Barchelor of Science in Computer Science / Bachelor of Information Technology

COPPERSTONE UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
BCS/BIT: DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

UNIT 2: Transmission Media

1.0 Introduction

At the lowest level, all computer communication involves encoding data in a form of energy and
sending the energy across a transmission medium. A transmission medium can be broadly
defined as anything that can carry information from a source to a destination. The hardware
devices attached to a computer perform the encoding and decoding of data. Various physical
media can be used for the actual transmission. Each physical medium has its own niche in terms
of delay, cost, ease of installation and maintenance. Media is classified either as guided media or
unguided media. Guided media provide a physical path along which the signals are propagated;
these include twisted pair, coaxial cable, and optical fiber. Unguided media employ an antenna
for transmitting through air, vacuum, or water. Programmers and users do not need to know the
details of data transmission. This lecture covers the basics of data transmission

2.0 Guided Media and Unguided Transmission Media

Transmission media be divided into classes. There are two broad approaches:

 By type of path: communication can follow an exact path such as a wire, or can have no
specific path, such as a radio transmission.

 By form of energy: electrical energy is used on wires, radio transmission is used for
wireless, and light is used for optical fiber.

We use the terms guided and unguided transmission to distinguish between physical media such
as copper wiring or optical fibers that provide a specific path and a radio transmission that travels
in all directions through free space. Informally, engineers use the terms wired and wireless. Note
that the informality can be somewhat confusing because one is likely to hear the term wired even
when the physical medium is an optical fiber.

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3.0 A Taxonomy by Forms of Energy

The figure below illustrates how physical media can be classified according to the form of
energy used to transmit data. Successive sections describe each of the media types.

Like most taxonomies, the categories are not perfect, and exceptions exist. For example, a space
station in orbit around the earth might employ non-terrestrial communication that does not
involve a satellite. Nevertheless, our taxonomy covers most communications.

4.0 Background Radiation and Electrical Noise

Recall from basic physics that electrical current flows along a complete circuit. Thus, all
transmissions of electrical energy need two wires to form a circuit — a wire to the receiver and a
wire back to the sender. The simplest form of wiring consists of a cable that contains two copper
wires. Each wire is wrapped in a plastic coating, which insulates the wires electrically. The outer

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coating on the cable holds related wires together to make it easier for humans who connect
equipment.
Computer networks use an alternative form of wiring. To understand why, one must know three
facts.

 Random electromagnetic radiation, called noise, permeates the environment. In fact,

communication systems generate minor amounts of electrical noise as a side effect of
normal operation.
 When it hits metal, electromagnetic radiation induces a small signal, which means that
random noise can interfere with signals used for communication.
 Because it absorbs radiation, metal acts as a shield. Thus, placing enough metal between
a source of noise and a communication medium can prevent noise from interfering with
communication.

The first two facts outline a fundamental problem inherent in communication media that use
electrical or radio energy. The problem is especially severe near a source that emits random
radiation. For example, florescent light bulbs and electric motors both emit radiation, especially
powerful motors such as those used to operate elevators, air conditioners, and refrigerators.
Surprisingly, smaller devices such as paper shredders or electric power tools can also emit
enough radiation to interfere with communication. The point is:

The random electromagnetic radiation generated by devices such as electric motors can
interfere with communication that uses radio transmission or electrical energy sent over wires.

5.0 Twisted Pair Copper Wiring

The third fact in the previous section explains the wiring used with communication systems.
There are three forms of wiring that help reduce interference from electrical noise.

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

 Coaxial Cable
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

The first form, which is known as twisted pair wiring or unshielded twisted pair wiring, is used
extensively in communications. As the name implies, twisted pair wiring consists of two wires
that are twisted together. Of course, each wire has a plastic coating that insulates the two wires
and prevents electrical current from flowing between them. Surprisingly, twisting two wires
makes them less susceptible to electrical noise than leaving them parallel. The figure below
illustrates why.

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Unwanted electromagnetic radiation affecting (a) two parallel wires, and (b) twisted pair wiring.

As the figure shows, when two wires are in parallel, there is a high probability that one of them
is closer to the source of electromagnetic radiation than the other. In fact, one wire tends to act as
a shield that absorbs some of the electromagnetic radiation. Thus, because it is hidden behind the
first wire, the second wire receives less energy. In the figure, a total of 32 units of radiation
strikes each of the two cases. In Figure (a), the top wire absorbs 20 units, and the bottom wire
absorbs 12, producing a difference of 8. In Figure (b), each of the two wires is on top one-half of
the time, which means each wire absorbs the same amount of radiation.

Why does equal absorption matter? The answer is that if interference induces exactly the same
amount of electrical energy in each wire, no extra current will flow. Thus, the original signal will
not be disturbed. The point is:

To reduce the interference caused by random electromagnetic radiation, communication systems

use twisted pair wiring rather than parallel wires.

6.0 Shielding: Coaxial Cable and Shielded Twisted Pair

Although it is immune to most background radiation, twisted pair wiring does not solve all
problems. Twisted pair tends to have problems with:

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 Especially strong electrical noise

 Close physical proximity to the source of noise
 High frequencies used for communication

If the intensity is high (e.g., in a factory that uses electric arc welding equipment) or
communication cables run close to the source of electrical noise, even twisted pair may not be
sufficient. Thus, if a twisted pair runs above the ceiling in an office building on top of a
florescent light fixture, interference may result. Furthermore, it is difficult to build equipment
that can distinguish between valid high frequency signals and noise, which means that even a
small amount of noise can cause interference when high frequencies are used.

To handle situations where twisted pair is insufficient, forms of wiring are available that have
extra metal shielding. The most familiar form is the wiring used for cable television. Known as
coaxial cable (coax), the wiring has a thick metal shield formed from braided wires that
completely surround a center wire that carries the signal.

Illustration of coaxial cable with a shield surrounding the signal wire.

The shield in a coaxial cable forms a flexible cylinder around the inner wire that provides a
barrier to electromagnetic radiation from any direction. The barrier also prevents signals on the
inner wire from radiating electromagnetic energy that could affect other wires. Consequently, a
coaxial cable can be placed adjacent to sources of electrical noise and other cables, and can be
used for high frequencies. The point is:

The heavy shielding and symmetry makes coaxial cable immune to noise, capable of carrying
high frequencies, and prevents signals on the cable from emitting noise to surrounding cables.

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Using braided wire instead of a solid metal shield keeps coaxial cable flexible, but the heavy
shield does make coaxial cable less flexible than twisted pair wiring. Variations of shielding
have been invented that provide a compromise: the cable is more flexible, but has slightly less
immunity to electrical noise. One popular variation is known as shielded twisted pair (STP). The
cable has a thinner, more flexible metal shield surrounding one or more twisted pairs of wires. In
most versions of STP cable, the shield consists of metal foil, similar to the aluminum foil used in
a kitchen. STP cable has the advantages of being more flexible than a coaxial cable and less
susceptible to electrical interference than unshielded twisted pair (UTP).

7.0 Media Using Light Energy and Optical Fibers

According to the taxonomy shown earlier, three forms of media use light energy to carry
information:

 Optical fibers
 InfraRed transmission
 Point-to-point lasers

The most important type of media that uses light is an optical fiber. Each fiber consists of a thin
strand of glass or transparent plastic encased in a plastic cover. A typical optical fiber is used for
communication in a single direction — one end of the fiber connects to a laser or LED used to
transmit light, and the other end of the fiber connects to a photosensitive device used to detect
incoming light. To provide two-way communication, two fibers are used, one to carry
information in each direction. Thus, optical fibers are usually collected into a cable by wrapping
a plastic cover around them; a cable has at least two fibers, and a cable used between large sites
with multiple network devices may contain many fibers.

Although it cannot be bent at a right angle, an optical fiber is flexible enough to form into a
circle with diameter less than two inches without breaking. The question arises, why does light
travel around a bend in the fiber? The answer comes from physics: when light encounters the
boundary between two substances, its behavior depends on the density of the two substances and
the angle at which the light strikes the boundary. For a given pair of substances, there exists a
critical angle, θ, measured with respect to a line that is perpendicular to the boundary. If the
angle of incidence is exactly equal to the critical angle, light travels along the boundary. When
the angle is less than θ degrees, light crosses the boundary and is refracted, and when the angle is
greater than θ degrees, light is reflected as if the boundary were a mirror. The figure illustrates
the concept.

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In the figure behavior of light at a density boundary when the angle of incidence is (a) less than the critical angle , (b) equal to
the critical angle, and (c) greater than the critical angle.

Figure (c) explains why light stays inside an optical fiber — a substance called cladding is
bonded to the fiber to form a boundary. As it travels along, light is reflected off the boundary.

Unfortunately, reflection in an optical fiber is not perfect. Reflection absorbs a small amount of
energy. Furthermore, if a photon takes a zig-zag path that reflects from the walls of the fiber
many times, the photon will travel a slightly longer distance than a photon that takes a straight
path. The result is that a pulse of light sent at one end of a fiber emerges with less energy and is
dispersed (i.e., stretched) over time, as the figure illustrates.

A light pulse as sent and received over an optical fiber.

8.0 Types of Fiber And Light Transmission

Although it is not a problem for optical fibers used to connect a computer to a nearby device,
dispersion becomes a serious problem for long optical fibers, such as those used between two
cites or under the Atlantic Ocean. Consequently, three forms of optical fibers have been invented
that provide a choice between performance and cost:

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 Multimode, Step Index fiber is the least expensive, and is used when performance is
unimportant. The boundary between the fiber and the cladding is abrupt which causes
light to reflect frequently. Therefore, dispersion is high.

 Multimode, Graded Index fiber is slightly more expensive than the step index fiber.
However, it has the advantage of making the density of the fiber increase near the edge,
which reduces reflection and lowers dispersion.

 Single Mode fiber is the most expensive, and provides the least dispersion. The fiber has
a smaller diameter and other properties that help reduce reflection. Single mode is used
for long distances and higher bit rates.

9.0 Optical Fiber Compared To Copper Wiring

Optical fiber has several properties that make it more desirable than copper wiring. Optical fiber
is immune to electrical noise, has higher bandwidth, and light traveling across a fiber does not
attenuate as much as electrical signals traveling across copper. However, copper wiring is less
expensive. Furthermore, because the ends of an optical fiber must be polished before they can be
used, installation of copper wiring does not require as much special equipment or expertise as
optical fiber. Finally, because they are stronger, copper wires are less likely to break if
accidentally pulled or bent. The figure below summarizes the advantages of each media type.

Advantages of optical fiber and copper wiring.

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10.0 InfraRed Communication Technologies

InfraRed (IR) communication technologies use the same type of energy as a typical television
remote control: a form of electromagnetic radiation that behaves like visible light but falls
outside the range that is visible to a human eye. Like visible light, infrared disperses quickly.
Infrared signals can reflect from a smooth, hard surface, but an opaque object as thin as a sheet
of paper can block the signal, as does moisture in the atmosphere.

The point is:

Infrared communication technologies are best suited for use indoors in situations where the path
between sender and receiver is short and free from obstruction

The most commonly used infrared technology is intended to connect a computer to a nearby
peripheral, such as a printer. An interface on the computer and an interface on the printer each
send an infrared signal that covers an arc of approximately 30 . Provided the two devices are
aligned, each can receive the other’s signal.

11. Point-To-Point Laser Communication

Because they connect a pair of devices with a beam that follows the line-of-sight, the infrared
technologies described above can be classified as providing point-to-point communication. In
addition to infrared, other point-to-point communication technologies exist. One form of point-
to-point communication uses a beam of coherent light produced by a laser.

Like infrared, laser communication follows line-of-sight, and requires a clear, unobstructed path
between the communicating sites. Unlike an infrared transmitter, however, a laser beam does not
cover a broad area. Instead, the beam is only a few centimeters wide. Consequently, the sending
and receiving equipment must be aligned precisely to insure that the sender’s beam hits the
sensor in the receiver’s equipment. In a typical communication system, two-way communication
is needed. Thus, each side must have both a transmitter and receiver, and both transmitters must
be aligned carefully. Because alignment is critical, point-to-point laser equipment is usually
mounted permanently.

Laser beams have the advantage of being suitable for use outdoors, and can span greater
distances than infrared. As a result, laser technology is especially useful in cities to transmit from
building to building. For example, imagine a large corporation with offices in two adjacent
buildings. A corporation is not permitted to string wires across streets between buildings.
However, a corporation can purchase laser communication equipment and permanently mount

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the equipment, either on the sides of the two buildings or on the roofs. Once the equipment has
been purchased and installed, the operating costs are relatively low.

To summarize:

Laser technology can be used to create a point-to-point communication system. Because a laser
emits a narrow beam of light, the transmitter and receiver must be aligned precisely; typical
installations affix the equipment to a permanent structure such as the roof of a building.

12. Electromagnetic (Radio) Communication

Recall that the term unguided is used to characterize communication technologies that can
propagate energy without requiring a medium such as a wire or optical fiber. The most common
form of unguided communication mechanisms consists of wireless networking technologies that
use electromagnetic energy in the Radio Frequency (RF) range. RF transmission has a distinct
advantage over light because RF energy can traverse long distances and penetrate objects such as
the walls of a building.

The exact properties of electromagnetic energy depend on the frequency. We use the term
spectrum to refer to the range of possible frequencies; governments around the world allocate
frequencies for specific purposes. In the U.S., the Federal Communications Commission sets
rules for how frequencies are allocated, and sets limits on the amount of power that
communication equipment can emit at each frequency. The figure shows the overall
electromagnetic spectrum and general characteristics of each piece. As the figure shows, one part
of the spectrum corresponds to infrared light described above. The spectrum used for RF
communications spans frequencies from approximately 3 KHz to 300 GHz, and includes
frequencies allocated to radio and television broadcast as well as satellite and microwave
communications.

Major pieces of the electromagnetic spectrum with frequency in Hz shown on a log scale.

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13. Types of Satellites

The laws of physics (specifically Kepler’s Law) govern the motion of an object, such as a
satellite, that orbits the earth. In particular, the period (i.e., time required for a complete orbit)
depends on the distance from the earth. Consequently, communication satellites are classified
into three broad categories, depending on their distance from the earth. The figure below lists the
categories, and describes each.

14. GEO Communication Satellites

As the figure above explains, the main trade off in communication satellites is between height
and period. The chief advantage of a satellite in Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) arises because
the orbital period is exactly the same as the rate at which the earth rotates. If positioned above
the equator, a GEO satellite remains in exactly the same location over the earth’s surface at all
times. A stationary satellite position means that once a ground station has been aligned with the
satellite, the equipment never needs to move. The figure below illustrates the concept.

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A GEO satellite and ground stations permanently aligned.

Unfortunately, the distance required for a geostationary orbit is 35,785 kilometers or 22,236
miles, which is approximately one tenth the distance to the moon. To understand what such a
distance means for communication, consider a radio wave traveling to a GEO satellite and back.
At the speed of light, 3×108 meters per second, the trip takes:

Although it may seem unimportant, a delay of approximately 0.2 seconds can be significant for
some applications. In a telephone call or a video teleconference, a human can notice a 0.2 second
delay. For electronic transactions such as a stock exchange offering a limited set of bonds,
delaying an offer by 0.2 seconds may mean the difference between a successful and unsuccessful
offer. To summarize:

Even at the speed of light, a signal takes more than 0.2 seconds to travel from a ground station
to a GEO satellite and back to another ground station.
15. Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites and Clusters

For communication, the primary alternative to GEO is known as Low Earth Orbit (LEO), which
is defined as altitudes up to 2000 Kilometers. As a practical matter, a satellite must be placed
above the fringe of the atmosphere to avoid the drag produced by encountering gases. Thus, LEO
satellites are typically placed at altitudes of 500 Kilometers or higher. LEO offers the advantage
of short delays (typically 1 to 4 milliseconds), but the disadvantage that the orbit of a satellite
does not match the rotation of the earth. Thus, from an observer’s point of view on the earth, an
LEO satellite appears to move across the sky, which means a ground station must have an
antenna that can rotate to track the satellite. Tracking is difficult because satellites move rapidly.

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The lowest altitude LEO satellites orbit the earth in approximately 90 minutes; higher LEO
satellites require several hours.

The general technique used with LEO satellites is known as clustering or array deployment. A
large group of LEO satellites are designed to work together. In addition to communicating with
ground stations, a satellite in the group can also communicate with other satellites in the group.
Members of the group stay in communication, and agree to forward messages, as needed. For
example, consider what happens when a user in Europe sends a message to a user in North
America. A ground station in Europe transmits the message to the satellite currently overhead.
The cluster of satellites communicate to forward the message to the satellite in the cluster that is
currently over a ground station in North America. Finally, the satellite currently over North
America transmits the message to a ground station. To summarize:

A cluster of LEO satellites work together to forward messages. Members of the cluster must
know which satellite is currently over a given area of the earth, and forward messages to the
appropriate member for transmission to a ground station.

16. Tradeoffs Among Media Types

The choice of medium is complex, and involves the evaluation of multiple factors. Items that
must be considered include:

 Cost: materials, installation, operation, and maintenance

 Data rate: number of bits per second that can be sent
 Delay: time required for signal propagation or processing
 Affect on signal: attenuation and distortion
 Environment: susceptibility to interference and electrical noise
 Security: susceptibility to eavesdropping

17. Modes of Propagation

Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways: ground propagation, sky
propagation, and line-of-sight propagation.
In ground propagation, waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere, hugging the earth.
These low-frequency signals emanate in all direction from the transmitting antenna and follow the
curvature of the planet. Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal: the greater the power,
the greater the distance. In Sky Propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upwards into the
ionosphere (the layer of atmosphere where particles exists as ions) where they are reflected back to
earth. This type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower output power. In Line-Of-Sight

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propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines directly from antenna to
antenna. Antennas must be directional, facing each other. The figures below illustrate these modes of
propagation.

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Summary

A variety of transmission media exists that can be classified as guided / unguided or divided
according to the form of energy used (electrical, light, or radio transmission). Electrical energy is
used over wires. To protect against electrical interference, copper wiring can consist of twisted
pairs or can be wrapped in a shield.

Light energy can be used over optical fiber or for point-to-point communication using infrared or
lasers. Because it reflects from the boundary between the fiber and cladding, light stays in an
optical fiber provided the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle. As it passes along a
fiber, a pulse of light disperses; dispersion is greatest in multimode fiber and least in single mode
fiber. Single mode fiber is more expensive.

Wireless communication uses electromagnetic energy. The frequency used determines both the
bandwidth and the propagation behavior; low frequencies follow the earth’s surface, higher
frequencies reflect from the ionosphere, and the highest frequencies behave like visible light by
requiring a direct, unobstructed path from the transmitter to the receiver.

The chief nonterrestrial communication technology relies on satellites. The orbit of a GEO
satellite matches the earth’s rotation, but the high altitude incurs a delay measured in tenths of
seconds. LEO satellites have low delay, and move across the sky quickly; clusters are used to
relay messages.

Nyquist’s Theorem gives a theoretical limit on the channel capacity of transmission media when
no noise is present; Shannon’s Theorem specifies the channel capacity in realistic situations
where noise is present. The signal-to-noise ratio, a term in Shannon’s Theorem, is often
measured in decibels.

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