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1.3 Explain construction and working of SCR

1.3.1. Introduction
• The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is a three terminal semiconductor switching device
which can be used as a controlled switch to perform various functions such as rectification,
inversion and regulation of power flow.
• An SCR can handle currents upto several thousand amperes and voltages upto more than
1kV.
• The SCR has appeared in the market under different names such as thyristor, thyrode
transistor.
• Like the diode, SCR is a unidirectional device, i.e. it will only conduct current in one
direction only, but unlike a diode, the SCR can be made to operate as either an open-circuit
switch or as a rectifying diode depending upon how its gate is triggered.
• Hence, it is extensively used in switching d.c. and a.c, rectifying a.c to give controlled
output, converting d.c into a.c etc.
1.3.2. Construction of SCR
• When a pn junction is added to a junction transistor, the resulting three pn junctions device
is called a silicon controlled rectifier.
• Fig.1.3(i) shows the construction of an SCR.

Fig.1.3(i)

Fig.1.3 (ii)

• It is clear that it is essentially an ordinary rectifier (pn) and a junction transistor (npn)
combined in one unit to form pnpn device.

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• Three terminals are taken; one from the outer p-type material called anode A, second from
the outer layer of n-type material called cathode K and the third from the base of transistor
section and is called gate G.
• In the normal operating conditions of SCR, anode is held at high positive potential w.r.t.
cathode and gate at small positive potential w.r.t. cathode.
• Fig.1.3 (ii) shows the symbol of SCR.
1.3.3. Working / Operation of SCR
• In a silicon controlled rectifier, load is connected in series with anode.
• The anode is always kept at positive potential w.r.t. cathode.
• The working of SCR can be studied under the following two heads:
CASE-1: When gate is open
• Fig.1.3(iii) shows the SCR circuit with gate open i.e. no voltage applied to the gate.

Fig.1.3(iii)
• Under this condition, junction J2 is reverse biased while junction J1 and J3 are forward
biased.
• Hence, the situation in the junctions J1 and J3 is just as in a npn transistor with base open.
• Consequently, no current flows through the load RL and the SCR is cut off.
• However, if the applied voltage is gradually increased, a stage is reached when the reverse
biased junction J2 breaks down.
• The SCR now conducts heavily and is said to be in the ON state.
• The applied voltage at which SCR conducts heavily without gate voltage is called Breakover
voltage.
CASE – 2: When gate is positive w.r.t cathode
• The SCR can be made to conduct heavily at smaller applied voltage by applying a small
positive potential to the gate as shown in Fig.1.3(iv)

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Fig.1.3(iv)

• Now junction J3 is forward biased and junction J2 is reverse biased.

• The electrons from n-type material start moving across junction J3 towards left whereas
holes from p-type towards the right.
• Consequently, the electrons from junction J3 are attracted across the junction J2 and gate
current starts flowing .
• As soon as the gate current flows, anode current increases.
• The increased current in turn makes more electrons available at junction J2.
• This process continues and in an extremely small time, junction J2 breaks down and the SCR
starts conducting heavily.
• Once SCR starts conducting, the gate loses all control. Even if gate voltage is removed, the
anode current does not decrease at all.
• The only way to stop conduction i.e. to bring the SCR in off condition, is to reduce the
applied voltage to zero.

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*Note:
• The following points are important according to the working of SCR:
1. An SCR has two states i.e., either it does not conduct or it conducts heavily. There is
no state in between. Therefore, SCR behaves like a switch.
2. There are two ways to turn on the SCR. The first method is to keep the gate open
and make the supply voltage equal to the breakover voltage. The second method is
to operate SCR with supply voltage less than breakover voltage and then turn it on
by means of a small voltage applied to the gate.
3. Applying small positive voltage to the gate is the normal way to close an SCR
because the breakover voltage is usually much greater than supply voltage.
4. To open the SCR e. to make it non-conducting, reduce the supply voltage to zero.

1.4 Explain the working of SCR using two Transistor analogy

• Woking of the SCR can be easily explained by two transistor model of SCR. As shown in the
figure you can see with supply voltage V and load resistance R is applied to SCR.

Fig: Two Transistor analogy of SCR

• Initially assume the supply voltage V is less than break over voltage as is usually the case.
When the gate is open (i.e. switch S open), there is base current Ib=0.
• For the base of the T2 is connected with the collector of The T1. Therefore, no current flows
in the collector of T2 and hence that of T1. So for this condition, SCR is in OFF condition.
• Whenever switch S is closed, a small gate current will flow through the base of T2 which
means its collector current will increase.
• The collector of the transistor T2 is connected with transistor T1.
• So, the collector current of T2 is the base current of T1. Therefore, the collector current of T1
increases.
• But collector current of T1 is the base current of T2. This action is accumulative since an
increase of current in one transistor causes an increase of current in the other transistor.
• As a result of this action, both transistors are driven to saturation, and heavy current flows
through the load RL. Under such conditions, the SCR closes.

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1.5 Mention the ratings of SCR

1. Current Ratings of SCR
• Basically an SCR is a unilateral device and hence average current rating is assigned to it
(while RMS current rating is assigned to bilateral devices).
• An SCR has low thermal capacity and short time constant. This means the junction
temperature exceeds its rated value even for short over current.
• This may lead to damage the SCR.
• Therefore, current ratings must be properly selected for long life of SCR , as the junction
temperature depends on the current handled by it.
2. Voltage Ratings of SCR
• The voltage capability of the SCR should not be exceeded during the operation even for
short periods.
• So the SCR is assigned with different voltage ratings, which are the maximum voltages at
which the SCR can function normally without breakdown of junctions.
• These are assigned in both blocking states of an SCR and can withstand against voltage
transients.
3. Peak Working Forward-blocking Voltage VDWM
• It specifies the maximum instantaneous value of forward blocking voltage across the SCR
excluding all surge and repetitive transient voltages. Beyond this value of the voltage the
SCR cannot withstand during its operation.
• This VDWM is equal to the maximum or peak value of the supply voltage wave shown in
figure.

4. Peak Repetitive Forward-blocking Voltage VDRM

• It is the maximum transient voltage that the SCR can block during it’s the forward
blocking state repeatedly or periodically.
• This is specified with a specific biasing resistance between cathode and gate or at a
maximum permissible junction temperature with gate circuit open.
5. Peak Working Reverse Voltage VRWM
• This is the maximum instantaneous value of reverse voltage across the SCR excluding all
surge and repetitive transient voltages.
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• This VRWM is equal to the maximum negative value of the supply voltage wave shown in
figure.
6. Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage VRRM
• It is occurrence of the maximum reverse transient voltage repeatedly or periodically across
the SCR in the reverse direction at permissible maximum junction temperature.
• Beyond this rating the SCR may get damaged due to excessive junction temperature.
• This voltage is also appeared due to the same reason as of VDRM.
7. Peak Non-repetitive or Surge Forward-blocking Voltage VDSM
• This is the maximum instantaneous value of forward surge voltage across the SCR that is
of non-repetitive.
• This VDSM is less than the forward break over voltage VBO and this value is in the range
about 130 percent of VDRM.
8. Forward dv/dt Rating
• This is the maximum rate of rise of anode voltage that will not trigger the SCR without
any gate pulse or signal.
• If this value is more than the specified value, the SCR may be switched ON.
• The SCR in forward blocking mode is analogous to the capacitor with a dielectric.
• So , the charging current flows through it when the applied voltage is increased.
• If the rate of rise of voltage is more, sufficient charges will flow through the junctions J2 of
the SCR and hence the SCR will be turned ON without any gate signal.
• This type of triggering is called as false triggering and in practice it is not employed.
9. Surge Current Rating ITSM
• It specifies the maximum non-repetitive or surge current that the SCR can withstand for a
limited number of times during its life span. The manufacturers specify the surge rating
to accommodate the abnormal conditions of SCR due to short circuits and faults. If the
peak amplitude and the number of cycles of the surge current are exceeded, the SCR
may get damaged.
10. 2
I t Rating
• This rating is used to determine the thermal energy absorption of the device.
• This rating is required in the choice of a fuse or other protective equipment employed for
the SCR. This is the measure of the thermal energy that the SCR can absorb for a short
period of time before clearing the fault by the fuse.
• It is the time integral of the square of the maximum instantaneous current. For a reliable
protection of SCR by the fuse or other protective equipment, the I2t rating of the fuse (or
any other protective equipment) must be less than the I2t rating of the SCR.
11. di/dt Rating
• It is the maximum allowable rate of rise of anode to cathode current without any damage
or harm to an SCR. If the rate of rise of anode current is very rapid compared to the
spreading velocity of the charge carriers, local hot spots are created due to concentration
of carriers (on account of high current density) in the restricted area of the junctions.
• This raises the junction temperature above the safe limit and hence the SCR may be
damaged. Therefore, for all SCRs the maximum allowable di/dt rating specified in order
to protect the SCR. It is specified in amperes/microseconds and typically it lies in the
range 50 to 800 ampere/microseconds.
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12. Latching Current ( IL )
• It is the minimum ON state current required to maintain the SCR in ON state after gate
drive has been removed. After turning ON of the SCR, the anode current must be
allowed to build up such that the latching current is attained before the gate pulse is
removed. Otherwise the SCR will be turned OFF if the gate signal is removed.
13. Holding Current ( IH )
• This is the minimum value of the anode current below which SCR stops conducting and
turns OFF.
• The holding current is associated with turn OFF process and usually it is a very small
value in the range of mill amperes.
14. Gate Current ( IG )
• As the gate current is more, earlier will be the turn ON of the SCR and vice-versa.
• However, safety limits must be provided for gate by specifying maximum and minimum
gate currents.
• For controlling the SCR, gate current is applied to the gate terminal. This gate current is
divided into two types; minimum gate current IGmin and maximum gate current
IGmax.
• The minimum gate current IGmin is the current required by the gate terminal to turn ON
the SCR where as IGmax is the maximum current that can be applied safely to the gate.
Between these two limits the conduction angle of the SCR is controlled.

1.6 Explain construction and working of GTO SCR

1.6.1. Introduction
• GTO (Gate Turn Off) SCR is a semiconductor based fully controlled unidirectional
switching device (thyristor) that has 3 terminals Gate, Cathode, and Anode. It can be
switched ON/OFF using the gate terminal.
• A positive current pulse at the gate switches ON the GTO while a negative current pulse at
the gate switches it OFF. It is unidirectional, therefore, it only allows current from anode to
cathode.
• Just like a normal thyristor, it can be switched into conduction mode using a positive
current pulse at the gate. It has a low on-state voltage drop.
• However, the turn-off current required at the gate is relatively high. The negative current
pulse at the gate is almost one-fourth of the anode current.
1.6.2. Construction of GTO SCR
• GTO is 4 layer PNPN device having 3 PN junctions and 3 terminals Gate (G), Anode (A),
and Cathode (C).
• The anode is a metallic electrode attached to the P+ heavily doped region. The doping is
kept high to maintain high anode efficiency.
• Heavy doping decreases the turn-on time but also increases the turn-off time with power
loss.
• To avoid this problem, N+ regions are added into the anode region known as anode shorted
structure. It reduces the reverse voltage blocking with better turn-off timing.

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Fig. Symbol of GTO SCR

• Therefore, the anode short is designed based on the required performance.
• On top of the anode region, an N-type base region is added forming PN junction J1 where
doping and width of this region determines the forward blocking voltage capacity of the
device.
• Low doping level and increased width of this layer increases the forward blocking voltage
of the GTO.

Fig. Structure of GTO SCR

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• The P-type gate region is added on top of the base N layer forming the 2nd junction j2. This
region is neither heavily nor lightly doped due to the given reasons.
• Heavy doping of the gate region causes to have better turn-off time and lightly doping
increases the emitter efficiency from the cathode region.
• This is why the gate P region is moderately doped. The cathode is attached to a heavily
doped N+ layer.
• It is heavily doped to have higher emitter efficiency but at the cost of reduced breakdown
voltage.
1.6.3. Operation of GTO SCR
Case 1: Turn ON Mechanism
• GTO has the same turn-off operation as a conventional thyristor. It can be turned-on using
two methods i.e. increasing forward voltage above break over voltage, applying positive
gate current.
• When forward voltage is applied to GTO i.e. anode voltage is positive than the cathode, the
junction j1 and j3 becomes forward biased while the junction j2 becomes reverse biased.
• The reversed biased j2 does not allow the current to flow through the device.
• If the forward is increased above the forward break over voltage, an avalanche will occur
and the J2 will become forward biased allowing the current flow.
• This type of switching is destructive and should be avoided.
• The proper method of turning a GTO is by applying a positive gate current when forward
voltage is applied.
• Application of positive current at the gate injects holes into the P gate region which makes j3
forward bias.
• Thus allowing the current flow through it.
Case 2: Turn OFF Mechanism
• To turn off the GTO, the gate terminal is applied with negative current or negative voltage
with respect to the cathode.
• The holes entering through the anode are extracted through the gate terminal.
• It makes the junction j3 reverse biased that stops the electron injection from the cathode
region.
• At this time, there is no cathode current but the anode current is still flowing through the
gate terminal which is called “tail current”. it reduces exponentially. and once it goes to
zero, the device completely turn-off and blocks the voltage at its terminals.
• The turn-off current required for GTO is dependent on the anode voltage and current but it
is usually one-fourth of the anode current.

Additional Information
Types of GTO
• There are two types of GTO based on their structure.

a) Asymmetric GTO
b) Symmetric GTO
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1. Asymmetric GTO
• Asymmetric GTOs are the most common type of GTOs also known as “shorted anode
GTO”.

Fig. Asymmetrical GTO

• They have asymmetric voltage blocking capabilities i.e. forward blocking voltage is not
equal to reverse blocking voltage.
• The reverse blocking voltage is very less than forward blocking voltage.
• They are usually used with a diode in anti-parallel.
2. Symmetric GTO

Fig. Symmetrical GTO

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• The symmetric GTO has symmetric voltage blocking capabilities. The reverse blocking
voltage is as high as forward voltage. It does not have a “shorted-anode” structure instead
anode is made of pure P+ region.

1.7 Explain construction and working of DIAC & TRIAC

1.7.1. (A) Introduction to DIAC
• Semiconductor devices such as thyristors play vital role in power regulation in power
electronics but since they conduct in only one direction, they not suitable for AC circuits.
• This is where DIAC and TRIAC comes into play. They regulate power supplied to AC loads
such as controlling speed of motors.
• DIAC is an acronym that stands for “Diode for Alternating Current”.
• It is a two-terminal bidirectional switch that conducts in both directions when the applied
voltage exceeds its break over voltage. It cannot amplify or offer controlled switching.
• It belongs to the family of thyristors but It is an uncontrolled switch because it does not
have a control or gate terminal.
• Its name implies that it is a diode that can conduct AC in both directions. It is mainly used
for triggering other devices such as TRIAC due to its symmetrical switching characteristics.
1.7.2. Symbol of DIAC
• The symbol of DIAC resembles two diodes in antiparallel .
• It has two terminals named A1 or MT1 and A2 or MT2. MT stands for main terminals.
• Since it can conduct in both directions, there are no anode and cathode terminal as shown in
the figure.

1.7.3. Construction of DIAC

• DIAC is a five layer device from the combination of two antiparallel SCR without the gate
terminals. It has only two terminals MT1 and MT2.
• It has symmetrical structure from both terminals having equal width of the regions as well
as its doping percentage.

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• DIAC can be constructed in 3-layer and 5-layer symmetrical structure. The 3-layer structure
is mostly used which is made by either sandwiching N or P between its alternating layers
forming PNP or NPN structure.
• The break over voltage of such DIAC lies around 30 volts.
• The 5-layer DAIC construction resembles the combination of two SCR without the gate
terminal.
• It has a symmetrical structure made of 2 P-layer and 3 N-layers. The terminal’s regions are
made of both P and N layer.
• The doping and width of all layers are equal.
• The symmetrical structure provides symmetrical switching capabilities in both forward as
well as reverse polarity.
1.7.4. Working of DIAC
• The DIAC can conduct current in both directions unless the applied voltage falls below the
break over voltage.
• Suppose the applied voltage at MT1 is positive with respect to MT2, the junctions at the
ends become forwards biased and the middle junction becomes reverse biased.
• At this moment, the applied Voltage V < VBO, so the middle junction remains reverse
biased and does not allow current flow. The device remains in off-state.

• In order to trigger the DIAC into conduction, the applied voltage V must exceed break over
voltage VBO.
• When it happens, avalanche break down occurs at the reverse bias junction and the current
starts to flow through it.
• The DIAC is triggered into conduction and the voltage across it reduces to ON-state voltage
drop.
• Similarly, if the voltage polarities are swapped, the same process will repeat except the
current will flow in reverse direction.
• There is no difference in operation whatsoever if the polarities are swapped. It has
symmetrical switching characteristics for both voltage polarities i.e. its forward break over
voltage is equal to reverse break over voltage.

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• The DIAC conducts current unless the current falls below the holding current limit. As soon
as it falls below the said limit, the device switches into off-state.

1.7.1. (B) Introduction to TRIAC

• The word TRIAC can be expanded as a TRIode for Alternating Current.
• While other power electronic switches like MOSFET, IGBT, etc are used for
switching/controlling DC power, the TRIAC is used to control AC power because once
turned on TRIAC can conduct in both the direction allowing AC voltage to passes
completely in both the positive and negative cycle.
• The TRIAC is a three-terminal semiconductor switching device that is used for controlling
current flow in a circuit.
• It is one of the most important members of the thyristor family; it is a bidirectional
device that can pass the current in both forward and reverse direction, which means that
they can conduct in both the conditions of the gate signal, positive and negative.
1.7.2. Symbol of TRIAC
• A TRIACs can be formed by connecting two equivalent SCRs in inverse parallel to one
another and the gates of the two SCR are connected together to form a single gate.
• The Symbol of the TRIAC will be like the image below, it has three terminals Main
Terminal 1 (MT1), Main Terminal 2 (MT2) and Gate (G).

• The MT1 and MT 2 are also called as Anode 1 and Anode 2. The TRIAC can be included in a
circuit in a way that the current is flowing from either MT1 to MT2 or MT2 to MT1, there
will not be any current until we inject a gate current pulse at G.
1.7.3. Construction of TRIAC
• The below shows the structure of the TRIAC, it is a four-layer device that consists of six
doping regions.

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• The gate terminal is designed in a way to have ohmic contact with both N and P regions,
which helps the device to get triggered with both positive and negative polarities.
• Although TRIAC is a bidirectional device, everyone prefers to specify voltage and current
using MT1 as the reference in order to reduce confusion.
1.7.4. Working of TRIAC
• The a.c. supply to be controlled is connected across the main terminals of the triac through
a load resistance RL.

• The gate circuit consists of battery, a current limiting resistor R and a switch S.
• The circuit action is as follows :
1. With switch S open, there will be no gate current and the triac is cut off.
• Even with no gate current, the triac can be turned on provided the supply voltage becomes
equal to the breakover voltage of triac.

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• However, the normal way to turn on a triac is by introducing a proper gate current.
2. When switch S is closed, the gate current starts flowing in the gate cirucit.
• Ina similar manner to SCR, the breakover voltage of the triac can be varied by making
proper gate current to flow.
• With a few milliamperes introduced at the gate, the triac will start conducting whether
terminal MT2 is positive or negative w.r.t. MT1 .
3. If terminal MT2 is positive w.r.t. MT1 , the tria turns on and the conventional current will
flow from MT2 to MT1.
• If the terminal MT2 is negative w.r.t. MT1 , the triac is again turned on but this time the
conventional current flows from MT1 to MT2.
• The above action of triac reveals that it can act as an a.c. contactor to switch on or off
alternating current to a load.
• The additional advantage of triac is that by adjusting the gate current to a proper value,
any portion of both positive and negative half cycles of a.c. supply can be made to flow
through the load.
• This permits to adjust the transfer of a.c. power from the source to the load.

Additional Information
Different modes of TRIAC triggering
MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity positive with respect to MT1

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MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity negative with respect to
MT1

MT2 is negative with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity negative with respect to
MT1

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MT2 is negative with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity positive with respect to MT1

2.3 Explain working of MOSFET based Inverter circuit

2.3.1 MOSFET Inverter Circuits
• Inverter circuit is one of the fundamental building blocks in digital circuit design.
• The inverters can be applied directly to the design of logic gates and other more complex
digital circuits.
• The transfer characteristics of an ideal inverter is shown below.

• Early MOS digital circuits were made using p-MOSFET.

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• But with the advancements of microelectronics technology the threshold voltage of MOS
can be controlled and an MOS technology becomes dominant, as the majority
carries of n-MOS, i.e electrons are twice faster than the holes, the majority
carriers of p-MOS, so the inverter circuits also using n-MOS technology until CMOS
technology arrived.
2.3.2. Resistive load n-MOS inverters :
• It is the simplest MOSFET inverter circuits, it has a load resistance R and n-MOS transistor
connected in series between supply voltage and ground as shown below.

• If Vin is less than the threshold voltage of the n- MOS the transistor is off.
• The capacitor can be changed to supply voltage and the output voltage equals to the
supply voltage.
• When the input is greater than the threshold voltage of the transistor and we get zero
voltage at output it’s disadvantages is that it occupies large area IC fabrication.
2.3.3. Active load n MOS inverter:
Here we use n MOS transistors as active load instead of resistor.
• There are two kinds of transistors in the circuit pull down transistor to pull the output
voltage to the lower supply voltage (usually OV) and pull up transistor to pull the output
voltage to the upper supply voltage.
• In the following circuit, we can see a pull up and pull down n MOSFET. The gate of
the pull up is shorted to supply voltage to make it always on.
• When, Vin is less than the threshold of n MOS the n MOS turns off but p MOS turns on. The
capacitor thus will be charged to supply voltage and we obtain equals to supply at output.
When, Vin is greater than the threshold of n MOS the n MOS turns on but p MOS turns off.
• The capacitor thus will be discharged to supply voltage and we obtain voltage equals to
zero at output.
• The advantages are CMOS inverters circuit dissipates power only during switching event
and in the voltage transfer curve we observe sharp transition.

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2.4 Explain PWM Voltage control of inverter

2.4.1 Working of PWM Voltage control of inverter
• An inverter whose functionality depends upon the pulse width modulation technology is
referred to as PWM inverters.
• These are capable of maintaining the output voltages as the rated voltages depending on the
country irrespective of the type of load connected.
• This can be achieved by changing the switching frequency width at the oscillator.
• An inverter designing involves various topologies of power circuits and the methods to
control the voltage.
• The most concentrated part of the inverter is its waveform generated at the output.
• For the purpose of filtering the waveform inductors and the capacitors are used. In order to
reduce the harmonics from the output low pass filters are used.
• If the inverter possesses a fixed value of output frequencies resonant filters are used.
• For the adjustable frequencies at the output, filters are tuned above the maximum value of
fundamental frequency. PWM technology changes the square wave characteristics.
• The pulses used for switching are modulated and regulated before it supplied to the
connected load. When there is no requirement for voltage control fixed width of the pulse is
used.

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3.12 Explain Magnetostriction Effect

3.12.1. Magnetostriction Effect
• Magnetostriction was first measured by James Prescott Joule (1818-1889) who was able to
magnetize an iron sample and measure its the change in length. The opposite effect, in
which an applied stress caused the material to create a magnetic field, was discovered by
E. Villari (1836-1904).
• The meaning of striction is the state of being constricted.
• Definition: When a magnetic field is given to a magnetic material, it experiences an
alteration in shape or size or length or dimension.This property of some magnetic
materials is known as magnetostriction.
(or)
• Magnetostriction refers both to the dimensional changes that occur in ferromagnetic
materials in the presence of imposed magnetic fields and to the magnetization changes
that occur in ferromagnetic materials exposed to mechanical stress.
• This effect allows magnetostrictive materials to convert electromagnetic energy into
mechanical energy. As a magnetic field is applied to the material, its molecular dipoles
and magnetic field boundaries rotate to align with the field. This causes the material to
strain and elongate
• This change of dimension of magnetic materials during magnetization may continue till
the magnetic saturation of the material is attained.
• As the applied magnetic field increases in intensity, the magnetostrictive strain on the
material increases. Ferromagnetic materials that are isotropic and have few impurities
are most effective in magnetostriction because these properties allow their molecular
dipoles to rotate easily.
3.12.2. Magnetostriction Materials
• This effect is mostly seen in the magnetic materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt, iron-
aluminum alloy and some other alloys like Terfenol-D, Galfenol, Metgla etc. They are
mainly used in actuators and some motors.

4.12 Explain about the electrodes used in resistive welding

system
4.12.1. Electrodes In Resistance Welding

• Electrodes vary by shape (called electrode geometry).

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• The right electrode is selected in order to improve electrical-thermal-mechanical
performance.

• As the cross-sectional area increases rapidly with distance from the workpiece,
thereby providing a good heat sink.

• The diameter of the electrode contact area is a consideration; if the area is too
small, it will produce undersized welds with insufficient strength; if the diameter
of the electrode is too large, it will cause inconsistent and unstable weld growth
characteristics.

• The electrode must be able to:

➢ conduct current to the workpiece

➢ mechanically constrain the workpiece

➢ conduct heat from the workpiece

• The materials used to construct the electrode has to sustain high loads at high
temperatures while maintaining adequate electrical and thermal conductivity.

• A range of copper-based or refractory-based electrode materials is used based on

the application.

• Three groups of electrode materials are outlined below. Within each group, the
Resistance Welding Manufacturers Association (RWMA) sorts electrode materials
into classes.

1. Group A contains copper-based alloys. Common examples are:

Class 1: (99% copper, 1% cadmium; Specifically recommended, because of

its high electrical and thermal conductivity, for spot welding aluminum
alloys, magnesium alloys, brass and bronze.

Class 2: (99.2% copper, 0.8% chromium; General purpose electrode material

for production spot and seam welding of most materials.

2. Group B contains refractory metals and refractory metal composites.

3. Group C contains specialty materials such as dispersion-strengthened

copper.

• In general, higher levels of resistance occurs when the power supply overcomes
the level of resistance. To produce higher levels of resistance dissimilar parts are
used.

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1. Conductive electrodes such as copper are used to weld resistive materials like
nickel or stainless steel

2. Resistive electrodes such as those made from molybdenum are used for
welding conductive metals such as gold or copper

4.14 Draw the block diagram of a resistance welding system that

uses sequence timer
4.14.1. Block Diagram

Fig.4.14

4.14.2. Operation
• This is same as normal resistive welding method but with the additional of
Sequence Timer

• The Fig.4.14 shows the resistance welding timer circuit, the welding machine
receives ac power, by means of a timing device, through a power transformer, a
circuit breaker, and an SCR or ignitron contactor.

• Inside the welding machine, a welding transformer reduces the voltage at the
electrode tips (1 to 10 V) and supplies a large welding current, while drawing
about 50 to 2000 A from the ac supply.

• The electrode tips are water-cooled and must be kept clean.

• A solenoid valve applies air pressure to the electrodes for bringing them together
and squeezing the workpieces (metal pieces) properly.

• Welding current then flows to heat the workplace and make the weld.
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• The workpiece is held under pressure for a few moments until the weld hardens.

• Then the electrodes separate so that the workpiece can be moved before the next
weld is started.

• The resistance between the metal pieces decreases when they are forced together
by the electrodes with greater pressure.

• To make a weld, the current needs to flow for only a fraction of a second.

• The ignitron contactor (these days SCR controlled circuits are used in place of line
contactors) must close and open the circuit quickly, and it does these hundreds of
times each hour.

• The timings of the welding process which may be divided into squeeze time, weld
time, hold time, and OFF time, are controlled by a sequence timer.

• In the early days, the sequence weld timers could control the welding current.

• For the electrodes to come together and squeeze the jobs properly a solenoid valve
is provided, which helps in creating the required pressure to hold the job pieces
together.

• The jobs are held with high pressure between the electrodes and simultaneously
high alternating current starts flowing intermittently as per the design of the
switching circuit.

• The job pieces are properly heated and the welding takes place. The job after being
held together during the welding for a definite period of lime, are set free as the
electrodes separate from each other.

• The time period for which the jobs are held together under pressure is called the
hardening time for the jobs.

• The timings of the welding process are controlled by a sequence timer as shown in
the block diagram.

• The welding cycle may be divided into four successive sequences of time: squeeze
time, weld time, hold time, and OFF time.

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• The total timing sequence is Known as the timing of heat control of the welding
process.

• All these four events are measured in a sequence by the sequence timer.

• After the welding machine is energized, the squeeze time duration allows the
electrodes to grip the jobs properly and create the required amount of pressure on
them.

4.14.3 Weld Time

• The length of time during which the welding current is allowed to flow and the
welding is performed.

4.14.4 Hold Time

• The time during which the electrodes are allowed to continue to press the jobs
even after the welding current has stopped flowing.

4.14.5 Hardening Time

• This is allowed for the weld to harden and therefore is also known as
the hardening time.

• After the weld is perfectly hardened, if the welding machine is still energized, the
electrodes will reclose after a time period called the OFF time.

• This is a setting time that allows the job to be moved to a new position between the
electrodes.

• If this is not required, the jobs may be taken out of the grips of the electrodes.
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4.14.6 Purpose of Sequence Timer
• The weld time is the time during which the welding current flow, after the welding
current stops, the electrodes continue pressure on the metal pieces during the hold
time, in which the weld become hard.

• At last the electrodes decrease the pressure on the metal pieces in separate to each
other.

Additional Figure

5.9 State the need of Industrial Automation

• Industrial automation is the use of control systems, such as computers or robots,
and information technologies for handling different processes and machineries in
an industry to replace a human being. It is the second step beyond mechanization
in the scope of industrialization.

• These expectations showcase that global industrial automation companies are

preferring automation to reduce manual labor inputs and decrease costs.

• It further eliminates the requirement for many low-paying offshore jobs and
allows the companies to increase the need for high-skilled activities.

• The major advantages of using automation are:

1. Reduced direct human labour costs and expenses

2. Increased productivity

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3. Enhanced consistency of processes or product

4. Delivery of quality product

Need of Industrial Automation

• The industrial world is facing many technological changes which increased the
urgent demand for the premium quality products and services that can only be
supplied by a high level of productivity.

• This requirement needs process engineering systems, automated manufacturing,

and industrial automation.

• Hence, industrial automation plays a key role in solving the requirements of

companies. It is extremely significant to face the tasks of:

• Globalization – Global industrial automation market demands superior, practical

services
Productivity – Automation companies want to enhance their productivity by
producing a higher level of Automation. The key factors include costs, time and
quality.

• On the other hand, industrial automation is all about working smarter, faster, and
proficiently.

• This makes automation more powerful and that’s why customers are looking for
pioneering, end-to-end technologies with open, modern architecture and new data
from new connections.

• As the industrial automation industry comprehends the advantages of the Internet

of Things (IoT), it is becoming essential that organizations adopt these
technologies.

5.11 Explain the PLC system with block diagram

• The block diagram of a PLC is almost similar to a computer’s architecture.

• Programmable Logic Controllers continuously monitors the input values from

various input sensing devices (e.g. accelerometer, weight scale, hardwired signals,
etc.) and produces corresponding output depending on the nature of production
and industry.

A typical block diagram of PLC consists of five parts namely:

1. Rack or chassis
2. Power Supply Module

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3. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
4. Input & Output Module
5. Communication Interface Module

1. Rack or chassis
• In all PLC systems, the PLC rack or chassis forms the most important module and
acts as a backbone to the system.

• PLCs are available in different shapes and sizes.

• When more complex control systems are involved, it requires larger PLC racks.

• Small-sized PLC is equipped with a fixed I/O pin configuration.

• So, they have gone for modular type rack PLC, which accepts different types of
I/O modules with sliding and fit in concept.

• All I/O modules will be residing inside this rack/chassis.

2. Power Supply Module

• This module is used to provide the required power to the whole PLC system.

• It converts the available AC power to DC power which is required by the CPU and
I/O module.

• PLC generally works on a 24V DC supply. Few PLC uses an isolated power
supply.

3. CPU Module and Memory

• CPU module has a central processor, ROM & RAM memory.

• ROM memory includes an operating system, drivers, and application programs.

• RAM memory is used to store programs and data.

• CPU is the brain of PLC with an octal or hexagonal microprocessor.

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• Being a microprocessor-based CPU, it replaces timers, relays, and counters.

• Two types of processors as a single bit or word processor can be incorporated with
a PLC.

• One bit processor is used to perform logic functions. Whereas word processors are
used for processing text, numerical data, controlling, and recording data.

• CPU reads the input data from sensors, processes it, and finally sends the
command to controlling devices.

• DC power source, as mentioned in the previous discussion is required voltage

signals.

• CPU also contains other electrical parts to connect cables used by other units.

4. Input and Output Module

• PLC has an exclusive module for interfacing inputs and output, which is called an
input & output module.

• Input devices can be either start and stop pushbuttons, switches, etc and output
devices can be an electric heater, valves, relays, etc. I/O module helps to interface
input and output devices with a microprocessor.

• The input module of PLC is explained in the below figure.

PLC Input Module

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Circuit Diagram of PLC Input Module

• The input module of PLC does four main functions.

1. Input module interface receives the signal from process devices at 220 V
AC

2. Converts the input signal to 5 V DC that can be used by PLC

3. Isolator block is used to isolate/prevent PLC from undergoing

fluctuation

4. After which the signal is sent to the output end i.e the PLC

• There are two main sections in the input module namely the power section and the
logical section.

• Both sections are electrically isolated from each other.

• Initially push button is closed. So, 220 V AC supply is given to the bridge circuit
through the resistors R1 and R2.

• A bridge rectifier (such as a diode bridge rectifier) is used to convert the AC signal
into DC and Zener diode is used to provide a low voltage supply to LED.

• When the light from LED falls on the phototransistor, it works in the conduction
region. Finally, a 5V DC supply is given to the processor.

• The output module of PLC works similarly to the input module but in the reverse
process. It interfaces the output load and processor.

• So here the first section would be logic session and the power section comes next.

• The working of the output module is shown in the below figure

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• So, here when the program logic high signal is generated from the processor, the
LED will turn ON and allow the light to fall on a phototransistor.

• When the transistor goes to the conduction region, it generates a pulse to the gate
of the Triac.

• The isolator block is used to isolate the logic section and control section.

5. Communication Interface Module

• To transfer information between CPU and communication networks, intelligent
I/O modules are used.

• These communication modules help to connect with other PLCs and computers
which are placed at a remote location.

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