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The narrative strategies of B2B technology brands

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DOI: 10.1108/JBIM-03-2019-0112

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 The narrative strategies of B2B
technology brands
Gaël Bonnin
Department of Marketing, Smart Products and Consumption Institute, NEOMA Business School, Reims, France and
Laboratoire Regards, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France, and
Mauricio Rodriguez Alfonso
Department of Marketing, Higher School for Economic and Social Development (ESDES), Lyon, France and
Laboratoire Regards, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France

Abstract
Purpose – With the rise of digital media and content marketing, business-to-business (B2B) technology firms increasingly use narratives in their
marketing strategy. If research has studied the impact of narrative on audiences, the structuration of the narrative strategies is still an overlooked
area. The purpose of this paper is to understand the structuration of narrative strategies.
Design/methodology/approach – Authors studied the cases of narratives on the Internet of Things produced by two leading technology firms, IBM and
Cisco, between 2012 and 2016. Material includes advertising campaigns, blogs, written customer cases, white papers, public speeches and selling discourses.
Findings – The research highlights the importance of metanarratives as the core of the structuration of seemingly different contents. It also shows
how firms tap into fundamental mythic archetypes and broader sociocultural narratives to try and legitimate the emerging technology. Finally,
research also introduces the concept of transmedia strategy and illustrates its use by the two firms studied.
Research limitations/implications – The results are based on only two cases of multinational firms, limiting the generalization of the findings.
Practical implications – The results of the research may encourage firms to use more narrative branding strategies. They also offer directions for
the key elements to manage when elaborating a narrative strategy (defining key metanarratives, identifying and using broader sociocultural
narratives, designing a transmedia strategy).
Originality/value – The paper is among the first to try to understand the structuration of narrative branding strategies. While exploratory, it
contributes to research on B2B branding and digital branding by bringing the narrative into B2B branding research.
Keywords Narratives, Internet of things, Artificial intelligence, B2B brands, Transmedia
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction Brands are central assets for business firms (Dabirian et al.,
Forthcoming; Ducan et al., Forthcoming; Seyedghorban et al.,
“Position: Marketing Storyteller – Digital Story
2016), but the understanding of the role of narratives in
Company: Cisco France
branding strategies is still limited. The rare investigations have
Job Description tended to focus on the impact of narratives on, and their use by,
[. . .] You will create engaging content which communicates our story and audiences (Gilliam and Flaherty, 2015; Lowe and Hwang,
drives awareness and demand in France.
2012; Wallnöfer and Hacklin, 2013). Simakova and Neyland
(Job Opportunity, posted on Cisco website, February 2017). (2008) proposed a rare foray into the issue of narrative making
Like Cisco in the example above, technology firms (e.g. in a business-to-business (B2B) context. However, they
General Electric, Intel, IBM and Boeing) increasingly go concentrated on the content of one dominant story. In other
beyond traditional functional or emotional communication words, research on narratives has mostly taken a “molecular”
strategies and use narratives to legitimize and institutionalize approach, focusing on one story or one specific medium, often
their technology products and markets. The ability to design digital. Narratives are studied as a component of a specific
compelling narratives is also crucial for smaller technology- advertising content. This focus fails to offer a comprehensive
based businesses to create an identity and attract investors view of how the multiple elements making a narrative are
(Törmälä and Gyrd-Jones, 2017; Wallnöfer and Hacklin, combined and of the overall structure of narrative strategies.
2013). The central questions of our research are: How is a B2B
narrative strategy structured? What are the constituents of a

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on
Emerald Insight at: www.emeraldinsight.com/0885-8624.htm This paper forms part of a special section “Emerging Technologies in
Business and Industrial Marketing”, guest edited by Jeannette Paschen,
Leyland Pitt and Jan Kietzmann.
Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing
34/7 (2019) 1448–1458 Received 16 March 2019
© Emerald Publishing Limited [ISSN 0885-8624] Revised 18 March 2019
[DOI 10.1108/JBIM-03-2019-0112] Accepted 24 April 2019

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Gaël Bonnin and Mauricio Rodriguez Alfonso Volume 34 · Number 7 · 2019 · 1448–1458

narrative strategy, and how are they assembled? What are the IMC (Kolsarici and Vakratsas, 2018; Vandeberg et al., 2015).
implications of a narrative approach for B2B technology firms? However, research on the consequences of IMC for the
To address these questions, we study the cases of two high- message itself is rare, and it is often understood as a “one-
technology companies, often cited as exemplary in their use of voice,” “one-sound” and “one-sight” process (Orazi et al.,
narratives: Cisco and IBM. 2017; Šeric, 2017) to guarantee consistency. The question of
We start by presenting the conceptual background of this how to ensure consistency, while incorporating evolutions in
research, drawing on branding and narrative theories. We then theories of branding, remains open.
explain the methodology of our case study. Following this, we To sum up, narratives are an essential component of brand
present two main results of our analysis: the creation of a strategies. Research on the topic is rare and leaves unanswered
rhizomatic narrative world, by simple variations on a single the following questions: How is an overall B2B narrative
basic metanarrative; the use of transmedia strategy, strategy structured? How are the different elements comprising
characterized by a relative autonomy of the creation of a narrative assembled? What are the implications of a narrative
narratives, which contrasts with the “adaptation perspective” approach for B2B technology firms?
that prevails in branding theory where only minor changes to To answer these questions, we begin with an account of
the brand story are permitted. narrative theory.

2. Conceptual background 2.2 Narrative theory and narrative infrastructure

Since the 1980s, social sciences have recognized that there are
2.1 Business-to-business brands and narratives two ways of making sense of the world and communicating,
Branding theories are evolving, and several scholars have namely, the paradigmatic mode and the narrative mode
highlighted the limitations of the so-called dominant “strategic (Bruner, 1987; Polkinghorne, 1988). The paradigmatic mode
brand management” approach and the benefits of a of knowing refers to formalized, rational, abstract and often
sociocultural approach incorporating narratives. mathematical accounts. Narrative mode of knowing on the
The first evolution proposes that brands are not merely contrary rest on stories, a series of actions that refer to specific
conveyors of benefits, either functional or emotional (Leek and contexts (Bruner, 1987; Polkinghorne, 1988).
Christodoulides, 2011). They are also purveyors of meaning, To offer a fine-grained explanation of various phenomena,
which helps people or organization make sense of events and organization studies, strategy and marketing researchers (Cayla
negotiate identities, especially when they experience tensions or and Arnould, 2013; Czarniawska, 2004; Fenton and Langley,
contradictions (Diamond et al., 2009; Holt, 2002). 2011; Vaara et al., 2016) have resorted to narrative theory. In
Another evolution is the recognition that brand meaning is B2B marketing, research has focused on the innovation process
constructed by and negotiated with multiple stakeholders. The (Araujo and Easton, 2012), investment decisions (Wallnöfer
monolithic, authoritative model of brand building and and Hacklin, 2013), sales relationships (Gilliam and Flaherty,
management should leave room for branding as a “gestalt” and 2015), and the formation of identities within business networks
brand management as “multilogue” and “continuous (Lowe and Hwang, 2012).
stabilization” (Diamond et al., 2009; Stevens and Maclaran, However, the question of the narrative structure itself has
2007; Törmälä and Gyrd-Jones, 2017; Visconti, 2010). rarely been studied, in spite of its importance (Bublitz et al.,
Thus, branding should be approached as a myth-making 2016; Preece and Kerrigan, 2015; Simakova and Neyland,
process, in which brands are cultural narrators (Holt, 2003; 2008; Törmälä and Gyrd-Jones, 2017; van Laer et al., 2014;
Visconti, 2010; Woodside, 2010). This conceptual evolution is Visconti, 2010). The rare endeavors generally focus on a single,
recent, and research in B2B is rare. While the narrative often digital, media or on the content of one specific narrative,
approach is beginning to gain support, this does not concern aiming to identify the key features of a good story: characters
branding, if we except the recent work of Törmälä and Gyrd- (entities that act and react), temporality (chronological
Jones (2017), who view brand identity as a narrative ordering of events) and causality (a causal link between events)
performance. While Lipiäinen and Karjaluoto (2015) stress (Bublitz et al., 2016; Visconti, 2010). Good choices for these
that the content creation and its delivery through social media features will induce emotional reactions and transportation in
are important strategies to support brands, they leave the audience (van Laer et al., 2014).
unanswered the question of how this content is structured. However, brands often deliver more than just one story
Finally, a narrative approach to branding stems from the through one media. The question of the overall structure of a
challenges raised by the proliferation of media through which narrative brand strategy has not been addressed. This requires
content is delivered and circulates (Diba et al., Forthcoming; Li the use and definition of additional concepts from narrative
and Zhang, Forthcoming; Nath et al., Forthcoming). To theory.
account for this phenomenon, the concepts of integrated First, we need to clarify the concept of narrative and its
marketing communication (IMC) and cross-media difference from the concept of story, for they are often used
communication have been forged. IMC is generally defined as interchangeably. We follow Porter Abbot (2015):
the “audience-driven business process of strategically [. . .] narrative is the representation of events consisting of story and
managing stakeholders, contents, channels and results of brand narrative discourse; story is an event or a sequence of events (the action);
and narrative discourse is those events as represented.
communication programs” (Kliatchko, 2008, p. 140).
Research on the content of IMC concentrates on how the More precisely, our unit of analysis is the narrative
message is delivered through a variety of media, and the impact infrastructure (Araujo and Easton, 2012; Deuten and Rip,
of cross-media communication, considered as a subdivision of 2000) of the brands. Narrative infrastructure is defined as the

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Gaël Bonnin and Mauricio Rodriguez Alfonso Volume 34 · Number 7 · 2019 · 1448–1458

building blocks of and links between heterogeneous elementary through both different languages (verbal, iconic, etc.) and
stories (Araujo and Easton, 2012; Deuten and Rip, 2000). media (cinema, comics, television, video games, etc.)” and that
We present below two further concepts that help to it:
understand narrative infrastructure: metanarrative and [. . .] is not just an adaptation from one media to another. The story that comics
transmedia. tell is not the same as that told on television or cinema; the different media and
languages participate and contribute to the construction of the transmedia
narrative world. This textual dispersion is one of the most important sources of
2.3 Metanarratives and transmedia narratives complexity in contemporary popular culture (Scolari, 2009).
In marketing, metanarrative has mostly been considered as a set
In line with our discussion about IMC above, transmedia is
of stories that, when combined, constitute a master narrative
more adapted to the complex, evolving nature of brands
that circulates in society and legitimizes one main idea (Davis
considered as narrative worlds (Scolari, 2009). The stress is less
and Francis, 2014; Firat and Venkatesh, 1995; Thompson,
on coherence and control of a message to be delivered to
2004). This perspective has often been endorsed in marketing
audiences than on the synergies between multiple
research (Firat and Venkatesh, 1995; Thompson, 2004; Davis
complementary stories delivered in different ways that nurture
and Francis, 2014). In narrative theory, the concept of
the main narrative, exploring its different aspects. With a
metanarrative centers on the narrative itself. It is also
transmedia strategy, we study how a set of stories, delivered via
sometimes referred to as “master plot,” “master narrative” or
multiple media, can create a common storyworld (von
canonical story (Porter Abbot, 2015). It accounts more simply
Stackelberg and Jones, 2014).
for the myriad of forms a story can take and the incorporation of
multiple stories into a broader and often simple story (Bublitz
et al., 2016; Porter Abbot, 2015). In this sense, a metanarrative 3. Methodology
is part of the narrative infrastructure, but focuses on the The aim of this research is to analyze the assemblage of the
relationship between a higher order narrative and smaller elements comprising a narrative brand strategy, and the
stories. As far as we know, only Bublitz et al. (2016) and Araujo implications of this narrative approach for strategic level
and Easton (2012) have taken a systematic approach to the branding. Therefore, we used a case study because it is
study of metanarratives in marketing contexts. Yet this concept especially relevant in contexts where the aim is to increase
is promising in that it offers a framework to explain the understanding of a research area that has been explored only
articulation between the multiple stories that firms tell about partially (Miles et al., 2014).
their brands or products and the construction of an overall The two cases selected for this research were the narrative
brand identity. It accounts for the flexible, evolutionary, strategies deployed between 2012 and 2016 by two firms: IBM,
dynamic nature of stories and for the potential for multiple for its artificial intelligence solution “Watson,” and Cisco for its
improvised stories to reinforce credibility (Araujo and Easton, Internet of Things solutions “Internet of Everything.” The first
2012; Porter Abbot, 2015). Moreover, firms often create reason for these choices is that artificial intelligence and the
provisional stories to address particular issues and Internet of Things were both emerging technologies (Paschen
communicate with specific audiences. These provisional stories et al., Forthcoming; Paschen and Pitt, Forthcoming). Emerging
need to find a form of relationship with the overarching brand technologies create a context of uncertainty and controversy, in
narrative (Vaara et al., 2016). Again, the concept of which firms have to legitimize and give sense to their products.
metanarrative helps account for this phenomenon. For Moreover, the two firms have been pioneers in the use of
example, Bublitz et al. (2016) show how the metanarratives of narratives, using them continuously over recent decades, and
social impact organizations focus on their missions and act as have fully integrated narratives into their strategy. The last reason
umbrellas to other smaller stories of these organizations that for this choice is that both companies are market leaders and
make them more powerful. More generally, at the highest level dedicate significant resources to deploy a large array of narratives
of abstraction, metanarratives are simple and share a common across different media. This offered us a comprehensive view of
basic structure. For social impact organizations, the the possibilities and variations of narrative strategies.
metanarrative is “a social problem that leads to action” (Bublitz Narratives can take multiple forms and are delivered across a
et al., 2016). In most of the stories, the fundamental variety of media. Narratives can be a TV commercial or a
metanarrative is a lack of something and the quest to get it discussion between a salesperson and a potential customer,
(Porter Abbot, 2015). This is typically found in myths, which short or long, formal or informal. The data collected needed to
are specific types of society-level metanarratives. Myths are account for this wide range of narratives. During the data
collectively constructed narratives of imagined events, whose collection phase, we tracked narratives wherever they appeared,
aim is to give sense to and represent typical human experiences the only condition for their integration being that they
and to explain the origins and evolution of things (Campbell, originated from IBM or Cisco. The main sources of data were
1991). Myths, like other narratives, provide explanations and official company internet sites: websites, company or employee
help to solve contradictions and dilemmas (Campbell, 1991). blogs, official social media sites, official YouTube channels and
The other useful concept for our research objective is the company podcasts. We also collected data on information
concept of transmedia. Jenkins coined the term transmedia in websites (business, technology or general press and blogs) as
2003 after he observed the plethora of narratives told across an the companies also used these media to publish their narratives.
increased number of media platform. Jenkins et al. (2006, Finally, we conducted observation and interviews at company
p. 46) define transmedia storytelling at the most basic level as locations and during events (e.g. technology fairs). We
“stories told across multiple media platforms.” Scolari (2009) collected data for the period 2012-2016. The data collected
adds that transmedia “is a particular narrative that expands took the form of videos (TV commercials, Web videos, video

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Gaël Bonnin and Mauricio Rodriguez Alfonso Volume 34 · Number 7 · 2019 · 1448–1458

interviews of managers), audio content (podcasts), written others, telling a different story. Some of them were formal
reports (white papers, customer cases describing the (video, ads) while others were informal (conversations during a
implementation of solutions at customer locations) and written show or between salespeople and prospects). In other words,
documents (press articles, commercial leaflets and sales each brand’s narrative world comprised a myriad of small,
documents). In addition to this documentary analysis, we apparently loosely related, narratives (Table I shows selected
video- and audio-recorded our observations and interviews. examples of the narratives analyzed).
For Cisco, the data set included 26 videos, 57 written reports/ However, our analysis of narrative elements (Bublitz et al.,
documents, one observation at Cisco France, and three 2016; Porter Abbot, 2015) revealed a single, simple
interviews of Cisco managers. For IBM, data included 29 metanarrative for each firm.
videos, 50 written reports/documents, 1 podcast series and 5 The Cisco metanarrative is:
interviews with IBM managers. Humanity and individuals experience problems. Cisco has developed the
Each author independently analyzed the data in two phases. Internet of Everything, a technological solution that enables entities (things,
The aim of the first phase of analysis was to identify the animals and humans) to communicate together. This technology solves the
problems and creates a brighter future for humanity and for individual
structure of each narrative, following the principle of structural people.
narrative analysis (Czarniawska, 2004). We singled out the
narrative elements (characters, temporality and causality) in The key elements of this metanarrative are:
each narrative (Bal, 2009; Porter Abbot, 2015). Then, we Characters: Cisco, Internet of Everything, organizations that
compared all the narratives to show their relationships implement Cisco solutions, individuals and humanity;
(narrative infrastructure), to infer the underlying metanarrative Temporality: before using the Internet of Everything, after
and to evaluate the variations across media. using the Internet of Everything; and
The second phase comprised a more traditional qualitative Causal link: The Internet of Everything, developed by Cisco,
content analysis. We started by searching for manifest content solves societal or individual issues and creates a brighter future
and main themes (Miles et al., 2014). Then, we interpreted the by making it possible for entities (human beings, objects).
narratives using latent content analysis that was based on The IBM metanarrative is similar to that of Cisco:
the results of the manifest content (Miles et al., 2014). These Humanity or individuals experience problems. Watson artificial intelligence
helped us identify the context of the story (what is told?), the has skills that humans do not have, and wants to collaborate with humans.
Using Watson improves users’ skills, helps solve the problems of humanity
meanings conveyed and the links to myths. Concerning myths, or individuals and creates a brighter future for its recipients.
we used reference texts and data banks that list archetypical
The key components of the metanarrative are also close to
myths (Encyclopedia Mythica website: www.pantheon.org;
those of Cisco:
http://web.uvic.ca/grs/department_files/classical_myth/index.
Characters: IBM, Watson artificial intelligence technology,
html, see Robert-demontrond and Özçaglar-Toulouse, 2011).
organizations that implement Watson, individuals, and
We made particular use of one of the rare works that analyzes
humanity;
these mythical archetypes in marketing (Robert-demontrond and
Temporality: before using Watson, after using Watson; and
Özçaglar-Toulouse, 2011). They identified 10 archetypical
Causal link: Watson does some things better than humans
myths. Only two appeared during our analysis. We detail them
do, collaborates with them to improve their performance and
below in Section 4.
solve societal or individual issues and it also creates a brighter
Concerning the data analysis process, we independently
future.
coded a small subset of data, using the concepts as defined in
These metanarratives are simple. They tell the story of a
the literature review (roughly, 10 per cent of the data set). We
quest for a better life. As such, they are similar to most
then compared the results of this first phase of coding. Our
narratives, fairy tales or advertising campaigns. They are also
analyses were similar overall and when our interpretations
similar to the narratives studied by Bublitz et al. (2016).
differed, we discussed them in the light of the data and previous
However, the contrast with traditional B2B communication is
work on narrative analysis. We recorded our final decision to
interesting. The potential customer is not the main protagonist
ensure that similar cases would be coded in the same way. We
in the narratives and the benefits for society or final users are
then coded the rest of the data. Again, we compared our coding
stressed more than the benefits for the customer itself. In
schemes and found that our interpretations converged.
addition, the narratives provide few technical details and do not
explain how technology solves the problems they describe.
4. Findings The consistency of these multiple narratives is to be found in
Two aspects of the two brands’ narrative strategies were of how they are developed from the metanarratives.
particular interest. The first is the assemblage of narratives Metanarratives act like matrices: the narratives are produced by
around a key metanarrative and its articulation with existing varying only selected elements of the metanarrative. In the
sociocultural narratives. The second is the articulation of narratives that we analyzed, the causal link was always the
narratives broadcast via different channels, in other words, the same. Temporality changed only occasionally, when, for
transmedia strategy used by the brand. example, the story was placed in the future (Cisco’s “Long
wait” or IBM’s “Coping with humans”). The main source of
4.1 Metanarratives and assemblages of narratives variation originates in the character or combination of
4.1.1 Brand metanarratives, narratives and their articulations characters that use the technologies: organizations, individuals
Both Cisco and IBM produced several hundred narratives or humanity. Just changing these characters enables the
during the period of our investigation, each different from the development of multiple stories and situations, all within the

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Table I Metanarratives, variations in narratives and archetypical myths for cisco and IBM
Cisco metanarrative
“Humanity and individuals experience problems. Cisco has developed the Internet of Everything, a technological solution that enables entities
(things, animals and humans) to communicate together. This technology solves the problems and creates a brighter future for humanity and for
individual people.”
Name or source of the Story and notable characters (only characters that vary are Selected illustrations of links to archetypical myth
narrative mentioned, not the company and its solutions)
(name of the series/
episode)
Tomorrow starts here/ Depict what a future will look like, enumerating the issues Gaian (“trees will talk to the network, will talk to a scientist
Anthem (1 min, video) humanity faces and how they can be solved about climate change”, several images of plants, animals and
Main characters: humanity and multiple individual landscape)
stereotypes (nature, cities, business woman, farmer, etc.) Appolonian (cities become organized, out of chaos,
metaphorical use of light)
Tomorrow starts here/ Story of an injured cyclist saved by an ambulance connected Appolonian (medical services become organized, city traffic is
Typical day (30 s, video) to the Internet of Things controlled)
Main characters: the ambulance, the nurse and the cyclist
Tomorrow starts here/ Story of a store facilitating the shopping of its customers Appolonian (DIY shopping as a metaphor of chaos, network
Warrior Weekend (30 s, Main characters: the store and multiple stereotypes of communications reduce chaos)
video) shoppers
Tomorrow starts here/ Story of a banana from the field to the plate and its trip on Gaian (nature is included in the network, banana speaks to
Banana story (30 s, the supply chain the network)
video) Main characters: a banana and a customer, nature and supply Appolonian (supply chain is optimized)
chain
Museums of the lasts/ Story of a museum in the future showing waiting for lines as Appolonian (dark colors for the past, chaos)
The long wait (15 s, a problem of the past
video) Main characters: museum of the future, visitors and exhibits
of past waiting situations
Customer cases/ Story of the adoption of the Internet of Things solution by Appolonian (past city situation presented as chaos, network
Barcelona (video, 3’50) Barcelona as the organization of the city)
Main characters: Barcelona, citizens and managers
Never Better/ Story of how Cisco solutions help protect rhinoceros in a Gaian (communication between animals, network and
Connected South Africa reserve individuals protects nature)
Conservation (set of Main characters: Rhinoceros, South Africa, nature, managers
several videos) and employees
Top executive at Cisco, GE installed sensors in the jet engines that provide Appolonian (optimization and control of an uncontrolled
public speech knowledge about the performance of the engines, remote situation)
engine management and enabling optimized energy
consumption
Main characters: General Electric, airplanes and financial
performance
IBM metanarrative
“Humanity or individuals experience problems. Watson artificial intelligence has skills that humans do not have, and wants to collaborate with
humans. Using Watson improves users’ skills, helps solve the problems of humanity or individuals, and creates a brighter future for its
recipients.”
Name or source of the Story and notable characters (only characters that vary are Selected illustrations of links to archetypical myth
narrative mentioned, not the company and its solutions)
(name of the series/
episode)
Watson at work/Airline Story of how Watson can help improve airline maintenance Appolonian (optimization of maintenance)
Maintenance (30 s, Main characters: airplanes, two employees
video)
Conversation with Story of how Watson analyses information collected from Appolonian (optimization of performance)
Watson/Serena previous tennis matches to create customized training
Williams (30 s, video) programs
Main characters: Serena Williams, competition and
performance
(continued)

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Table I

Industry stories/Honda Story of how Honda, the car manufacturer uses Watson Appolonian (optimization of production and control)
(2’30, video) Main characters: Honda, cars, financial and production
performance
Therapy sessions/ Shows robots in a therapy group discussing with a therapist Appolonian (negative robots are chaos, Watson is order)
coping with humans that confronts them with Watson, the source of their Gaian (vision of a collaboration between humans/nature and
(1’30, video) contempt being that Watson collaborates with humans. robots, alludes also to Isaac Asimov’s ‘Foundation and Earth’
Main characters: The therapist, negative stereotypes of robots novel, where a planet called Gaia is a model for the future of
earth)
Ginni Rometty IBM “. . . let me thank you for helping us build the world of Appolonian (more order and control)
CEO, Keynote 2016 Watson. You just saw a glimpse of what this world will be, it
will be safer, more secure, it will be healthier, more
productive, more sustainable and that’s the world that I want
to be in. I am more than optimistic and it isn’t a world of
Watson, it is a world with Watson”
Wild Ducks/episode 10 Stories of African schools using cognitive systems to help Appolonian (improves the functioning of a system often
(12’24, audio podcast) shape the future of education stereotyped as chaotic)

same metanarrative (Table I). Thus, in the Cisco stories, unrealistic (a discussion between robots attending a therapy
characters include: a cyclist saved by a connected ambulance session) but it delivers a clear message that Watson is not like
(“Typical day”), humanity (“Anthem”) and a banana that other (evil or stupid) robots. The paradigmatic discourse
travels through the supply chain to offer a delicious desert on addresses practical concerns, offering detailed, apparently
demand (“Banana story”). These stories also vary in size (from rational, information about the product itself. For example, a
one sentence to several minutes) or in style (fiction vs sales meeting at Cisco, which we observed, started with a
documentary): IBM’s “Therapy sessions” is a science fiction narrative discourse evoking Cisco’s “Anthem” and continued
video, featuring Carrie Fisher, who played in Star Wars movie, with a discussion of the technological features of the Internet of
when IBM’s industry story with Honda mimics a report in a Everything. An interview with a former key account manager
news magazine. confirmed that Cisco tried to link paradigmatic discourses to
However, these variations do not impair the brand. On the individual narratives in the videos.
contrary, by creating a rhizome-like or web-like structure,
comprising elements bound together by their common link to 4.1.2 Brand narratives articulation with sociocultural narratives
the metanarrative, they enrich the brand world, enabling it to The brand world designed by the firms using a web of
address multiple contexts (e.g. industries, functions) and narratives is not closed. As pointed out by Holt (2003),
concerns (uncertainty about the consequences of technological successful brands know how to forge a deep connection with
developments, resistance to change, barriers to adoption and culture. The narrative world of each of the brands relates to
clarity of benefits). As long as they are built from the same other narratives, ideologies or discourses on technology that
metanarrative, these multiple stories are mutually reinforcing circulate on markets, in the media or in daily life. The two
and flexible: stories can vary but they remain consistent while brands recycle existing narratives and try to counter others.
addressing specific issues. The web of stories linked by the
And by doing so they further shape these narratives.
metanarrative is “liquid” and pliable. As alluded to in the previous section, Cisco and IBM spread
Another characteristic of this rhizomatic narrative world
similar metanarratives. They both present a utopian future
created by the brand is its close connections with other types of
offered by a technology that makes life easier and solves the
discourses produced by the brand. The narrative and
problems that humanity faces today. Their webs of narratives
paradigmatic knowledge modes described by Bruner (1987)
are also entwined, reinforcing and vindicating each other. And
are entangled. Narrative discourses are incorporated into
paradigmatic discourses (technical or business reports for this does not only concern these two companies. Similar
example), narrative discourses refer to paradigmatic discourses metanarratives are used by most high-tech companies and
and paradigmatic discourses refer to narrative discourses. Each start-ups. They all refer to an ideology of progress (Kozinets,
of these types of discourses covers specific areas. The narrative 2008) or technology enchantment (Bailey, 2005; van der Laan,
world sets up the future as a spectacle, except that, as it is 2016).
presented as inevitable, the distinction between reality and However, pro-technology narratives are not the only ones
fiction tends to blur, but nonetheless induces emotion and gives circulating in the social sphere (Kozinets, 2008). Technology is
meaning to events. For example, in Cisco’s “Typical Day,” it is paradoxical (Mick and Fournier, 1998), being both good and
not clear whether the connected ambulance already exists but bad, an opportunity and a threat. This creates tensions for
the situation depicted (rescuing an injured person) people and organizations. One example of this tension is the
demonstrates the benefits of the Internet of Everything. In debate on artificial intelligence. Many experts, including
IBM’s “Coping with Humans,” the situation is clearly Stephen Hawking, Elon Musk and even Bill Gates argue that

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Gaël Bonnin and Mauricio Rodriguez Alfonso Volume 34 · Number 7 · 2019 · 1448–1458

A.I. is a threat that may end human ascendency. IBM is well stakeholders involved in Cisco and IBM businesses (customers,
aware of this debate: partners, suppliers, research institutes, governments, NGOs,
[. . .] the moment you talk about artificial intelligence, they all think, “Ah,
etc.). Of more interest is how the media are used. Porter Abbot
but it means my work is going to disappear and I’m going to fight people and (2015) highlighted the difficulties of translating a narrative
there’s no work anymore, and machines take over’. In the end, artificial across media boundaries. Traditional branding strategy focuses
intelligence is not here to replace the things that we do today [. . .] or to
replace the humans by machines (senior solution architect electronics at on adapting a key message accurately across media (Visconti,
IBM). 2010). However, IBM and Cisco focus more on creating
One of the roles of the narrative world constructed by Cisco narratives for each of the media than on adapting their message.
and IBM is to offer narrative resources to help people and Even if they adapt, they also undertake a process of “adaptation
organizations reduce the cultural tensions produced by the as creative destruction” (Porter Abbot, 2015), possible only
paradox of technology. Both firms resort to mythical archetypes because the strong metanarrative acts as an anchor. Coherence
to help customers and stakeholders give meaning to the does not seem to be the Holy Grail here. The rhizomatic
uncertainty of the changing world (Thompson, 2004). The narrative structure is materialized in the transmedia strategy
Cisco and IBM narratives use mostly two archetypical myths used, which results in synergies. For each media used, Cisco
(Table I). and IBM reinvent not only the content but also the tone and
The first is the Gaian myth (Robert-demontrond and style of their stories. For example, Cisco imitated super hero
Özçaglar-Toulouse, 2011). In Greek mythology, the goddess comics to illustrate the Internet of Everything (“supersmart in
Gaia personifies the Earth, and the myth highlights the mutual the smartest cities”) and proposed various styles of videos:
dependence between humanity and the earth. One recurring documentary (e.g. “successful customer cases”), comedy
narrative in western societies is based on the opposition (“banana story,” “circular story”) and poetics (“anthem”). The
between technology and nature, with technology being seen as transmedia strategy allows for apparently opposing actions
a threat to nature, humans and tradition (Kozinets, 2008; (control and user-generated content; paradigmatic and
Thompson, 2004). Both companies use the Gaian myth to narrative discourse; mass-communication and customization),
defuse such a negative view. Cisco’s “Anthem” regularly making it possible to vary the genre (science fiction, comedy
features images of nature and technology is even presented as and documentary), the content and the length of the narratives.
part of nature: “trees will talk to networks that talk to scientists 4.2.2 Organizing for transmedia
about climate change.” In IBM’s therapy session series, robots Both firms support their transmedia strategy by developing
tell a psychotherapist that they are angry with Watson because skills and new partnerships that help orchestrate both the media
it collaborates with a human. Watson is, thus, presented as “on strategy and the creation of narratives.
the side of” humans and willing to “improve” them, unlike Both companies have created new positions focusing on the
other robots, which at best replace them and at worst aim to creation and management of narratives within dedicated
destroy them. The two brands also use the Apollonian myth. In divisions that work closely with marketing and top
Greek mythology, Apollo is the god of light, defeating darkness management. The example that opens our introduction is
and the forces of evil (Robert-demontrond and Özçaglar- telling:
Toulouse, 2011). In the Cisco and IBM narratives, technology
The marketing storyteller will be a Subject Matter Expert (SME), and a key
is pictured as enlightening the world, both metaphorically and member of the EMEAR Marketing team. This is a pivotal role within
literally, by replacing chaos with rationality. For example, Cisco's exciting new content marketing organization, and will involve
Cisco’s “Museum of the Lasts” series takes place in the future, working very closely with Content Managing Editors (CMEs), Customer
Experience Managers (CXEs) and Content Marcoms Managers (CMMs),
in a museum where today’s problems (missed deliveries, traffic as well as global and local marketing, solutions marketing, sales and
jams) are presented as if they belonged to the dark age of technical experts. (Job Opportunity, posted on Cisco website, February
humanity. 2017).
The narratives created by Cisco and IBM relate and echo IBM has a “creative narrative strategy leader” working with a
narratives that circulate in the social world, sometimes team of “narrative developers” dedicated to the creation of
countering them and sometimes recycling them. As shown by narratives, a structure recalling the organization of cinema
Thompson (2004) and Holt (2003), the ability to tap into these studios. However, the creation of new divisions and skills was
ancient narratives is crucial when the goal is to help people not the only organizational change at the two companies. Staff,
make sense of uncertain events and to reduce cultural tensions. particularly senior executives, are trained in storytelling, so that
These ancient narratives are widely shared and understood by the narrative branding strategy is not confined to media
members of a society (Campbell, 1991), which facilitates the interactions; it also exists in human interactions. For example,
understanding of the firms’ narratives. one senior marketing manager at Cisco described himself as
We have shown that the narratives of both firms are “corporate comedian” as much as marketing manager.
connected to a metanarrative and relate to sociocultural Both companies employ or work closely with experts from
narratives. These narratives are abstract entities. Now, we the cultural industries. Thus, Cisco partnered Bloomberg
analyze the materialization of these narratives via the media. media to develop its video series. IBM works closely with TED,
which helped construct conversations about innovation.
4.2 Transmedia strategy Another example from IBM is the development of their podcast
4.2.1 Transmedia as creation not adaptation series entitled “Wild ducks.” The stories were developed by a
Our analysis shows extensive use of nearly all the possible freelance journalist hired to create and produce audio content
media (see Tables II for an overview of the two companies’ telling stories of companies that used Watson for different
transmedia strategies), enabling them to address most purposes (food supply, supply chain, cognitive computing,

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Gaël Bonnin and Mauricio Rodriguez Alfonso Volume 34 · Number 7 · 2019 · 1448–1458

Table II Overview of transmedia strategies at CISCO and IBM

Cisco transmedia strategy
Videos
Science fiction style (401 videos) Two series of videos: depiction of a future with the Internet of Things
Tomorrow starts here (December 2012-June 2014) with three series (tomorrow starts here (10 episodes),
museum of the lasts (4 episodes), the next wave of internet (5 episodes)
There’s never been a better time (may 2016, still running) with 3 series (There’s never been a better time (8
episodes), Reimagine (3 episodes), Connected conversations (3 episodes) and stand-alone videos (9)
Documentary (BBC or Nature like) style Depicts a “real” case of adoption of Cisco solutions, although it is sometimes hard to tell the part of fiction and
(hundreds of video) reality
Customer cases series
Written documents
Documentary style Customer cases (hundreds), research papers, research collaboration, white papers/reports
Conversation style Interviews in journals (paper, web, etc.)
Fiction style Graphic novel (comic) (2 episode)
Oral communication
Documentary style Public speeches (keynotes, conferences, TEDx and shows)
Conversation style Private exchanges at shows, employee/stakeholder interactions (e.g. salesforce/customer), interviews
Physical/architectural communication (dedicated spaces in the physical world whose images can be (and usually are) broadcasted on any
compatible media)
Live performing art style Company incubators (e.g. Paris start-up incubators)
Exhibition/museum style Demonstration spaces for technologies (e.g. Barcelona flagship space for smart city technology in 2014)
IBM transmedia strategy
Videos
Science fiction/humor style (11) Therapy sessions for evil/stupid robots, upset by Watson collaboration with humans
Therapy sessions (11 episodes)
Comedy/humor/biopic style (17) Conversations between Watson and someone (usually a reference in his/her domain) Conversations with
Watson (17 episodes)
Documentary (BBC or Nature like) style Describe Watson, what it is, what it does and the consequences of using it
(hundreds of video) What is Watson? (7)
Watson at work (101) (includes 360° videos)
Industry stories (hundreds)
Written reports
Documentary style Industry stories (hundreds), research papers, research collaboration, white papers/reports
Conversation style Interviews in journals (paper, web, etc.)
Oral communications
Documentary style Public speeches (keynotes, conferences, TEDx and shows)
Podcast series Wild Ducks (10 episodes)
Conversation style Private exchanges at shows, employee/stakeholder interactions (e.g. salesforce/customer), interviews

connected cars, data security, business intelligence, them, across media. The narrative strategy of both firms is also
personalized medicine, mobile banking and education). supported by developing new skills in narrative design, either
internally, by hiring staff trained in narrative writing or
externally, by partnering with firms in creative industries.
5. Conclusions and recommendations One limit of this research is that we chose two firms from the
The goal of this paper was to analyze the general structure of high-tech industry, and that both companies have huge
B2B narrative-based brand strategies. By analyzing the cases of financial resources. The narrative strategy may not be the same
IBM and Cisco, we have shown that the narrative world in other industries or for smaller firms. Another limit is our
of brands comprises a plethora of little stories. These stories are focus on the story-provider side. We did not analyze how
based on a broader metanarrative, with a variation of characters customers or stakeholders react to this narrative strategy. Nor
and sometimes temporality. The causal link stays the same in did we study how customers or stakeholders contributed to the
every story. These stories are also inspired by broader narratives creation of the narratives. However, as mentioned before, our
and myths that circulate in the sociocultural sphere. We have aim was to understand the structure of the brands’ narratives,
also shown that both Cisco and IBM use a transmedia strategy, not its creation or influence. The two cases chosen are
in which they can re-create narratives, in addition to adapting exemplary because they successfully created a narrative-based

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Gaël Bonnin and Mauricio Rodriguez Alfonso Volume 34 · Number 7 · 2019 · 1448–1458

brand world, which we describe. The question of the financial stakeholders) and a causal link (how the firm’s product solves a
or even sales relevance of such a strategy will need to be problem). While seemingly obvious, this step is essential, for it
addressed in future research. is the heart of the brand. Then, firms can decide how to vary its
While acknowledging the limits of our research, we see the narratives to create a myriad of small stories that will be
following contributions to the B2B branding literature. delivered across channels. They also can identify potential
First, recent work on B2B branding has offered a new counter-narratives, by monitoring the press and social media,
perspective on brands, showing that they were better and obtain inspiration from classical myths, from the lists we
considered as “gestalt,” “multilogue” or even polyphony alluded to above, to counter the counter narratives. Another
(Diamond et al., 2009; Holt, 2002; Törmälä and Gyrd-Jones, managerial lesson is the cohabitation of the two types of
2017; Visconti, 2010). The question this approach raises is: if a discourses, namely, narrative and paradigmatic. A narrative
brand is a polyphony, what holds it together? How is the shared only strategy may be a mistake. Our findings show that an
understanding of its sense guaranteed? What is its coherence? important feature of the narrative strategies of the two brands is
Our two cases support the findings of Bublitz et al. (2016) in a their ability to mix narrative and paradigmatic discourse. The
B2B context, showing that the “glue” for the polyphonic brand narrative strategy does not oppose other types of discourses. Its
is its metanarrative. However, we go further, by detailing the strength lies in its ability to incorporate other types of discourse.
process that links the metanarrative to the smaller stories.
Limited changes to selected elements to the structure of the
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02650487.2015.1011023 Gaël Bonnin can be contacted at: [email protected]

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