inserted, or deleted from a DNA sequence. An example of a point mutation is **sickle cell anemia**, caused by a substitution of adenine (A) with thymine (T) in the hemoglobin gene, leading to the amino acid valine replacing glutamic acid.### 17. Parallel Behavior of Genes and Chromosomes Genes and chromosomes show parallel behavior due to the following reasons: - **Segregation:** Both genes (alleles) and homologous chromosomes segregate during meiosis, ensuring that each gamete receives only one allele of each gene and one chromosome of each pair. - **|ndependent Assortment:** Genes located on different chromosomes assort independently during gamete formation, just like the chromosomes themselves. - **Recombination:** Genes can recombine during crossover events in meiosis, similar to the exchange of segments between homologous chromosomes.This parallel behavior supports the chromosomal theory of inheritance, which states that genes are located on chromosomes and follow the same principles during inheritance. ### B) . Why does a gamete contain a single chromosome out of a pair of homologous chromosomes? During meiosis, which is the process of forming gametes (sperm and egg cells), homologous chromosomes are separated into different cells. This ensures that each gamete contains only one chromosome from each pair, reducing the chromosome number by half, which is crucial for maintaining the species’ chromosome number after fertilization. During fertilization, the gametes from each parent combine, restoring the diploid state in theoffspring. ### 18. Chromosomes in Drosophila a) **How many pairs of chromosomes are found in Drosophila?** Drosophila melanogaster, commonly known as the fruit fly, has 4 pairs of chromosomes. This includes three pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. b) **How many homologous chromosomes are present in male Drosophila?** In male Drosophila, there are three pairs of homologous autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes, which are not homologous (XY). Therefore, males have a total of 3 pairs of homologous chromosomes. ### 19. Name two sex-linked diseases of human beings.Two common sex-linked diseases in humans are: 1. **Hemophilia:** A disorder that affects the blood's ability to clot, leading to excessive bleeding. 2. **Color blindness:** An inability to distinguish between certain colors, most commonly red and green. ### 20. Differentiate between complete and incomplete linkage. - **Complete Linkage:** Occurs when genes are located very close to each other on the same chromosome and are inherited together without crossing over. The offspring show parental combinations of traits only. - **Incomplete Linkage:** Occurs when genes are located on the same chromosome but are far enough apart that crossing over can occur between them,leading to new combinations of traits in the offspring. ### 21. Mechanism of Sex-Determination in Humans In humans, sex determination is based on the presence of sex chromosomes. Females have two X chromosomes (XX), while males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY). The SRY gene on the Y chromosome triggers the development of male characteristics. During reproduction, the sex of the offspring is determined by the sperm, which can carry either an X ora Y chromosome, combining with the X chromosome from the egg. ### 22. Differentiate between Test Cross and Back Cross a) ai eS ty GOSS aaa - **Definition:** A cross between anindividual with an unknown genotype and a homozygous recessive individual. - **Purpose:** To determine the genotype of the unknown individual by analyzing the phenotypes of the offspring. b) BeBacki@ross:2m - **Definition:** A cross between an F1 individual (heterozygous) and one of the parental genotypes. - **Purpose:** To determine the genotype of the F1 hybrid and to achieve desired traits in offspring. b) **Co-dominance and Incomplete Dominance:** - **Co-dominance:** Both alleles ina heterozygote are fully expressed, resulting in offspring with a phenotype that shows both traits equally. Example: Blood type AB in humans, where both A and B alleles areexpressed. - **Incomplete Dominance:** The phenotype of a heterozygote is intermediate between the phenotypes of the homozygotes. Example: In snapdragons, crossing a red-flowered plant (RR) with a white-flowered plant (rr) produces pink-flowered offspring (Rr). ### 23. Child with Down Syndrome A 45-year-old woman delivered a child with a flattened nasal bridge, habitually open mouth, and a large protruding tongue. This child is likely suffering from Down syndrome, a genetic disorder caused by the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21). Advanced maternal age increases the risk of chromosomal abnormalities during meiosis.### 24. Sex-Linked Inheritance Sex-linked inheritance refers to the pattern of inheritance for genes located on sex chromosomes (X or Y). Since males have only one X chromosome, a single recessive allele on this chromosome will result in the expression of the trait. In females, two copies of the recessive allele are required. An example is hemophilia, which is more common in males due to the presence of a single X chromosome. ### 25. Dihybrid Cross: Tall Plant with Purple Flowers and Dwarf Plant with White Flowers - **Parent Generation (P):** Tall, purple- flowered plant (TTPP) x Dwarf, white- flowered plant (ttpp) - **F1] Generation:** All offspring are heterozygous (TtPp), showing tall stature and purple flowers.- **F2 Generation:** The F1 generation (TtPp) self-crosses to produce a variety of combinations in the F2 generation. Using a punnet square. Phenotypic ratio: - 9 Tall, purple (TTPP, TTPp, TtPP, TtPp) - 3 Tall, white (TTpp, Ttpp) - 3 Dwarf, purple (ttPP, ttPp) - 1 Dwarf, white (ttpp)### 26. Hemophilia in Females and Birth of Hemophilic Son a) **Why females do not suffer from hemophilia?** Females have two X chromosomes, so if one X carries the hemophilia allele, the other X can compensate with a normal allele, making them carriers but not affected. Males have only one X chromosome, so the presence of a hemophilia allele results in the disorder. b) **Reason for the birth of a hemophilic son from a normal couple:** The mother could be a carrier (XHXh) without showing symptoms, while the father is normal (XY). The son inherits the Xh from the mother and the Y from the father, resulting in hemophilia (XhY). ### 27. Fill in the Blanksa) In human beings, males have XY and females have XX chromosomes. The sex chromosomes segregate during: i) **Meiosis division.** ii) **50% of produced sperms contain the X chromosome.** iii) **50% of produced sperms contain the Y chromosome.** iv) **50% of egg of randomly mated, the ratio of sex expression is 1:1.** v) **The sex of offspring is determined by the sperm that fertilizes the egg (whether it carries an X or Y chromosome).** Feel free to ask if you need further explanations or have more questions!