UOT

Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch

Gas Dynamics
Chapter One/Introduction to Compressible Flow
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Chapter One/Introduction to Compressible Flow

1.1. Introduction
In general flow can be subdivided into:
i. Ideal and real flow.
For ideal (inviscid) flow viscous effect is ignored. The momentum equations are
Euler’s equations that derived in 1755 by Euler.
For real (viscose) viscous effect is considered. The momentum equations are
Navier-Stokes equations.
ii. Steady and unsteady flow.
For steady flow, flow properties are time independent and mass exits from the
system equals the mass enters the system.
For unsteady, flow properties are time dependent and mass exit s from the system
may or may not equals the mass enters the system and the difference causes system
mass change.
iii. Compressible and incompressible flow
For compressible flow, density becomes an additional variable; furthermore,
significant variations in fluid temperature may occur as a result of density or pressure
changes. There are four possible unknowns, and four equations are requ ired for the
solution of a problem in compressible gas dynamics: equations for the conservation of
mass, momentum, and energy, and a thermodynamic relations and equation of state for
the substance involved. The study of compressible flow necessarily involves an
interaction between thermodynamics and fluid mechanics.
For incompressible flow can be assumed with density is not a variable. For this
type of flow, two equations are generally sufficient to solve the problems encoun tered:
the continuity equation or conservation of mass and a form of the Bernoulli equation,
derivable from either momentum or energy considerations. Variables are generally
pressure and velocity.

iv. One, two and three-Dimensional Flow

One-dimensional flow, by definition, did not consider velocity components in the y or z
directions, as in Figure (1.1a). In true one-dimensional flow, area changes are not allowed. For
inviscid flow the velocity profile is shown in section (a) and (c). However, the more gradual the
area change with x, the more exact becomes the one-dimensional approximation.

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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter One/Introduction to Compressible Flow
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For viscose flow the velocity profiles is shown in
Figure (1.1b). Actually, due to viscosity, the flow velocity at
the fixed wall must be zero as in sections (a) and (c).
Consider the flow in a varying area channel. The
velocity profile in a real fluid is shown in Figure (1.1b)
section (b).
A complete solution of a problem in a fluid mechanics
requires a three-dimensional analysis. However, even for
incompressible flow a complete solution in three
dimensions is possible only numerically with the aid of
computer programs. Fortunately, a great many compressible
flow problems can be solved with the use of a one-
dimensional analysis. One-dimensional flow implies that the
flow variables are functions of only one space coordinate.

1.2. Control volume approach

Figure (1.2) shows an arbitrary mass at time and the same mass at time , which
composes the same mass particles at all times. If is small, there will be an overlap of the two
regions as shown, with the common region identified as region 2. At time the given mass
particles occupy regions and . At time the same mass particles occupy regions and .
Regions 1 & 2, which originally confines of the mass, are called the control volume.
Introducing of concept of material
derivative of any extensive property (a property
which is mass dependent such as mass, enthalpy,
internal energy … etc ) transforms to a control
volume approach gives a valuable general relation
called Reynolds’s Transport Theorem that can be
used to find property change for many particular
situations. Let
the total amount of any
extensive property in a given mass.
the amount of per unit mass. Thus

∫ ∭

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Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter One/Introduction to Compressible Flow
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We construct our material derivative from the mathematical definition

[ ]

[ ]

Now for the term

The numerator represents the amount of in region 3 at time ( ), and by definition region
3 is formed by the fluid moving out of the control volume. Then;

∬ ̂

This integral is called a flux or rate of flow out of the control volume.
Now let us consider the term

Region 1 has been formed by the original mass particles moving into the control volume (during
time ). Thus

∬ ̌

This integral is called a flux or rate of flow into the control volume.
Now look at the first and last terms of equation (1.1) which is:

[ ] ∭

Note that the partial derivative notation is used since the region of integration is fixed and
time is the only independent parameter allowed to vary. Also note that as approaches zero,
region 2 approaches the original control volume. Then eq. (1.1) becomes

[ ]

∭ ∬ ̂ ∬ ̌

As ̂ ̌ then the last two terms become

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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter One/Introduction to Compressible Flow
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∬ ̂ ∬ ̌ ∬ ̂

which is the net rate of passes the control volume surface. The final transformation becomes:

( ) ∭ ∬ ̂

This relation, known as Reynolds’s Transport Theorem, which can be interpreted in words
as: The rate of change of property for a fixed mass system of fluid particles as it is moving is
equal to the rate of change of inside the control volume plus the net efflux of from the
control volume (flow out minus flow in across control volume boundary).

Where
: Material or total or substantial derivative

: Partial derivative with respect to time

: control volume that containing the mass.
: control surface that surrounding the control volume.
: Mass-dependent (extensive) property; scalar or vector quantity.
: is the amount of the property per unit mass. For mass it equals one.
: Fluid density (kg/m3).
: Infinitesimal (very small) control volume.
: Infinitesimal control surface.
: Velocity vector.
̂ : Outward unit vector which is perpendicular to .
̌ : Inward unit vector which is perpendicular to .
Examples of the application of this powerful transformation equation are conservation of
mass, energy and momentum equations which are presented in the next chapter.

References:
1. James John & Thie Keith, Gas dynamics, 3td edition, Pearson prentice hall, Upper Saddle,
New Jersey, 2006.
2. Robert D. Zucker & Oscar Biblarz , Fundamental of Gas Dynamics, John Wily & Sons,
New York, 2002.
.0891 ،‫ وزارة التعليم العالي و البحث العلمي‬،‫ بغداد‬،‫ مبادئ ديناميك الغازات‬،‫منذر اسماعيل الدروبي‬ .3

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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Two/Basic Equation of Compressible Flow
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Chapter Two/Basic Equation of Compressible Flow

2.1. Conservation of mass:

( ) ∭ ∬ ( ̂)

Let so . For fixed amount of mass that moves through the control
volume:

( ) ( )
And for steady flow:

∭ ( )

So the second term must equals to zero.

∬ ( ̂) ( )

Let us now evaluate the

remaining integral for the case of
one-dimensional flow. Figure
(2.1) shows fluid crossing a
portion of the control surface.
Recall that for one-dimensional
flow any fluid property will be constant over an entire cross section. Thus both the
density and the velocity can be brought out from under the integral sign. If the
surface is always chosen perpendicular to , the integral is very simple to evaluate:

∫ ( ̂) ∫ ( ) ( )

But integral in eq. 2.3 must be evaluated over the entire control surface, which
yields:
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Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Two/Basic Equation of Compressible Flow
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∬ ( ̂) ∑ ( )

This summation is taken over all sections where fluid crosses the control
surface. It is positive where fluid leaves the control volume (since ̂ is positive
here) and negative where fluid enters the control volume.
For steady, one-dimensional flow, the continuity equation for a control
volume becomes:
∑ ( )
If there is only one section where fluid enters and one section where fluid leaves
the control volume, this becomes:
( ) ( ) ( )
̇ ( )
is the component of velocity perpendicular to the area A. If the density ρ is
in ⁄ , the area is in and velocity is in ⁄ , then ̇ is in ⁄ .
Note that as a result of steady flow the mass flow rate into a control volume
is equal to the mass flow rate out of the control volume. But if the mass flow rates
into and out of a control volume is the same it doesn’t ensure that the flow is
steady.
For steady one-dimensional flow, differentiating eq. 2.8 gives:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Dividing by

( )

This expression can also be obtained by first taking the natural logarithm of
equation (2.8) and then differentiating the result. This is called logarithmic
differentiation.
This differential form of the continuity equation is useful in interpreting the
changes that must occur as fluid flows through a duct, channel, or stream-tube. It
indicates that if mass is to be conserved, the changes in density, velocity, and cross
sectional area must compensate for one another. For example, if the area is
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Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Two/Basic Equation of Compressible Flow
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constant ( ), any increase in velocity must be accompanied by a
corresponding decrease in density. We shall also use this form of the continuity
equation in several future derivations.

2.2. Conservation of energy.

From first law of thermodynamics
( )
Where is the change in total energy of the system i.e. it is the change in
internal, kinetic and potential energies, ( ). Eq. 2.11 can be
written on a rate basis to yield an expression that is valid at any instant of time:

( )
and represent instantaneous rates of heat and work transfer
between the system and the surrounding. They are rates of energy transfer across
the boundaries of the system. These terms are not material derivatives since heat
and work are not properties of a system. On the other hand, energy is a property of
the system and is a material derivative, then:

( ) ∭ ∬ ( ̂) ( )

For one-dimensional, steady flow the last integral is simple to evaluate, as

are constant over any given cross section. Assuming that the velocity
is perpendicular to the surface , we have

∬ ( ̂) ∑( ) ∑ ̇ ( )

∭ ( )

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Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Two/Basic Equation of Compressible Flow
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We must be careful to include
all forms of work, whether done
by pressure forces or shear forces.
Figure (2.2) shows a simple
control volume. Note that the
control surface is chosen carefully
so that there is no fluid motion at
the boundary, except:
(a) Fluid enters and leaves the system.
(b) A mechanical device crosses the boundaries of the system.
For fluid enters and leaves the system, the pressure forces do work to push fluid
into or out of the control volume. The shaded area at the inlet represents the fluid
that enters the control volume during time . The work done here is:
́ ( )
The rate of doing work, which called flow work, is
́
̇ ( )
The rate at which work is transmitted out of the system by the mechanical device is
and
́
̇ ( )
Thus for steady one-dimensional flow the energy equation for a control volume
becomes

∑ ̇( ) ( )
The summation is taken over all sections where fluid crosses the control surface
and is positive where fluid leaves the control volume and negative where fluid
enters the control volume.
If there is only one section where fluid leaves and one section where fluid enters
the control volume, we have, (from continuity), for steady flow:
̇ ̇ ̇
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Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Two/Basic Equation of Compressible Flow
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Let us take:

∭ ∬ ( ̂) ̇ ( )

∭ ∬ ( ̂) ̇ ( )

Substitute in eqs (2.20) and (2.21) into eq (2.19) gives:

∑( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

This is the form of the energy equation that may be used to solve many problems.
It is often referred as steady flow energy equation (SFEE).

For unsteady flow, since change of kinetic and potential energies within the
system is negligible, then (Unsteady F.E. E) becomes:

, * ̇ ( )+ - , * ̇ ( )+ - ( ̇ ) ( ̇ ) ( )

̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ ( )
where and are internal energy and mass of the working fluid
inside the system after
change while and are
internal energy and mass of
the working fluid inside the
system before change.

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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Two/Basic Equation of Compressible Flow
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2.3. Conservation of momentum.
If we observe the motion of a given quantity of mass, Newton’s second law tells
us that the linear momentum will be changed in direct proportion to the applied
forces. This is expressed by the following equation:

( )
∑ ∭ ∬ ( ̂) ( )

Here besides it is a velocity vector it also represents the momentum per unit
mass. This equation is usually called the momentum or momentum flux equation.
∑ represents the summation of all forces on the fluid within the control volume
which maybe forces due to pressure, viscosity, gravity, surface tension … etc..
For steady flow the time rate of change of linear momentum stored inside the
control volume is

∭ ( )

And momentum equation simplify to:

∑ ∬ ( ̂) ( )

The x-component of this equation would appear as

∑ ∬ ( )

If there is only one section where fluid enters and one section where fluid
leaves the control volume, we know (from continuity) that:
̇ ̇ ̇
And the momentum equation for a finite control volume becomes:
∑ ∑ ̇ ( ) ( )

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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Two/Basic Equation of Compressible Flow
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The summation is taken over all sections where fluid crosses the control
surface and is positive where fluid leaves the control volume and negative where
fluid enters the control volume.

2.4. 1st law of thermodynamics.

First law of thermodynamics takes the following form
∑ ∑ ( )
Or
( )
First law of thermodynamics is a conservation of energy and we dealt with in
2.2.

2.5. 2nd law of thermodynamics.

Two concepts that are important to a study of compressible fluid flow are
derivable from the second law of thermodynamics: the reversible process and the
property entropy. For a thermodynamic system, a reversible process is one after
which the system can be restored to its initial state and leave no change in either
system or surroundings. As a consequence of this definition, it can be shown that a
reversible process is quasi-static; changes occur infinitely slowly, with no energy
being dissipated
Since thermodynamics, is a study of equilibrium states, definite thermodynamic
equations for changes taking place during processes can be derived only for
reversible processes; irreversible processes can only be described
thermodynamically with the use of inequalities. Irreversible processes involve, for
example, the following: friction, heat transfer through a finite temperature
difference, sudden expansion, and magnetization with hysteresis, electrical
resistance heating, and mixing of different gases.
In general, any natural process is irreversible, so the assumption of
reversibility, while it may simplify the thermodynamic equations, necessarily

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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Two/Basic Equation of Compressible Flow
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yields an approximation. For many, cases, the assumption of reversibility leads to
very accurate results; yet it is well to keep in mind that the reversible process is
always an idealization.
The thermodynamic property derivable from the second law is entropy, which
is-defined for a system undergoing a reversible process by ( ⁄ ) .
Entropy changes were defined in the usual manner in terms of reversible
processes:

∫ ( )

( )
The term represents that portion of entropy change caused by the actual
heat transfer between the system and its (external) surroundings. It can be
evaluated readily from:

( )
One should note that can be either positive or negative, depending on
the direction of heat transfer. If heat is removed from a system, is negative and
thus will be negative. It is obvious that for an adiabatic process.
The term represents that portion of entropy change caused by
irreversible effects. Moreover, effects are internal in nature, such as
temperature and pressure gradients within the system as well as friction along the
internal boundaries of the system. Note that this term depends on the process path
and from observations we know that all irreversibilities generate entropy (i.e.,
cause the entropy of the system to increase). Thus we could say that
( )
Obviously, only for a reversible process. An isentropic process is one
of constant entropy. This is also represented by .
( )
A reversible-adiabatic process is isentropic, but an isentropic process does
not have to be reversible and adiabatic we only know that .

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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Two/Basic Equation of Compressible Flow
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2.6. Equation of State.
An equation of state for a pure substance is a relation between pressure,
.density, and temperature for that substance. Depending on the phase of the
substance and on the range of conditions to which it is subjected, one of a number
of different equations of state is applicable. However, for liquids or solids, these
equations become so cumbersome and have such a limited range of application
that it is generally more convenient to use tables of thermodynamic properties. For
gases, an equation exists that does have a reasonably wide range of application, the
perfect gas law; in its usual form, it is expressed as
( )
For the derivation of the perfect gas law from kinetic theory, the volume of
the gas molecules and the forces between the molecules are neglected. These
assumptions are satisfied by a real gas only at very low pressures. However, even
at reasonably high pressures, a real gas approximates a perfect gas as long as the
gas temperature is great enough

2.7. Thermodynamics Relations.

Also the following relations are very useful equations. Starting with the
thermodynamic property relation:
( )

( )

( )

For perfect gas with constant specific heats

∫ ∫ ( )

∫ ∫ ( )

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Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Two/Basic Equation of Compressible Flow
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Example 2.1 Ten kilograms per second of air enters a tank
in volume while is discharged from the
tank (Figure 2.4). If the temperature of the air inside the
tank remains constant at , and the air can be treated
as a perfect gas, find the rate of pressure rise inside the tank.

Solution:
Select a control volume as shown in the sketch. For this case the net rate of efflux of mass from
the control volume is

∬ ( ̂)

The volume is constant and also density is assumed constant inside the tank as temperature is
constant, but it is time dependent.

∭ ∬ ( ̂)

From equation of state for a perfect gas

Example 2.2 Two kilograms per second of liquid hydrogen and eight kg/s of liquid oxygen are
injected into a rocket combustion chamber in steady flow (Figure 2.5). The gaseous products of
combustion are expelled at high velocity
through the exhaust nozzle. Assuming
uniform flow in the rocket nozzle exhaust
plane, determine the exit velocity. The nozzle
exit diameter is . and the density of the
gases at the exit plane is
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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Two/Basic Equation of Compressible Flow
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Solution

( )
Select a control volume as shown in the sketch. For this case of steady flow, Eq. (1.12) is
applicable

∬ ( ̂) ∑

The rate of influx into the control volume is

.
The rate of efflux is
( ) ( )

⁄
( )( )

Example 2.3 An air stream at a velocity of and density of

strikes a stationary plate and is deflected by . Determine
the force on the plate. Assume standard atmospheric pressure
surrounding the jet and an initial jet diameter of .

solution
Select a control volume as shown in Figure (2.6a). Writing the x
component of eq. (2.30) for steady flow to determine fluid force on the
plate

∑ ∬ ( ̂)

[ ( ) ( ) ]

This force is opposite by

Example 2.4 A rocket motor is fired in place on a test stand. The rocket exhausts at an
exit velocity of . Assume uniform steady conditions at the exit plane with an exit plane
static pressure of . For an ambient pressure of , determine the rocket motor
thrust transmitted to the test stand as shown in Figure (2.7).

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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Two/Basic Equation of Compressible Flow
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Solution

∑ ∬ ( ̂)

∬ ( ̂) ̇

( ) ̇
( )

Example 2.5 A rigid, well-insulated vessel is initially evacuated. A valve

is opened in a pipeline connected to the vessel, which allows air at
and to flow into the vessel. The valve is closed when the
pressure in the vessel reaches . Determine the final equilibrium
temperature of the air in the vessel over the temperature range of interest.

Solution
Select a control volume as shown in Figure (1.9). With no heat transfer, no work, and negligible
and , the energy equation is

* * ̇ ( )+ + * * ̇ ( )+ + ( ̇ ) ( ̇ )

̇ ̇ ̇ ̇
̇ ̇
̇ ̇
So eq. (1.32) is simplify to
( ̇ ) ( ̇ )
and

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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Two/Basic Equation of Compressible Flow
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Example 2.6 Steam enters an ejector
(Figure 2.9) at the rate of
with an enthalpy of and
negligible velocity. Water enters at the
rate of with an enthalpy of
and negligible velocity. The
mixture leaves the ejector with an
enthalpy of and a velocity of . All potentials may be neglected.
Determine the magnitude and direction of the heat transfer.

̇ ̇
⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄
̇ ̇ ̇ ⁄

̇ ̇ ( ) ̇ ( ) ̇ ̇ ( )

̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ ( )

̇ ( )

̇
̇

Example 2.7 A horizontal duct of constant area contains CO2 flowing isothermally (Figure
2.10). At a section where the pressure is absolute, the average velocity is know to be
. Farther downstream the pressure has dropped to abs. Find the heat transfer.

Solution

⁄
⁄
⁄
⁄
From state equation between 1 and 2, as T is constant:
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Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Two/Basic Equation of Compressible Flow
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From continuity equation

̇
⁄

( ) ( )

( )
( ) ⁄

Example 2.8 Hydrogen is expanded isentropically in a nozzle from an initial pressure of

, with negligible velocity, to a final pressure of . The initial gas temperature is
. Assume steady flow with the hydrogen behaving as a perfect gas with constant specific
heats, where ⁄ and ⁄ . Determine the final gas velocity
and the mass flow through the nozzle for an exit area of .

Solution

From isentropic relation

⁄ ⁄
( )

From energy equation

( ) ( )

√ ( ) √ ( ) √ ( ) ⁄
From equation of state

From continuity equation

̇ ( ) ⁄

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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Two/Basic Equation of Compressible Flow
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Example 2.9 There is a steady one-
dimensional flow of air through a
diameter horizontal duct (Figure 1.12). At a
section where the velocity is ,
the pressure is and the
temperature is . At a downstream
section the velocity is and the
pressure is . Determine the total wall shearing force between these sections.

Solution

From eq.
∑ ∑ ̇( )

⁄
̇ ⁄ ⁄
∑ ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( )

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Gas Dynamics
Chapter Three/Wave propagation
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Chapter Three/Wave Propagation

3.1. Introduction
The method by which a flow adjusts to the presence of a body can be shown
visually by a plot of the flow streamlines about the body. Figures (3.1) and (3.2)
show the streamline patterns obtained for uniform, steady, incompressible flow
over an airfoil and over a circular cylinder, respectively.
Note that the fluid particles are able to sense the presence of the body before
actually reaching it. At points 1 and 2, for
example, the fluid particles have been
displaced vertically, yet 1 and 2 are points in
the flow field well ahead of the body. This
result, true in the general case of anybody
inserted in an incompressible flow, suggests
that a signaling mechanism exists whereby a fluid particle can be forewarned of a
disturbance in the flow ahead of it. The velocity of signal waves sent from the
body, relative to the moving fluid, apparently is greater than the absolute fluid
velocity, since the flow is able to start to adjust to the presence of a body before
reaching it.
Thus, when a body is inserted into
incompressible flow, a smooth, continuous
streamlines result, which indicate gradual
changes in fluid properties as the flow passes
over the body. If the fluid particles were to
move faster than the signal waves, the fluid would not be able to sense the body
before actually reaching it. and very abrupt changes in velocity vectors and other
properties would ensue.
In this chapter, the mechanism by which the signal waves are propagated
through incompressible and compressible flows will be studied. An expression for
the velocity of propagation of the waves will be derived.

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Gas Dynamics
Chapter Three/Wave propagation
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3.2. Wave formulation
To examine the means by which disturbances pass through an elastic medium. A
disturbance at a given point creates a region of compressed molecules that is
passed along to its neighboring molecules and in so doing creates a traveling wave.
Waves come in various strengths, which are measured by the amplitude of the
disturbance. The speed at which this disturbance is propagated through the medium
is called the wave speed. This speed not only depends on the type of medium and
its thermodynamic state but is also a function of the strength of the wave. The
stronger the wave is, the faster it moves.
If we are dealing with waves of large amplitude, which involve relatively
large changes in pressure and density, we call these shock waves. These will be
studied later. If, on the other hand, we observe waves of very small amplitude,
their speed is characteristic only by the medium and its state. These waves are of
vital importance since sound waves fall into this category. Furthermore, the
presence of an object in a medium can only be felt by the object’s sending out or
reflecting infinitesimal waves which propagate at the sonic velocity.
Consider a long constant-area tube filled with fluid and having a piston at one
end, as shown in Figure (3.3). The fluid is initially at rest. At a certain instant the
piston is given an incremental velocity to the left. The fluid particles
immediately next to the piston are compressed a very small amount as they acquire
the velocity of the piston. As the piston (and these compressed particles) continue
to move, the next group of fluid particles
is compressed and the wave front is
observed to propagate through the fluid at
sonic velocity of magnitude a. All particles
between the wave front and the piston are
moving with velocity to the left and
have been compressed from to
and have increased their pressure from p
to

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Gas Dynamics
Chapter Three/Wave propagation
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The flow is unsteady and
the analysis is difficult. This
difficulty can easily be solved by
superimposing on the entire flow
field a constant velocity to the
right of magnitude a.

3.3. Sonic Velocity

Figure (3.4) shows the problem. Since the wave front is extremely thin, we
can use a control volume of infinitesimal thickness. For steady one-dimensional
flow, we have from continuity equation
̇
But ; thus

Application of this to our problem yields

Neglecting the higher-order term and solving for , we have

Since the control volume has infinitesimal thickness, we can neglect any
shear stresses along the walls. We shall write the x-component of the momentum
equation, taking forces and velocity as positive if to the right. For steady one-
dimensional flow we may write from momentum equation
∑ ∑ ̇
[ ]

Canceling the area and solving for , we have

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Gas Dynamics
Chapter Three/Wave propagation
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Equations (3.2) and (3.3) may now be combined, the result is:

However, the derivative is not unique. It depends entirely on the process.

For example

( ) ( )

Thus it should really be written as a partial derivative with the appropriate

subscript.
Since we are analyzing an infinitesimal disturbance, we can assume
negligible losses and heat transfer as the wave passes through the fluid. Thus the
process is both reversible and adiabatic, which means that it is isentropic.
Equation (4.4) should properly be written as:

( )

For substances other than gases, sonic velocity can be expressed in an

alternative form by introducing the bulk or volume modulus of elasticity Ev.

( ) ( )

Equations (3.4) and (3.6) are equivalent general relations for sonic velocity
through any medium. The bulk modulus is normally used in connection with
liquids and solids. Table 4.1 gives some typical values of this modulus, the exact
value depending on the temperature and pressure of the medium. For solids it also
depends on the type of loading. The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called the
compressibility.
Equation (3.4) is normally used
for gases and this can be greatly
simplified for the case of a gas that

4-7 ch.3
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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Three/Wave propagation
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obeys the perfect gas law. For an isentropic process:

( )

√
For perfect gases, sonic velocity is a function of the only.

It is important to realize that both V and a are computed locally for the same
point. For other point within the flow we must seek further information to
compute on the sonic velocity, which has probably changed.
Subsonic flow, , the velocity is less than the local speed of sound.
Supersonic flow, , the velocity is greater than the local speed of sound.
We shall soon see that the Mach number is the most important parameter in the
analysis of compressible lows.

3.4: Wave Propagation

Let us examine a point disturbance that is
at rest in a fluid. Infinitesimal pressure
pulses are continually being emitted and
thus they travel through the medium at
sonic velocity in the form of spherical
wave fronts. To simplify matters we shall
keep track of only those pulses that are
emitted every second. At the end of 3
seconds the picture will appear as shown in
Figure (3.5). Note that the wave fronts are concentric.
Now consider a similar problem in which the disturbance is moving at a speed
less than sonic velocity, say . Figure (3.6) shows such a situation at the end of
3 seconds. Note that the wave fronts are no longer concentric.

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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Three/Wave propagation
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Furthermore, the wave that was

emitted at t = 0 is always in
front of the disturbance itself.
Therefore, any person, object,
or fluid particle located
upstream will feel the wave
fronts pass by and know that
the disturbance is coming.
Next, let the disturbance
move at exactly sonic velocity.
Figure (3.7) shows this case and
you will note that all wave
fronts coalesce on the left side
and move along with the
disturbance. After a long period
of time this wave front would
approximate a plane indicated
by the dashed line. In this case,
no region upstream is
forewarned of the disturbance as
the disturbance arrives at the
same time as the wave front.
The only other case to
consider is that of a disturbance
moving at velocities greater than
the speed of sound. Figure (3.8)
shows a point disturbance
moving at Mach number = 2
(twice sonic velocity). The wave

6-7 ch.3
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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Three/Wave propagation
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fronts have coalesced to form a cone with the disturbance at the apex. This is
called a Mach cone. The region inside the cone is called the zone of action since it
feels the presence of the waves. The outer region is called the zone of silence, as
this entire region is unaware of the disturbance. The surface of the Mach cone is
sometimes referred to as a Mach wave; the half-angle at the apex is called the
Mach angle and is given the symbol μ. It should be easy to see that:

For subsonic flow, no such zone of silence exists. If the disturbance caused by a
projectile, the entire fluid is able to sense the projectile moving through it, since
the signal waves move faster than the projectile. No concentration of pressure
disturbances can occur for subsonic flow; Mach lines cannot be defined.
Let us now compare steady, uniform, subsonic and supersonic flow over a
finite wedge-shaped body. If the fluid velocity is less than the velocity of sound,
flow ahead of the body is able to sense its presence. As a result, gradual changes in
flow properties take place; with smooth, continuous streamlines (see Figure 3.9).
If the fluid velocity is greater than the velocity of sound, the approach flow,
being in the zone of silence, is unable to sense the presence of the body. The body
now presents a finite disturbance to the flow. The wave pattern obtained is a result
of the addition of individual Mach waves emitted from each point on the wedge.
This nonlinear addition yields a compression shock wave across which occur finite
changes in velocity, pressure, and other flow properties. A typical flow pattern
obtained for supersonic flow over the wedge is shown in Figure (3.10).

7-7 ch.3
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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Four/Isentropic flow of a perfect gas
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Chapter Four/Isentropic flow of a perfect gas in varying area duct

To study the compressible, isentropic flow through varying area channels such as
nozzles, diffusers and turbine blade passages, the following assumptions are
considered:
1. One dimensional, steady flow of a perfect gas.
2. Friction is zero.
3. No heat and work exchange.
4. Variation in properties is brought about by area change.
5. Changes in potential energy and gravitational forces are negligible.

4.1 Equations of motion.

 Continuity equation:

∬ ( ̂) ∑ ( )

̇ ( )
( )( )( ) ( )
Simplifying and ignoring high order
( )
Divided by

( )

 Momentum equation:

∑ ∬ ( ̂) ( )

∬ ( ̂) [( ) ] ( )

1-5 ch.4
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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Four/Isentropic flow of a perfect gas
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If there is no electromagnetic force and friction force is negligible, the only
acting force is the pressure force. The side wall pressure force in flow direction can
be obtained with a mean pressure value:
[( )( )]
but ( ) ; and thus

( ) ( )

∑ ( ) ( )( ) ( )

( ) ( )( ) [( ) ] ( )
Simplifying and ignoring high orders
( )

 Energy equation

∬ ( ̂) ( )

∬[ ( )] ( ̂) ( )

The specific energy e is stand for internal, flow, kinetic and potential
energies, since there is no heat and work transfer. Then from S.F.E.E.;
( )
( ) (( )( ) ( ) ( ))

( ) ( )

( )
Substitute from thermodynamics relations

2-5 ch.4
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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Four/Isentropic flow of a perfect gas
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( )
This is the energy equation which is similar to equation (4.11).

4.2 Stagnation concept and relations

If you had a thermometer and pressure gage, they would indicate the
temperature and pressure corresponding to the static state of the fluid, as you move
with flow velocity. Thus the static properties are those that would be measured if
you moved with the fluid.
Stagnation state defined as that thermodynamic state which would exist if the
fluid were brought to zero velocity and zero potential. To yield a consistent
reference state, we must qualify how this stagnation process should be
accomplished. The stagnation state must be reached
1. Without any energy exchange ( )
2. Without friction losses.
From (1), change of entropy due to energy exchange is zero, i.e. ; and
from (2), change of entropy due to friction is zero, i.e. . Thus the
stagnation process is isentropic!
Consider fluid that is flowing and
has the static properties shown as (a)
in Figure 4.3. At location (b) the fluid
has been brought to zero velocity and
zero potential under the foregoing
restrictions. If we apply the energy
equation to the control volume
indicated for steady one-dimensional
flow, we have.

( ) ( )

( )

3-5 ch.4
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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Four/Isentropic flow of a perfect gas
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Since condition (2) represents the stagnation state corresponding to the static
state (1). Thus we call the stagnation or total enthalpy corresponding to state
(1) and designate it as . Thus

Or for any state, we have in general,

( )
This is an important relation that is always valid. When dealing with gases,
potential energy changes are usually neglected, and we write.

( )
The one-dimension S.F.E.E. becomes:
( )

( )

Equation (4.20) shows that for any adiabatic, no-work, steady, one-dimensional
flow system, the stagnation enthalpy remains constant, irrespective of the losses.
One must realize that when the frame of reference is changed, stagnation
conditions change, although the static conditions remain the same. Consider still
air with Earth as a reference frame. In this case, since the velocity is zero the static
and stagnation conditions are the same. For gases we eliminate potential term

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

4-5 ch.4
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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Four/Isentropic flow of a perfect gas
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The stagnation process is isentropic. Thus is used as the exponent in the
relations between any two points on the same isentropic streamline. Let point 1
refers to the static conditions, and point 2, the stagnation conditions. Then,
⁄( )
( )
⁄( )
( )
⁄( )
( ) ( )
⁄( )
( ) ( )

Example 4.1 Air flows with a velocity of ⁄ and has a pressure of

⁄ and temperature of . Determine the stagnation pressure.
Solution
√ √ ( )

⁄( ) ( ⁄ )
( ) ( )
⁄

Example 4.2 Hydrogen, , has a static temperature of and a

stagnation temperature of . What is the Mach number?
Solution

( )

( ) ( )( )
( )

5-5 ch.4
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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Five/Subsonic and Supersonic Flow Through a Varying Area Channels
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ --------------------------------------------------------
Chapter Five/Subsonic and Supersonic Flow through a Varying Area
Channels

5.1 Isentropic Flow in varying Area ducts

For isentropic flow, from continuity

and from momentum equations

Substitute into momentum eq.

( )

From definition of sonic velocity, eq.3.4

( ) ( )

( )

( )

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Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Five/Subsonic and Supersonic Flow Through a Varying Area Channels
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ --------------------------------------------------------

( )

Also from eq. 5.1. after substitute for from definition of sonic velocity

( )

Substitute eq.5.3 into continuity eq.4.5. gives

( )( )

Let us consider what is happening to fluid properties as it flows through a

variable-area duct.
For subsonic flow, , then .
When is negative (area is decreasing), then is negative (pressure
decreases) and is negative (density decreases) and is positive (velocity
increases) and vice versa.
For supersonic flow, , then .
When is negative (area is decreasing), then is positive (pressure
increases) and is positive (density increases) and is negative (velocity
decreases) and vice versa.
We summarize the above by saying that
as the pressure decreases, the following
variations occur:

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Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Five/Subsonic and Supersonic Flow Through a Varying Area Channels
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ --------------------------------------------------------
Combines equations (5.4) and (5.3) to eliminate the term with the
following result:
( )
From this equation we see that:
At low Mach numbers, density variations will be quite small. This means that
the density is nearly constant ( ) in the low subsonic regime ( ) and
the velocity changes compensate for area changes.
At a Mach number equal to unity, we reach a situation where density changes
and velocity changes compensate for one another and thus no change in area is
required ( ).
At supersonic flow, the density decreases so rapidly that the accompanying
velocity change cannot accommodate the flow and thus the area must increase.

A nozzle is a device that

converts enthalpy (or pressure energy
for the case of an incompressible
fluid) into kinetic energy. From
Figure 5.1 we see that an increase in
velocity is accompanied by either an
increase or decrease in area,
depending on the Mach number.
Figure 5.2 shows what these devices
look like in the subsonic and
supersonic flow regimes.

A diffuser is a device that

converts kinetic energy into enthalpy
(or pressure energy for the case of
incompressible fluids). Figure 5.3
shows what these devices look like in
the subsonic and supersonic regimes.
Thus we see that the same piece of
equipment can operate as either a
nozzle or a diffuser, depending on the
flow regime.
Notice that a device is called a nozzle or a diffuser because of what it does,
not what it looks like.

3-7 ch.5
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Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Five/Subsonic and Supersonic Flow Through a Varying Area Channels
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ --------------------------------------------------------
Further consideration of Figures 5.1 and 5.2 leads to some interesting
conclusions. If one attached a converging section (see Figure 5.2a) to a high-
pressure supply, one could never attain a flow greater than Mach 1, regardless of
the pressure difference available. On the other
hand, if we made a converging–diverging device
(combination of Figure 5.2a and b), we see a
means of accelerating the fluid into the supersonic
regime, provided that the proper pressure
difference exists between inlet and exit plane.

5.2 The ( ) Reference Concept

Concept of a stagnation reference state was introduced which is an isentropic

process. It will be convenient to introduce another reference condition since the
stagnation state is not a feasible reference when dealing with area changes. (Why?)
The new reference state with a superscript ( ) and define it as “that
thermodynamic state which would exist if the fluid reached a Mach number of
unity by some particular process”. There are many processes by which we could
reach Mach 1.0 from any given starting point, and they would each lead to a
different thermodynamic state.
For isentropic flow process, adiabatic frictionless, flow the stagnation properties
for all points are the same as well as the (*) properties are the same.
For actual flow process, each point in the flow has its own stagnation and (*)
properties.
Consider a steady, one-
dimensional flow of a perfect gas
with no heat or work transfer and
negligible potential changes but
with friction. Figure 5.5 shows a
T –s diagram indicating two
points in such a flow system.
Above each point is shown its
stagnation reference state, and
below its reference state ( ).

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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Five/Subsonic and Supersonic Flow Through a Varying Area Channels
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ --------------------------------------------------------
Note that the stagnation temperatures are the same and lie on a horizontal line,
but the stagnation pressures are different, and also ( ) reference points will lie on
another horizontal line (since no heat is added).
Between ( ) reference state and the stagnation reference state lie all points in the
subsonic regime. Below the ( ) reference state lie all points in the supersonic
regime.

5.3 Isentropic Table

Mass flow rate at flow cross sectional area can be expressed in terms of
stagnation pressure and temperature
̇

√
⁄
For perfect gas with constant specific heat
̇ √ √
√
Substitute for p and T from
( )
⁄
( )
⁄
̇ √ ( )
√

̇
√
√
⁄
( )
For isentropic flow where and are constant, cross section can be related
directly to Mach number. Select flow cross section area where as a

5-7 ch.5
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 UOT
Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Five/Subsonic and Supersonic Flow Through a Varying Area Channels
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ --------------------------------------------------------
reference area . For steady flow, the mass flow rate
at area is equal to the mass flow rate at area .
̇ ̇

√ √

⁄
[⁄ ]
( )
⁄
The result of equation (5.11) is plotted
in figure (5.6) for . For each
value of ⁄ there are two possible
isentropic solution, one subsonic and
the other supersonic. The minimum
area or throat area occurs at .
This agree well with the result of eq 5.6
that illustrated in figure 5.2. and 5.3.
A convergent-divergent nozzle is
required to accelerate a slowly moving
stream to supersonic velocities.

Example: 5.1

An airstream flows in a converging duct from cross section area of

to a cross-sectional area of . If , and
⁄ . Find and . Assume steady one-dimensional isentropic
flow.
Solution:
Over the temperature range, air behaves as perfect gas with .

√ √
At from isentropic flow table with

6-7 ch.5
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Mechanical Department / Aeronautical Branch
Gas Dynamics
Chapter Five/Subsonic and Supersonic Flow Through a Varying Area Channels
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ --------------------------------------------------------

But

So that

From isentropic flow table ,

For isentropic flow, (no shaft work, potential energy is neglected for a gas),
are constant. At from isentropic flow table :

At

7-7 ch.5
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