A UNITIZED CHARGING & DISCHARGING

OF BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

MUNAEM HASHMI (02-133202-061)

VANEEZA AHMED (02-133202-003)

Supervisor
Dr. M. RAZA

A project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Electrical Engineering

Bachelor of Electrical Engineering

Bahria University, Karachi Campus

2024
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that this project report is based on our original work except for citations and
quotations which have been duly acknowledged. We also declare that it has not been previously
and concurrently submitted for any other degree or award at Bahria University or other
institutions.

Signature :

Name : VANEEZA AHMED

Reg No. : 70057

Signature :

Name : MUNAEM HASHMI

Reg No. : 70094

Date :

2
 APPROVAL FOR SUBMISSION

We certify that this project report entitled “A UNITIZED CHARGING AND

DISCHARGING OF BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM” was prepared by
MUNAEM HASHMI AND VANEEZA AHMED has met the required standard for
submission in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Bachelor of Electrical
Engineering at Bahria University.

Approved by,

Signature :

Supervisor : Dr Engr M. Raza

Date :

3
 The copyright of this report belongs to the author under the terms of the copyright
Ordinance 1962 as qualified by Intellectual Property Policy of Bahria University. Due
acknowledgement shall always be made of the use of any material contained in, or derived from,
this report.

© 2024, Vaneeza ahmed and Munaem hashmi. All right reserved.

4
 ABSTRACT
Unitized Charging and Discharging of Battery management System (UCD BMS) is an effective
technique for controlling battery systems that can be used in EV’s as well as RES where precise
battery management is pivotal for improved functionality. The main goal of this system is to extend the
life span of safety of battery systems and to monitor and control the charging and discharging manners
of distributed battery units. In rare circumstances, the actual usage of UCD BMS means including a
few programmable modules and battery modules for the best performance degree. The key design of
the proposed UCD BMS is that it should be scalable to accommodate to the types and sizes of
batteries. It can be further combined with the currently existing battery management systems or it can
be employed independently of the rest of the package
Reducing imbalance in battery can be addressed by the battery cell balancing circuit that
employs only a single inductor. This circuit encompasses a first access which is the electric energy
path of the battery pack, a second access, and an electric energy transmitting portion. In the first access
path, second access path and the electric energy transmitting part, the controlling circuit is used to
switch the particle of strong or weak cells in the battery pack into one single inductor for the balance of
battery cell. This has the advantage of increasing the efficiency in terms of power usage while at the
same time decreasing the size and therefore the cost of the battery pack. The UCD BMS keeps track of
the charging and discharging process so that the battery cells do not over charge and discharge and
consequently reduces their lifeless aswell as increases the over system’s performance.

5
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION 2
APPROVAL FOR SUBMISSION 3
ABSTRACT 5
LIST OF TABLES 8
LIST OF FIGURES 9
LIST OF SYMBOLS / ABBREVIATIONS 11
LIST OF GRAPHS 12
LIST OF APPENDICES 13
CHAPTERS

1. INTRODUCTION 14

1.1. Background 14
1.1.1. Battery Management System 14
1.1.2. Functions of BMS 15
1.1.3. A Unitized Charging Discharging BMS 18
1.2. Literature Review 19
1.3. Problem Statements 22
1.4. Aims and Objectives 23
1.5. Sustainable Development Goals of Project 23
1.5.1. Mapping of Sustainable Development Goals 24
1.6. Environmental Aspects of Project 24

2. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 25

2.1. Monitoring of a BMS in Li-ion battery packs 26

2.1.1. Li-ion battery cells monitoring 26
2.1.2. Temperature of batteries during charging & discharging 28
2.1.3. State of Charge 29
2.1.4. State of Health 29
2.2. Topology for cell balancing 29
2.2.1. Single inductor active cell balancing 29

3. DESIGN IMPLMENTATION 32

3.1. Simulation model 33

6
 3.1.1. Charging and Discharging paths of circuit 34
3.1.2. Switching configuration 36
3.2. Hardware Description 37
3.2.1. Arduino Mega 37
3.2.2. LCD Screen 37
3.2.3. Voltage Sensor 38
3.2.4. ACS712 Current Sensor 39
3.2.5. Li ion Batteries 40
3.2.6. I2C module 40
3.3. Design Parameters 41
3.4. Proteus Simulation 45

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 48

4.1. MATLAB Simulation Results for only SOC balancing 48

4.2. Simulation Results of Proteus 50
4.3. Hardware Results 52

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 53

REFERENCES 54

7
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLES TITLE PAGE

1.5 Mapping of SDGs 24

3.1 Switching configurations 36

3.3 Values of Cells 41

4.1 SOC of Battery pack 50

4.5 Results of Hardware 52

8
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

Figure 1.1: Simple Structure of BMS 15

Figure 1.2: Functions of BMS 15

Figure 1.3: Cell Balancing Topologies 16

Figure 1.4: Explaining Active & Passive Balancing 17

Figure 1.5: BMS of Electric Vehicles 18

Figure 1.6: (a) Affordable and clean energy SDG 7 and 23

(b)Industry, innovation and infrastructure SDG 9

Figure 2.1: General Block diagram of BMS 25

Figure 2.2: Internal architecture of BMS 26

Figure 2.3: Voltage Monitoring Circuit and sensor 27

Figure 2.4: Current Monitoring Circuit and sensor 27

Figure 2.5: Simple temperature system 28

Figure 2.6: Single Inductor Cell balancing 30

Figure 3.1: Cell balancing simulink model 33

Figure 3.2: Charging cycle 34

Figure 3.3: Discharging cycle 35

Figure 3.4: Arduino Mega 37

Figure 3.5: LCD Screen (20 x 4) 38

9
Figure 3.6: Voltage Sensor 38

Figure 3.7: Current Sensor 39

Figure 3.8: Li-ion Batteries 40

Figure 3.9: I2C Module 41

Figure 3.10: Current waveform of inductor in continuous mode 42

Figure 3.11: Current waveform of inductor in discontinuous mode 43

Figure 3.12: SOC Based switch controller 44

Figure 3.13: Gate drive circuit of IR 2110 44

Figure 3.14: Flowchart 45

Figure 3.15: Proteus Simulation Model 46

Figure 3.16: Internal Circuit of MOSFET with gate drive 47

Figure 3.17: Thermal management system 47

Figure 4.5: Before Balancing on Proteus 50

Figure 4.6: After Balancing on Proteus 51

Figure 4.7: Before Balancing on Hardware 52

Figure 4.8: After Balancing on Hardware 52

10
 LIST OF SYMBOLS / ABBREVIATIONS

BMS Battery Management System

EVs Electric Vehicles
SoC State of Charge
SoH State of Health
UCD Unitized Charging & Discharging
BMC Battery management controller
BTMS Battery Thermal Management system
PCB Printed circuit board

11
 LIST OF GRAPHS

GRAPHS TITLE PAGE

3.1 Current Configuration 43

4.1 Inductor Current Graph 48

4.2 SOC Balanced ( Steady State) 48

4.3 SOC Balanced (26V) 49

4.4 SOC Balanced without supply 49

4.5 Gate Drive output Signal 51

12
 LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Computer Programming Listing 59

B PCB Designs and Hardware 66

13
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background

1.1.1. Battery Management System

For storing electric energy in many applications, batteries are a necessary substitute.
As examples, consider EVs, UPSs, and renewable energy systems [1]. Based on the application,
many BMS definitions exist. An energy storage system's battery modules can function alone or
in multiples, and a BMS is generally a management scheme that monitors and enhances their
performance. The module or modules may be disconnected from the system by the BMS upon
the occurrence of an abnormal state. The objective of integrating suitable safety measures into a
system is to improve battery performance [2]. Internet of Things or IoT is defined as the
combination of all devices on the Internet, in addition to the technology used to link the devices
and the Cloud as well as the devices themselves. The usage of IoT in monitoring the
performance of an electric vehicle battery is solely reliant on the source of energy from a
battery such that the concept of monitoring the performance of the vehicle through IoT
approaches can be done directly. Battery monitoring system for IoT is mainly categorized into
two components - I) the monitoring device II) graphical user interface.
Latest internet of things (IoT) technology be applied to alert the manufacturer and
users of the battery conditions. This can be considered as one of the maintenance support
functions of the company accompanied by the necessary resources for efficient equipment
functioning. IoT goes beyond conventional use of internet required in most applications today
where it is possible to connect almost any device and even ordinary objects to the internet,
making the world a close place to the user[3].

Hardware and software combine to improve the battery's discharge cycle and increase
its lifespan in a BMS. By keeping batteries from getting to a dangerous state, BMS are utilized
in a wide variety of industrial and commercial applications to increase battery efficiency and
lifespan. The battery's state of charge (SoC), temperature, and current are tracked for this
purpose using a variety of monitoring mechanisms [4]. Figure 1-1 shows the simple structure of
BMS.

14
 Figure 1.1: Simple Structure of BMS [5]

1.1.2. Functions of a BMS

The battery management system is responsible for managing battery packs that are
linked externally or internally (BMS). To determine the battery numbers, common data is
used to calculate the pack voltage, pack temperature, pack current, and pack voltage. Based
on these measurements, the BMS calculates the battery packs' SOC, SOH, and operational
critical parameter [2]. The functions includes is shown in Fig 1.2:

Figure 1.2: Functions of BMS

 SoC Estimation: As seen in Figure 1.3, the SoC displays the remaining electric charge in
the battery. It is given as a percentage, which, based on the charge level, might be anywhere
between 0% and 100%. A user can determine when the battery needs to be recharged and
what resources are available by examining the SOC indicator [5].

 SoH Estimation: A battery's overall health and capacity to provide a certain output are both
reflected in its SoH measurement. Additionally, as seen in Figure 1.4, it displays the
battery's maintenance status and remaining useful lifetime. Measuring SoH is crucial for
determining how prepared emergency power equipment is [6]
15
  Cell Balancing: All electrical equipment, including EVs and home gadgets, depend on
battery cell balance to extend battery runtime, or battery life as it is more simply described
[7]. In order to guarantee consistency and maximum use of the entire battery pack, the BMS
carries out cell balancing by adjusting the charge across individual cells. Preserving the
battery is a BMS's main function [2]. Some cell balancing topologies are depicted in Figure
no 1.5.

Figure 1.3: Cell Balancing Topologies [8]

A. Cell balancing types:

i. Active cell balancing:
As evident in figure one illustrated below.1.4, charged particles from high-state
cells are transferred to low-state cells in an active balancing processing and after that the
charged particles are temporarily stored in energy storage devices such as capacitors,
transformers, inductors or any type of converters that are used in converters. This approach
delivers optimal benefits in managing battery energy, albeit at the cost of complicating
structures and control systems [9].

ii. Passive cell balancing:

In the case of a battery pack (series) with the highest voltage, the method involves
driving energy of the cell down with a resistor. This balancing strategy uses shunting resistors
and passive components, and an example is illustrated in Figure 1.4 to extract energy [7],
which yields heat, from the battery pack’s high energy cells and convert it to the low energy
balance cells. This cell balancing method has the advantages of using a much simpler one
than the mathematical formula described in the previous section. It can be noted that passive
mode is able to work with both a permanent and switchable shunt resistor [10].
16
 Figure 1.4: Explaining Active & Passive Balancing [11]

 Overcurrent & Overvoltage Protection: The BMS prevents the battery from going over
safe current or voltage thresholds. In case of overvoltage or overcurrent, it disconnects the
battery from the load or charging source .In order to prevent needless interruptions of
operations, it has the ability to distinguish between transient fault currents [12]. An
excessive voltage or current could permanently harm the battery system [2].

 Temperature Management: The battery is kept within the recommended operating

temperature range by the BMS, which monitors its temperature and applies heating or
cooling techniques as needed. Controlling temperature is another essential function of BMS.
The appropriate method for regulating system temperature is also verified by the BMS. The
battery system is harmed by heat and other anomalies brought on by high temperatures [2].

 Management of Charging and Discharging: The duration of a battery's functionality is

dictated by its level of charge, also known as its SOC. Both charging & draining of a battery
have a limited capacity. As the capacity increases, the lifetime of batteries decreases. So, it
is necessary for a BMS to also regulate SOC to the right level in order to increase the
lifetime of batteries. The BMS exercises control over this area by regulating the current of
the charger, activating and deactivating switches that connect the battery pack to the load or
charger, initiating the pre-charge process, imposing dynamic power limitations, and
carrying out both active and passive balancing [2].

17
1.1.3. A Unitized Charging and Discharging BMS
In numerous consumer electronics and portable electronic gadgets, rechargeable
batteries are commonly utilized. When a UCD BMS is equipped with dispersed battery units,
certain battery units can release their energy to power the vehicle, while other battery units
receive power from photovoltaic or other energy harvesting devices [13]. To increase battery
life and enhance charging effectiveness, this cutting-edge technology will incorporate
sophisticated monitoring, management, and optimization. The charging/discharging of a
battery are combined into a single, cohesive framework with the help of a UCD BMS, an
innovative technology. Figure 1.7 below shows an overview block diagram for BMS.

Data from sensors that detect temperature, voltage, and current are used by the BMS.
There is a greater likelihood of an issue with a single voltage or current sensor because EVs
employ numerous of these sensors to monitor every battery cell [14]. Power electronics,
transformers, actuators, passive elements, sensors, converters, and safety devices are just a few
of the circuits and parts that make up the BMS in electric vehicles. They are controlled by
different control signals and algorithms. The most widely employed methodologies in BMSs
are model-based approaches and intelligent techniques [15].

Figure 1.5: BMS of Electric Vehicles [16]

18
1.2. Literature Review

Because of the rising demand for EVs, portable electronics, and the integration of
renewable energies, there has been a greater need for effective energy storage solutions in
recent years. Research on UCD BMS has become essential in order to maximize energy
efficiency and improve battery system’s longevity, safety, and performance. The papers that
follow offer a thorough analysis of battery management systems used in diverse applications.

The smart battery module's overall power efficiency is increased by this paper's UCD
BMS, which enables flexible charging and discharging of distributed battery units [17].

Besides upgrading the capacity and safely of Li-ion power batteries and EV’s, this paper
provides technical support for setting up a good and efficient BTMS [18].

This thesis highlights the importance of efficient BMS for Li-ion cells in maximizing
performance and lifespan. The study compares two active balancing methods, cell-to-cell and
cell-to-battery, using push-pull converters. Results indicate that the cell to battery method
achieves faster balancing times, showcasing its superior performance [19].

Analyzing the existing battery balancing circuit control methods, this paper employs a
single switch inductor along with a SOC-based logic controller for designing its automatic
battery balancing circuit model [15].

This paper seeks to necessitate BMS technologies such as battery modeling, battery
state estimation, and battery charging. Lastly, many significant and traditional battery charging
processes are examined with relevant optimization methods [20].

This research presents, common cell balancing topologies based on

MATLAB/Simulink simulation are compared and a brief summary of the current BMS cell
balancing techniques is provided [8].

Consequently, this paper will analyze and explain the concept of the battery, such as its
maximum capacity and charge, health, and life. There exist means by which the battery status
along with the temperature, voltage, and current are monitored to ensure the efficiency…. As
for monitoring, a number of types of digital and analog sensors merged with microcontrollers
are employed [21].

19
 This paper focuses on how to address the selection of good balance for a series battery
pack. It assesses a balancing circuit design with a single inductor and suggests a balance
approach under battery SOC [22].

This paper discusses the function of BMS in the EV’s that is used to enhance battery
health, capacity and utilization, that supervises the period of charging and discharging in the
battery [23].

As a result of increase use of efficient transportation systems such as electric cars,

portable applications such as energy storage of portable electronics, and renewable energy
system in recent years, there has been need to improve effective energy storage solutions. Due
to its significance in enhancing energy efficiency and enhancing battery system’s durability,
safety and effectiveness, the development of BMS has become an important academic focus of
study at UCD. Additional information related to battery management systems as applied to
differentareas of usage is provided in the papers that follow [13].

Furthermore, the information in this investigation may create technical support for the
establishment of a good and efficient BTMS in addition to improving the functionality and
security of Li-ion power batteries and EV’s [18].

This paper looks at battery balancing strategies and control techniques, security of
battery aggregates, and applications for Li-ion battery packs in BMS to enhance battery
management system reliability and durability [24].

This research examines various cell balancing approaches and simulates them using
MATLAB and also explained advantages and disadvantages of adapting each topology for
better performance of BMS. [25].

This study presents the technique for building a simple BMS with a warning system.
This BMS balances the cells within the battery pack to prevent deep draining and overcharging.
MATLAB/Simulink has been used to experimentally validate the proposed BMS system. In
place of balancing cells based on VT, this study suggests a novel architecture for the Active
Cell Balancing Technique that uses SOC%. The previously described system also has a warning
mechanism that is visible through a bright LED [26].

The paper looks at the limitations, issues, and recommendations for Li-ion BMS in
EV’s, highlighting the importance of efficient energy storage solutions for peak performance
[27].

20
 This study presents the aspects of hardware of BMS for EV's and other appliances and
other parts of BMS to enhance the battery lifespan and increase its performance and efficiency
[28].
This paper aims to provide a comprehensive position with the current state of current
sensing technologies. It categorizes the dominant sensors according to the phenomenon that
they take into consideration to denote their benefits and liabilities. New current sensing
principles: Considering the conventional techniques like Hall-effect sensors, using the flux
gates, the prospecting technologies like the magneto resistance effect, the fiber-optical
techniques, most of them are offer effective means for current sensing, but they cost much more
than conventional methods published include tolerances to current transducers accuracy where
most are read as shunt resistors [29].

In this paper, we review the techniques applied to monitor a number of the following
parameters related to battery health: SoC estimation, SoH estimation, nominal capacity, power
supply capability, electrical resistance and service life [30].

In this paper, we explained the reason of the range reduction caused by the cold battery and
how to solve this issue with some special heating techniques. Electromagnetic heating of the
battery with high frequent AC currents, and the use of external resistive heating mats are
considered for the heating mode [31].

This paper is intended to deal with an FMMEA of battery failure as well as to explain
how this approach enhances battery failure control strategies to calculate estimated SOC and
SOH of battery pack to acquire better achievement [32].

A companion BMS prototype has hence been developed and incorporated in a grid-
connected residential-PV system with the LIB acting as the energy storage system. Moreover,
as mentioned earlier it also works as the master BMS and handle the general control of
temperature, charge/discharge, current/voltage or SOC/SoC as battery management systems
which main function is to maintain LIBs within their safe operating area, in addition to this it
also regulates the traffic of energy between PV system, battery, grid and load [33].

With regards to the many embodied Li-ion battery connection, this paper outlines a
hierarchical active balancing system. Additionally, with the new proposal, the current rating of
the balancing circuits can be decreased to a lower value than the one current at the moment
which contribute to the overall decrease of the price of the system, and its efficiency increase
[34].
21
 Thus, the simple cell balancing by power to energy ratio balance technique for
serially connected lithium ion battery is proposed and relative capacity estimation with the PI controller
for estimating the relative capacity of the cells in order to minimize the computation power required
[35].

Henceforth, the situation pointed towards the need to further enhance the necessity of
the battery management system for temperature, SOC and SOH with an objective to further
diversify the field of its usage and to improve the capabilities of rechargeable batteries. An
efficient and dynamic energy balancing system for Lithium-ion battery pack is created after
analyzing both SOC and SOH in online way [36].

The paper provides information on the design and development of battery monitoring
system for electric vehicle, which has been implemented through the use of IoT platform so as
to monitor the battery performance degradation in real-time. Instead the objective is to give a
proof that such an idea can be executed and made into a concept [3].

1.3. Problem Statements

The aim of the proposed research is:

“The main aim of designing this BMS was to enable the completion of the charging
and discharging process of a unitized battery-pack and minimize the amount of loss
during charging and those resulting from discharging in order to increase the
serving battery’s lifetime.”

The safety and lifelong battery life would be assured by the real-time battery state
monitoring and adapting the charging and discharging procedure accordingly by BMS. The
BMS would be lightweight, portable and cheaply valued. The suggested algorithms would
optimize the charging and discharging process to minimize the heat created in the battery pack.
This would consequently reduce the possibility of the batteries overheating resulting in
premature aging and failure.

Overall, the UCD aspired object of battery management system is a framework that can
apply towards the proper and effective charging & discharging for a unitized battery pack with
the aim that improves the effectiveness and extend the lifespan of battery.

22
1.4. Aims and Objectives
The objectives of a UCD BMS is to develop a framework that can guide the charging
and discharging of batteries in an effective and healthy way. The list below outlines its main
objectives:
1. Develop a battery management system (BMS) with minimized heating/losses in batteries
during charging and discharging.
2. To build specific algorithms and control systems with optimized charging and discharging
time, especially for large battery banks, in order to calculate SOC with various factors and
power requirements.
3. To enable the capacity of the data gathered from the battery pack to be analyzed. The tools
to be applied in order to analyze the IoT data will be aimed to discover patterns and
tendencies.

1.5. Sustainable Development Goals of Project

This project aligns with the following SDGs:

a) Energy efficiency (SDG 7: Affordable and clean energy): UCD BMS makes battery
energy more efficient by suppressing overcharging and over discharging.

b) Lowering greenhouse gas emissions (SDG 9: Industry, Innovation, and

Infrastructure): A UCD BMS can help accomplish SDG 9 by promoting the development
of renewable energy technology and infrastructure.

(a) (b)
Figure 1.6: (a) Affordable and clean energy SDG 7
(b)Industry, innovation and infrastructure SDG 9

23
1.5.1. Mapping of Sustainable Development Goals

SDGs learning Outcomes Mapping

GOAL 1: No Poverty
GOAL 2: Zero Hunger
GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being
GOAL 4: Quality Education
GOAL 5: Gender Equality
GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy 
GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth
GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure 
GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality
GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption and Production
GOAL 13: Climate Action
GOAL 14: Life Below Water
GOAL 15: Life on Land
GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions
GOAL 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goal

1.6. Environmental Aspects of Project

The environmental qualities of this project are closely related to its potential to enhance
sustainability and reduce the negative environmental effects of energy storage and
consumption. UCD BMS offer various advantages, particularly for electric cars (EVs), while
having no negativeenvironmental impact.

1. Effective resource use: The UCD BMS helps to conserve resources by increasing battery
lifeand reducing the need for frequent replacements.

2. Pollution reduction: By replacing gasoline-powered automobiles with electric vehicles

powered by UCD BMS, air and greenhouse gas emissions can be significantly reduced

3. Promoting renewable energy: In order to further help create a cleaner environment,

UCD BMS are also utilized in RES systems, including as solar/wind power plants.

24
 CHAPTER 2

DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

A design and methodology for a UCD BMS involves outlining the steps and processes
required to design, implement, and deploy an intelligent BMS solution, figure2.1 below shows
a very brief circuit diagram of a BMS. The doted or dashed area on the left consist of cells that
a battery pack has either in parallel or in series. (nS-nP) where n is no of cells S is series and P
is parallel. The circuit diagram consists of load as well.

Figure 2.1: General block diagram of BMS

Whereas figure 2.2 shows the Internal architecture of a BMS in which a battery pack has
some inputs such as current, voltage, power and temperature. The BMS comprise of many
modules such as battery modeling, cell balancing, soc and soh estimations, safety management
module and thermal management module while output includes commands and communication
with control units and motor.

25
 Figure 2.2: Internal architecture of BMS [37]

2.1. MONITORING OF BMS PARAMETERS IN LI-ION

BATTERY PACK
In EVs, consumer electronics, and other electronic equipment, LIBs are typically used.
Fast reaction times, low individual discharge rates, good cycle efficiency, extended lifespan,
high energy density, and specific energy are all provided by LB [23], [31], [38]. Different
rechargeable battery types, including LIBs, sodium-sulfur batteries, and nickel batteries, are
utilized in EVs [27], [39] [40]. Currently, LIBs are the most widely used EV system.

2.1.1. Li-Ion battery cells monitoring

1. Voltage Monitoring

The battery pack on an electric vehicle is made of several Lithium-ion cells. To put
things into perspective, the battery pack each cell needs to operate within a set voltage range. If
the cells are used outside these ranges, the battery pack lifespan and performance it offers
deteriorates.

26
 Figure 2.3: Voltage Monitoring Circuit and sensor

2. Current monitoring
The amount of current (current in or out of the battery) drawn from the cells must also be
monitored. If the amount of current drawn from the cells is outside the prescribed limits, the life
of the cells degrades exponentially [41].

Figure 2.4: Current Monitoring Circuit and sensor

27
2.1.2. Temperature of batteries during charging and discharging

During the charging cycle, batteries often function within a specific temperature range.
Battery temperature is continuously monitored to avoid explosions. The heating and cooling
systems on board are managed by the BMS [42]. A LIB's functioning temperature range is 20
to 30 degrees Celsius for optimal performance and safe operation [43]. A LIB may have a short
circuit when the temperature drops below 20 °C because electrochemical reactions may not
proceed smoothly at this temperature. Moreover, a LIB's smooth operation is complicated by
high temperatures (>30 °C) [44].

Figure 2.5: Simple temperature system

Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS) removes heat generated during the
electrochemical operations that take place in battery cells, the battery can operate safely and
effectively [41]. There are two main types of BTMS. (a)Active BTMS that use pumps, fans, or
heat sinks to regulate the battery pack's temperature. (b) Passive BTMS that use natural
convection or materials with a high thermal conductivity to regulate the battery pack's
temperature. The four primary purposes of battery thermal management systems are ventilation,
heating, cooling, and insulation [45].

28
2.1.3. State-of-Charge
SOC of battery pack cells is another of the significant inputs in balancing, energy as
well as power decisions. The percentage of total charge in the battery that is currently available
is known as the state of charge or the charge available at that particular time Q (t) to the
maximal charge of the battery which is Q.

𝑄(𝑡)
SOC (t) = (1)
𝑄

It acts like EV fuel gauge indicating the amount of charge left in battery [38].

2.1.4. State-of-Health

The state-of-health (SoH) typically refers to the difference between a measured battery
and a new battery after taking into account the ageing of the cell.

They are expressed in terms of maximum battery capacity where it is the capability to store the
highest possible charge with reference to the nominal rated capacity of the battery. They can
practically be quantified in proportions of the performance level of a certain process.

2.2. TOPOLOGY FOR CELL BALANCING

As discussed in Section 1.1.2, the topology used for the project is active cell balancing
that is inductor based. Single inductor based cell balancing refers to a topology where a single
inductor is utilized in topping up the charge from a cell having a higher voltage to that with a
low voltage. Since there is only one inductor involved in the process, this technique is very easy
to implement. It is also known as the direct transformation of cells from one type to another
without passing through stem cells.

2.2.1. SINGLE INDUCTOR ACTIVE CELL BALANCING

In Active cell balancing, the BMS can continuously monitor cell voltages and adjust
the balancing process in real-time, enhancing the overall stability and battery pack safety. By
managing various MOSFETs, switches, and diodes, one inductor is used in single inductor cell
balancing to transmit energy straight from the higher soc cell to the lower soc cell.

29
Figure 2.6: Single Inductor Cell balancing [41]

30
 CHAPTER 3

DESIGN IMPLMENTATION
The single inductor based active cell balancing topology in figure works a s the battery
pack consists of a series cells, with each cell having a different SOC. The balancing circuit
monitors each cell SOC and compares it to the other cells SOC. If a cell has a higher SOC than
the other cells, the balancing circuit will transfer energy from that cell to the other cells. The
balancing circuit uses a single inductor to transfer energy between the cells.

3.1. SIMULATION MODEL

In simulation model of MATLAB/Simulink is based on 6 cells. The red dotted area shows the
battery pack of 6 cells connected with constant supply at the back of the battery pack. The green
dotted area is the balancing circuit consists of mosfets, diodes and single inductor. Each cell is
connected with two mosfets and two diodes for charging and discharging paths. A current
measurement block is connected with the inductor and battery pack circuit to measure the
current of BMS. The yellow dotted part consist of SOC based switch controller that has
functions inside it for defining charging and discharging path in each condition for balancing
the battery pack. A Scope and displays are also connected as shown in Figure 3.1 to show the
SOC in both graphical and numerical form for better understanding.

32
Figure 3.1: Cell Balancing Simulink Model
33
3.1.1. Charging and Discharging path of Circuit
When thebalancing circuit is active, it will switch between two states. One is charging state and
the other is discharging state as shown in figure 3.3.Charging state: In charging state, the
higher SOC cell is connected with an inductor.The inductor stores energy from cell.

Figure 3.2: Charging cycle

Discharging state: In this state, the inductor is connected to the cells with the lower SOC. The
inductor releases energy to the cells.The balancing circuit will continue to switch (control the
flow of inductor) betweenthese two states until the SOC of all the cells is equal.

34
 Figure 3.3: Discharging cycle

The process is defined as follows. First, we are assuming if Cell 2 has highest Soc and Cell 5
has lowest Soc In one switching cycle, the charges of Cell 2 will get stored in inductor through
SW3 andSW4 switches and diodes, and inductor will get charged during charging process After
storing charges in inductor, when the SW3 and SW4 will turn off, and SW8 and SW11 will turn
on the inductor will oppose the abrupt change of current from which the inductor polarity will
reverse and it will release the stored charges to Cell5 in in inverting position in order to get the
Cell's soc balanced.

35
 3.1.2. Switching configuration
The switches configuration from higher to lower SOC cells for all the Cells from 1 to 6 are
shown in which all the possible switching conditions for balancing each cell is defines for
charging, discharging and in both charging discharging states as shown in Table below:

Table 3.1: Switching configuration

S.NO CELL SWITCH ON SWITCH ON SWITCH ON

BALANCING (Charging) (Discharging) (Charging &
(HIGHER TO Discharging)
LOWER SOC)
1 Cell 1 to Cell 2 SW1 SW5 SW2
2 Cell 1 to Cell 3 SW1, SW2 SW4, SW7 -
3 Cell 1 to Cell 4 SW1, SW2 SW6, SW9 -
4 Cell 1 to Cell 5 SW1, SW2 SW8,SW11 -
5 Cell 1 to Cell 6 SW1, SW2 SW10 -
6 Cell 2 to Cell 1 SW4 - SW3
7 Cell 2 to Cell 3 SW3 SW7 SW4
8 Cell 2 to Cell 4 SW3, SW4 SW6, SW9 -
9 Cell 2 to Cell 5 SW3, SW4 SW8, SW11 -
10 Cell 2 to Cell 6 SW3, SW4 SW10 -
11 Cell 3 to Cell 1 SW5, SW6 SW3 -
12 Cell 3 to Cell 2 SW6 SW2 SW5
13 Cell 3 to Cell 4 SW5 SW9 SW6
14 Cell 3 to Cell 5 SW5, SW6 SW8, SW11 -
15 Cell 3 to Cell 6 SW5, SW6 SW10 -
16 Cell 4 to Cell 1 SW7, SW8 SW3 -
17 Cell 4 to Cell 2 SW7, SW8 SW2, SW5 -
18 Cell 4 to Cell 3 SW8 SW4 SW7
19 Cell 4 to Cell 5 SW7 SW11 SW8
20 Cell 4 to Cell 6 SW7, SW8 SW10 -
21 Cell 5 to Cell 1 SW9, SW10 SW3 -
22 Cell 5 to Cell 2 SW9, SW10 SW2, SW5 -
23 Cell 5 to Cell 3 SW9, SW10 SW4, SW7 -
24 Cell 5 to Cell 4 SW10 SW6 SW9
25 Cell 5 to Cell 6 SW9 - SW10
26 Cell 6 to Cell 1 SW11, SW12 SW3 -
27 Cell 6 to Cell 2 SW11, SW12 SW2, SW5 -
28 Cell 6 to Cell 3 SW11, SW12 SW4, SW7 -
29 Cell 6 to Cell 4 SW11, SW12 SW6, SW9 -
30 Cell 6 to Cell 5 SW12 SW8 SW11

36
3.2. HARDWARE DISCRIPTION
3.2.1. Arduino Mega

It is also a microcontroller (ATmega328) used for hardware and software purposes. It

works like a brain to circuit just like a cpu but in small size. Good for project buildingskills. It
has an operating voltage up to 5V. It consists of 14 digital and 6 analog pins. Firstly, connect
the Arduino with a cable to laptop. Secondly, main Arduino IDE software which comprises of
open-source electronics that are built on a hardware as well as the easy to use software. These
are very intelligent to read inputs like sensors, actuators and then display its results on laptop.
The purpose of using this component is to work in designing for respirator mechanism for
inhaling dust particles and also to connect sensor HM3301 through serial communication

Figure 3.4: Arduino Mega

3.2.2. LCD Screen

A 20x4 LCD display is a basic module and most commonly displaying results
interfacing with Arduino and other microcontrollers. It has over seven segments and other
multi segment LEDs. It is economical. It can be easily programmed. It has limit ofdisplaying 20
Charactersx4 Lines. It has 4 or 8 bit data Input or output interface. It consist of low power
consumption. The following working principle is on seven segment display component is a
20x4 LCD meaning which displays 20 characters per line and there are 4 such lines. Each
character in this LCD consist of 5x7 pixel matrix. It has two registers, namely, Command and
Date. This is standard HD44780 controller LCD. The purpose of using this screen is to display
the results of voltage, current, (SOC),(SOH), and power.

37
 .

Figure 3.5: LCD Screen (20 x 4)

3.2.3. Voltage Sensor

A voltage sensor is a unique sensor which is used to estimate the voltage in any given
gadget besides monitoring or calculating. It can determine 2 types of voltages: AC or DC can
be selected for this circuit according to the specific application of the system. The input form of
the following sensor is voltage whereas output form is the voltage devices like switches, an
analog voltage signal, a current signal, or an audible signal that gives an analog output. Amps
and volts: ranges of input voltages are: 0 V to 25 V. The range of the detection are 0.024-25V.
It has a very simple working using a potential divider to reducing the input voltage by a factor
of 5.The analog input can be used to monitor voltages while sensing. Purpose of using this
sensor in the following project is to determine voltages coming from Li-ion cells and displaying
it on LCD screen.

Figure 3.6: Voltage sensor

38
 Calculation:

𝑹𝟐
Vin = Vout * (2)
𝑹𝟏+𝑹𝟐

R = 30k, R2 = 7.5k (3)

𝟓
Vout = analog value * (4)
𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒

3.2.4. ACS712 Current Sensor:

The ACS712 is a popular Hall-effect current sensor which can be used to measure both
AC and DC currents. This is an Allegro MicroSystems product, based upon the Hall effect
principle. A sensor including a CDS that is implemented as a small, integrated circuit (IC)
and produces an analog voltage output that is proportional to a current detected by the sensor.
There are several versions of the ACS712, depending on the maximum current they can detect
(i.e., 5A, 20A, 30A). The ACS712 works on the principle of measuring the magnetic field of a
current carrying conductor. Electrical current flows through a low resistance copper conduction
path generating electromagnetic field-hence the name vortex flowmeter. When this magnetic
field is detected by the IC, a corresponding voltage is created by the Hall effect sensor inside
the IC. Meanwhile the voltage across the shunt will vary in line with the current, which makes
this a linear transducer you can read with a microcontroller or analog to digital converter
(ADC). For the 5A version, the typical output sensitivity is 185mV/A, 100mV/A for the 20A
version, and 66mV//A for the 30A version. The purpose of this sensor is to sense the current
from the batteries in series and display it on LCD.

Figure 3.7: Current Sensor

39
3.2.5. Li-ion Batteries:

Rechargeable batteries (Li-ion) batteries used in portable electronic devices and EVs,
etc. They are the high energy density cell they have along cycle life and low self- discharge.
Each battery comprises of a cathode (generally Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LiCoO2) or different
compounds), another anode (normally graphite), an electrolyte (a lithium salt solution), and a
separator that keeps short out. These Li-ion batteries work by transferring lithium ions from the
anode to the cathode and vice versa, through the electrolyte. When charging, lithium ions travel
from cathode to anode to be stored. When discharging, the ions migrate back to the cathode,
flowing an external circuit creating a supply of electrons that operate devices. These oxidation-
reduction reactions at the electrodes facilitate the ion transfer. The purpose of these are to be
balance and give specific output to the load.

Figure 3.8: Li-ion Batteries

3.2.6. I2C module

This module works on the I2C protocol which is the communication protocol between
sending and receiving data. It uses 5V to switch on the module. It can have 8 modules at a time.
The contrast is controlled by potentiometer. It uses the serial of I2C using PCF8574 to control
LCD. It operates based on the principle of I2C which stands for Inter Integrated Circuit
communication. It employs two bidirectional Chemically Dependent Open Drain (CDOD)
signals for data transfer named SDA and SCL. This line is pulled high, the other one is high as
well. Serial data output (SDA) which is used to transfer data and it is in conjunction with Serial
clock (SCL) that is used to bring about the clocking process. The purpose of using this
component is to attach with the led screen of 20x4 inch.

40
 Figure 3.9: I2C Module

3.3. Design Parameters:

1) Model Analysis of the equilibrium of non-adjacent cells:

A PWM signal is utilized to govern the MOSFET switch. When the cell is balanced,
the other switches are turned off, and just the switch for the balanced cell pair is considered.
When the cells with the highest and lowest SOC are not contiguous, the PWM signal pulses
used to drive the switches complement each other in a single cycle.

Table 3.3: Values of Cells

Nominal voltage (V1) per cell 3.7 V

Maximum charging voltage per cell 4.2 V

Maximum discharge voltage (V2) per cell 3.0 V

Rated Capacity per cell 2550 mAh

Internal Resistance per cell 0.1 Ω

For average balance current across inductor

V = (V1- V2) = (3.7 - 3) = 0.7V (5)
𝑉 0.7
Iavg = = = 7A (6)
𝑟 0.1

𝑡1
The duty cycle will be: D= (7)
𝑇
1 1
T= = = 2.5 x 10−5 (8)
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 40𝑘

41
Mode 1:
Let V be the battery pack's overall voltage and V2 be Cell 2's voltage. As SW3 and
SW4 are turned on, the inductor current grows linearly from zero, and the voltage across cell 2
is transmitted to the two ends of the inductor L. Figure 3.2 depicts the current flow path.
Considering the assumptions, the discharge current i_Cell1 of battery 1 and the peak- to-peak
value of the inductor current i_peak, or the change of the inductor current i_peak
∆i_L, , can be obtained:

𝑑𝑖
V=L (9)
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑡1
𝑖𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙1 (𝑡) = 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = ∫𝑡0 𝑣𝐿 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖𝐿 (0) (10)
𝐿
𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙1
= t1 + 𝑖𝐿 (0) (11)
𝐿
𝑉𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙1 𝐷
∆𝑖𝐿 = 𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 𝑖𝐿 (𝐷𝑇) − 𝑖𝐿 (0) = (12)
𝐿𝑓
When the equalization circuit works in the inductor current continuous mode, Fig.3.4
shows the corresponding inductor current waveform.

Figure 3.10: Current waveform of inductor in continuous current mode

Mode 2:

The energy stored in the inductor L is discharged to CELL 5, the switches SW8 and
SW11 are activated, the switches SW3 and SW4 are switched off, and the current flows in the
path shown in Fig.3.3. The current for charging time of cell 5 can be calculated as follows.

1 𝑇
𝑖𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙5 (𝑡) = 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = ∫𝐷𝑇 𝑣𝐿 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖𝐿 (𝐷𝑇) (13)
𝐿

𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙5 𝑉𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙1 𝐷
=- ( t- DT )+ + 𝑖𝐿 (0) (14)
𝐿 𝐿𝑓

42
The change in inductor current is
𝑉𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙1 (1−𝐷)
𝑖𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙5 (𝑡) = 𝑖𝐿 (𝐷𝑇) - 𝑖𝐿 (𝑇) = (15)
𝐿𝑓

When the equalization circuit works in the inductor current discontinuous mode,Fig.3.5
shows the corresponding inductor current waveform.

Figure 3.11: Current waveform of inductor in discontinuous current mode

The overall charging and discharging process from Cell2 to Cell5 is shown in fig. 3.6 in
graphical form.

Graph 3.1: Current configuration

43
 The flowchart of switch controller (SOC based) algorithm is shown in Figure 3.6. This
program helps in switching on and off the cell as per the SOC comparisions that are made
between two cells.

Figure 3.12: SOC based switch controller

The gate drive circuit of IR 2110 for MOSFET:

Figure 3.13: Gate drive circuit of IR 2110

44
3.4. PROTEUS Simulation
The flowchart shows in figure 3.14 defines the process of BMS. First it computes the
current battery voltages then it checks the SOC, SOH and each cell voltage, current, power and
temperature then in decision it checks whether the cell balancing is needed. If the cell balancing
is needed then it performs active balancing for charging and discharging of cells otherwise, it
directly generate the output signal.

Figure 3.14: Flowchart

45
The proteus simulation of Active cell balancing circuit is perform on 4 cells as shown in Figure
3.15 where a current sensor ACS712 and the voltage divider sensor is used to measure voltage
and current. Each mosfet is connected with driver circuit IR2110. An arduino micro-controller
is used to display the BMS requirements.

Figure 3.15: Proteus simulation of BMS

46
 Figure 3.16: Internal Circuit of MOSFET with gate drive

This is the Proteus simulation of Active cell balancing single inductor based circuit as
shown in figure . Each MOSFET is attached with a high side gate drive circuit. To sense the
temperature of battery pack, a temperature sensor is used with is conncted with the replay for
switching. If the temperature exceed 30 degree then a fan will turn on to cool down the
temperature. A current sensor is attached in series with an inductor to measure the inductor
current anda voltage sensor is connected in parallel with each cell to measure each cell voltage.

Figure 3.17: Thermal management system

47
 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1. MATLAB Simulation Results for only SOC balancing

The graph shown in Figure 4.1 shows the inductor current waveform using
MATLAB/Simulink model in which it shows the peak and average value of inductor current to
calaculate the value of inductor.

Graph 4.1: Inductor Current Graph

Graph 4.2: SOC balanced (Steady State)

48
 By making 6 cells SOC balancing circuit on MATLAB/Simulink , We observed the
behavior of cells balancing in with or without battery connected from the back of the cells and in
steady state condition as shown in Figures 4.2 while in Figure 4.3 and Figure 4.4 shows the
results with battery and withour battery.

Graph 4.3: SOC balanced (26 V)

Graph 4.4: SOC balanced without supply

49
 When we have a dc voltage supply of 26V. When cell's soc gets balanced the value ofsoc
goes upward towards 100%as shown in the graph 4.3. When we have a no supply andwhen
cell's soc gets balanced the value of soc goes continuously downward toward 0% as shown in
the graph 4.4. The 6 cells, initial state of SOC gets sensed by SOC based switch controller and
later the final state of SOC is equalized as shown in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: SOC of Battery Pack

CELL INITIAL STATE OF FINAL STATE OF

NO
CHARGE (SOC) CHARGE (SOC)
Cell1 12 % 52.18 %
Cell2 87 % 52.18 %
Cell3 24 % 52.18 %
Cell4 72% 52.18 %
Cell5 59 % 52.18 %
Cell6 33 % 52.18

4.2. Simulation Results of Proteus

From proteus simulation for 4 cells, the results we have obtained are shown in Figure 4.1 and
4.2. The first column shows the voltage of 4 cells, the second column shows the SOC of each
cells with respect to its voltage while in third column the power (W), inductor current (A),
temperature (in Celsius) and SOH of the battery pack. Figure 4.1 shows the results before
balancing and after balancing results shows in figure 4.2.

Figure 4.1: Before Balance

50
 Figure 4.2: After Balancing

After Balancing the voltage is 3.54 V and the Soc is 47.37% . The current is 7A and the power
obtained is 24.78 W.

Graph 4.5: Gate Drive Output signal

51
This is the output graph of gate drive circuit for IR2110. In graph the yellow is the pulse
waveform and pink and blue one are the gate voltage waveform and load source waveform.

4.3. Hardware Results

In hardware we made a BMS consist of 3 cells connected in series and observe the
voltage soc and other parameters.
Table 4.2: Results of Hardware

CELL NO VOLTAGE (V) SOC (%) CURRENT (A) POWER (W)

Cell1 3.0 28 7.0 21
Cell2 3.0 28 7.05 21.2
Cell3 3.0 28 7.1 21.15

Table 4.2 shows the balancing results and current and power values.

Results before balancing and after balancing:

Figure 4.3: Before Balancing

Figure 4.4: After Balancing

Figure 4.3 and 4.4 shows the hardware results for 3 cells and display the voltage and soc
with respect to its voltage for each cell and also power, current and soh of the battery pack.

52
 CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The balancing performance of the proposed active balancing method has been validated by
Simulink simulations and whole system is validated on proteous as well along with Battery
Thermal management system. From the above work we adapted an automatic battery balancing
circuit since that contains SOC based controller switch for balancing cells SOC. And for proving
voltage current power SOH similar has been tested on proteous simulation and on actual
hardware for 3 cells.

Here it is found that if in charging or discharging or steady state, the battery pack cells get
balanced and all have same SOC. Also when the voltage sensor sense the voltages of each cell
they will balance it and SOC according to the charges present inside the cells. And also give
current which in series and power with respect to current and voltage.

It is suggested to work on the protection system of BMS for its safety and reliability.

53
 REFERENCES
[1] J. Chatzakis, K. Kalaitzakis, N. C. Voulgaris, and S. N. Manias, “Designing a new generalized
battery management system,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 50, no. 5, pp. 990–999, Oct.
2003, doi: 10.1109/TIE.2003.817706.

[2] H. A. Gabbar, A. M. Othman, and M. R. Abdussami, “Review of Battery Management Systems

(BMS) Development and Industrial Standards,” Technologies, vol. 9, no. 2, 2021, doi:
10.3390/technologies9020028.

[3] M. H. A. Wahab et al., “IoT-Based Battery Monitoring System for Electric Vehicle,” Int. J.
Eng..

[4] A. Elwer, S. M. Ghania, and N. Gawad, “BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS FOR

ELECTRIC VEHICLE APPLICATIONS,” 2006. [Online]. Available:
https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220883467

[5] H. Wang and H. Qin, “Study on the Integration Strategy of Online EOL Testing of Pure
Electric Vehicle Power Battery,” Sensors, vol. 23, no. 13, 2023, doi: 10.3390/s23135944.

[6] C. Chen et al., “Design and Realization of a Smart Battery Management System,” Hong Kong,
2012.

[7] M. S. Yusof, S. F. Toha, N. A. Kamisan, N. N. W. N. Hashim, and M. A. Abdullah, “Battery

Cell Balancing Optimisation for Battery Management System,” IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci.
Eng., vol. 184, p. 012021, Mar. 2017, doi: 10.1088/1757-899X/184/1/012021.

[8] A. Khanal, A. Timilsina, B. Paudyal, and S. Ghimire, “Comparative Analysis of Cell Balancing
Topologies in Battery Management Systems,” 2019.

[9] C. P. Devarapu, M. L. N. Vital, K. Lanke, P. Kade, and K. P. Chinmaya, “Battery Management

System using Cell Charge Balancing Topology in Electric Vehicle,” in 2023 International
Conference on Inventive Computation Technologies (ICICT), Lalitpur, Nepal: IEEE, Apr. 2023,
pp. 1547–1552. doi: 10.1109/ICICT57646.2023.10134090.

[10] I. R. Aminudin and S. Aritonang, “Comparison of Active and Passive Balancing Methods of
Li-Ion Battery Management Systems in Vehicles and Communication Devices for Supporting
Defense Systems in IKN,” vol. 03, no. 07, 2022.

[11] T. Duraisamy and D. Kaliyaperumal, “Active cell balancing for electric vehicle battery
management system,” Int. J. Power Electron. Drive Syst. IJPEDS, vol. 11, no. 2, p. 571, Jun.
54
 2020, doi: 10.11591/ijpeds.v11.i2.pp571-579.

[12] W. Puviwatnangkurn, B. Tanboonjit, and N. H. Fuengwarodsakul, “Overcurrent protection

scheme of BMS for Li-Ion battery used in electric bicycles,” in 2013 10th International
Conference on Electrical Engineering/Electronics, Computer, Telecommunications and
Information Technology, Krabi, Thailand: IEEE, May 2013, pp. 1–5. doi:
10.1109/ECTICon.2013.6559591.

[13] R. Xiong, Q. Yu, W. Shen, C. Lin, and F. Sun, “A Sensor Fault Diagnosis Method for a
Lithium-Ion Battery Pack in Electric Vehicles,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 34, no. 10,
pp. 9709–9718, Oct. 2019, doi: 10.1109/TPEL.2019.2893622.

[14] M. S. Hossain Lipu et al., “Intelligent algorithms and control strategies for battery
management system in electric vehicles: Progress, challenges and future outlook,” J. Clean.
Prod., vol. 292, p. 126044, Apr. 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126044.

[15] R. K. Vardhan, T. Selvathai, R. Reginald, P. Sivakumar, and S. Sundaresh, “Modeling of

single inductor based battery balancing circuit for hybrid electric vehicles,” in IECON 2017 -
43rd Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, Beijing: IEEE, Oct. 2017,
pp. 2293–2298. doi: 10.1109/IECON.2017.8216386.

[16] V. S. R. Kosuru and A. Kavasseri Venkitaraman, “A Smart Battery Management System for
Electric Vehicles Using Deep Learning-Based Sensor Fault Detection,” World Electr. Veh. J.,
vol. 14, no. 4, p. 101, Apr. 2023, doi: 10.3390/wevj14040101.

[17] C.-L. Wey and P.-C. Jui, “A unitized charging and discharging smart battery management
system,” in 2013 International Conference on Connected Vehicles and Expo (ICCVE), Las
Vegas, NV, USA: IEEE, Dec. 2013, pp. 903–909. doi: 10.1109/ICCVE.2013.6799924.

[18] F. Zhou, Y. Zhong, and P. Zhang, “Research on Thermal Management System for the Vehicle
Application of Lithium-Ion Power Batteries,” Adv. Mater. Res., vol. 347–353, pp. 984–988,
Oct. 2011, doi: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.347-353.984.

[19] A. Najmabadi, “Evaluation of Active Balancing Algorithms and an Improved Method for a
Deployed Active Battery Balancer as Well as Physical Implementation”.

[20] K. Liu, K. Li, Q. Peng, and C. Zhang, “A brief review on key technologies in the battery
management system of electric vehicles,” Front. Mech. Eng., vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 47–64, Mar.
2019, doi: 10.1007/s11465-018-0516-8.

[21] A. Hariprasad, I. Priyanka, R. Sandeep, V. Ravi, O. Shekar, and Vignan Institute Of

55
 Technology And Science, “Battery Management System in Electric Vehicles,” Int. J. Eng. Res.,
vol. V9, no. 05, p. IJERTV9IS050458, May 2020, doi: 10.17577/IJERTV9IS050458.

[22] S. Song, H. Yin, P. Zhang, C. Lu, X. Yao, and B. Li, “Active Equalization Circuit and Control
Design of Series Battery Pack Based on Single Inductance,” in 2021 IEEE 5th Conference on
Energy Internet and Energy System Integration (EI2), Taiyuan, China: IEEE, Oct. 2021, pp.
3725–3729. doi: 10.1109/EI252483.2021.9712949.

[23] M. S. Ramkumar et al., “Review on Li-Ion Battery with Battery Management System in
Electrical Vehicle,” Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng., vol. 2022, pp. 1–8, May 2022, doi:
10.1155/2022/3379574.

[24] M. Kumar, V. K. Yadav, K. Mathuriya, and A. K. Verma, “A Brief Review on Cell Balancing
for Li-ion Battery Pack (BMS),” in 2022 IEEE 10th Power India International Conference
(PIICON), New Delhi, India: IEEE, Nov. 2022, pp. 1–6. doi:
10.1109/PIICON56320.2022.10045109.

[25] A. Nath and B. Rajpathak, “Analysis Of Cell Balancing Techniques In BMS For Electric
Vehicle,” in 2022 International Conference on Intelligent Controller and Computing for Smart
Power (ICICCSP), Hyderabad, India: IEEE, Jul. 2022, pp. 1–6. doi:
10.1109/ICICCSP53532.2022.9862513.

[26] T. Pattnaik, A. Garg, S. R. Verma, M. S. Ballal, M. G. Wath, and S. A. Wakode, “Design of a

Basic BMS: A Warning System,” in 2023 5th Biennial International Conference on Nascent
Technologies in Engineering (ICNTE), Navi Mumbai, India: IEEE, Jan. 2023, pp. 1–6. doi:
10.1109/ICNTE56631.2023.10146650.

[27] A. K. M. A. Habib, M. K. Hasan, G. F. Issa, D. Singh, S. Islam, and T. M. Ghazal, “Lithium-

Ion Battery Management System for Electric Vehicles: Constraints, Challenges, and
Recommendations,” Batteries, vol. 9, no. 3, p. 152, Feb. 2023, doi: 10.3390/batteries9030152.

[28] M. Lelie et al., “Battery Management System Hardware Concepts: An Overview,” Appl. Sci.,
vol. 8, no. 4, p. 534, Mar. 2018, doi: 10.3390/app8040534.

[29] S. Ziegler, R. C. Woodward, H. H.-C. Iu, and L. J. Borle, “Current Sensing Techniques: A
Review,” IEEE Sens. J., vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 354–376, Apr. 2009, doi:
10.1109/JSEN.2009.2013914.

[30] W. Waag, C. Fleischer, and D. U. Sauer, “Critical review of the methods for monitoring of
lithium-ion batteries in electric and hybrid vehicles,” J. Power Sources, vol. 258, pp. 321–339,
56
 Jul. 2014, doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.02.064.

[31] J. Lin, X. Liu, S. Li, C. Zhang, and S. Yang, “A review on recent progress, challenges and
perspective of battery thermal management system,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transf., vol. 167, p.
120834, Mar. 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2020.120834.

[32] C. Hendricks, N. Williard, S. Mathew, and M. Pecht, “A failure modes, mechanisms, and
effects analysis (FMMEA) of lithium-ion batteries,” J. Power Sources, vol. 297, pp. 113–120,
Nov. 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.07.100.

[33] K. Okay, S. Eray, and A. Eray, “Development of prototype battery management system for PV
system,” Renew. Energy, vol. 181, pp. 1294–1304, Jan. 2022, doi:
10.1016/j.renene.2021.09.118.

[34] H.-D. Gui, Z. Zhang, D.-J. Gu, Y. Yang, Z. Lu, and Y.-F. Liu, “A hierarchical active balancing
architecture for Li-ion batteries,” in 2016 IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and
Exposition (APEC), Long Beach, CA, USA: IEEE, Mar. 2016, pp. 1243–1248. doi:
10.1109/APEC.2016.7468027.

[35] G.-H. Min and J.-I. Ha, “Active cell balancing algorithm for serially connected li-ion batteries
based on power to energy ratio,” in 2017 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition
(ECCE), Cincinnati, OH: IEEE, Oct. 2017, pp. 2748–2753. doi: 10.1109/ECCE.2017.8096514.

[36] V.-L. Pham, V.-T. Duong, and W. Choi, “A Low Cost and Fast Cell-to-Cell Balancing Circuit
for Lithium-Ion Battery Strings,” Electronics, vol. 9, no. 2, p. 248, Feb. 2020, doi:
10.3390/electronics9020248.

[37] B. Ashok et al., “Towards Safer and Smarter Design for Lithium-Ion-Battery-Powered Electric
Vehicles: A Comprehensive Review on Control Strategy Architecture of Battery Management
System,” Energies, vol. 15, no. 12, p. 4227, Jun. 2022, doi: 10.3390/en15124227.

[38] M. Nawaz, J. Ahmed, and G. Abbas, “Energy-efficient battery management system for
healthcare devices,” J. Energy Storage, vol. 51, p. 104358, Jul. 2022, doi:
10.1016/j.est.2022.104358.

[39] A. Pražanová, V. Knap, and D.-I. Stroe, “Literature Review, Recycling of Lithium-Ion
Batteries from Electric Vehicles, Part I: Recycling Technology,” Energies, vol. 15, no. 3, p.
1086, Feb. 2022, doi: 10.3390/en15031086.

[40] K. W. E. Cheng, B. P. Divakar, H. Wu, K. Ding, and H. F. Ho, “Battery-Management System

(BMS) and SOC Development for Electrical Vehicles,” IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., vol. 60, no.
57
 1, pp. 76–88, Jan. 2011, doi: 10.1109/TVT.2010.2089647.

[41] A. A. H. Akinlabi and D. Solyali, “Configuration, design, and optimization of air-cooled

battery thermal management system for electric vehicles: A review,” Renew. Sustain. Energy
Rev., vol. 125, p. 109815, Jun. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2020.109815.

[42] O. R. Kummitha, “Thermal cooling of li-ion cylindrical cells battery module with baffles
arrangement for airflow cooling numerical analysis,” J. Energy Storage, vol. 59, p. 106474,
Mar. 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.est.2022.106474.

[43] Y. Wang et al., “Optimization of an air-based thermal management system for lithium-ion
battery packs,” J. Energy Storage, vol. 44, p. 103314, Dec. 2021, doi:
10.1016/j.est.2021.103314.

[44] T. V. V. Pavan Kumar et al., “EV BMS With Temperature and Fire Protection,” E3S Web
Conf., vol. 430, p. 01163, 2023, doi: 10.1051/e3sconf/202343001163.

[45] D. Karimi, “Doctor of Engineering science (Doctor in de Ingenieurswetenschappen)”.

58
 APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: Computer Programming

Simulation Code:
#include <Wire.h>

#include <LiquidCrystal.h> LiquidCrystal lcd(22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27);

float v, soc1, soc2, soc3, soc4, temperature;

const int CHARGE_CYCLE_THRESHOLD = 100; // Placeholder for charge-discharge cycle
threshold

// Define the PWM pins

const int pwmPin1 = 3; // PWM pin for the first signal const int pwmPin2 = 5; // PWM pin for the
second signal

void setup() { Serial.begin(9600);Wire.begin();

lcd.begin(20, 4); pinMode(11, OUTPUT);digitalWrite(11, LOW);

// Set the PWM pins as output pinMode(pwmPin1, OUTPUT);pinMode(pwmPin2, OUTPUT);

// Example PWM duty cycle values (45%)

int PWM1 = 115; // Duty cycle for PWM1 (approximately 45%)int PWM2 = 115; // Duty cycle for
PWM2 (approximately 45%)

// Function call to calculate PWM outputsint s1, s2, s3, s4, s5, s6, s7, s8;

calculatePWM(soc1, soc2, soc3, soc4, PWM1, PWM2, s1, s2, s3, s4, s5, s6, s7, s8);

// Output the calculated PWM signals

59
 analogWrite(pwmPin1, s1); // PWM signal for s1 analogWrite(pwmPin2, s5); //PWM signal for s5

// Delay if neededdelay(1000);

// Set pins 2 to 8 as outputs

for (int pin = 2; pin <= 8; pin++) {pinMode(pin, OUTPUT);

}
// Set Timer1 to Fast PWM mode with a prescaler of 1
TCCR1A = (1 << WGM11) | (1 << COM1A1) | (1 << COM1B1) | (1 <<
COM1C1); // Fast PWM, non-inverting mode for channels A, B, and C TCCR1B = (1 << WGM12)
| (1 << WGM13) | (1 << CS10); // Fast PWM, no

prescaler
ICR1 = 399; // Top value for 40kHz frequency at 16MHz clock
// Set initial duty cycle to 45% (45% of 399)OCR1A = 179; // Duty cycle for pin 2 OCR1B = 179;
// Duty cycle for pin 3 OCR1C = 179; // Duty cycle for pin 4 OCR1A = 179; // Duty cycle for pin
5 OCR1B = 179; // Duty cycle for pin 6 OCR1C = 179; // Duty cycle for pin 7 OCR1A = 179; //
Duty cycle for pin 8

void loop() {
float c1 = (analogRead(A0) * (55.0 / 1023.0));float c2 = (analogRead(A1) * (55.0 / 1023.0));

float c3 = (analogRead(A2) * (55.0 / 1023.0));float c4 = (analogRead(A3) * (55.0 / 1023.0));

c4 = c4 - c3;c3 = c3 - c2;c2 = c2 - c1;

float current = (analogRead(A7) * .0488 - 25) / 1.92;current = current / 1.0406;

float temperature = (analogRead(A6) * (500 / 1023.0));

soc1 = calculateSOC(c1);soc2 = calculateSOC(c2);soc3 = calculateSOC(c3);soc4 =
calculateSOC(c4);

float soh = calculateSOH();

if (c1 != c2 || c2 != c3 || c3 != c4 || c4 != c1) {v = (c1 + c4 + c3 + c2) / 4;

while (1) {
if (v > c1) {
60
 c1 = c1 + 0.01;
} else {
c1 = c1 - 0.01;
}
if (v > c2) {
c2 = c2 + 0.01;
} else {
c2 = c2 - 0.01;
}
if (v > c3) {
c3 = c3 + 0.01;
} else {
c3 = c3 - 0.01;
}
if (v > c4) {
c4 = c4 + 0.01;
} else {
c4 = c4 - 0.01;
}
soc1 = calculateSOC(c1);soc2 = calculateSOC(c2);soc3 = calculateSOC(c3);soc4 =
calculateSOC(c4);

temperature = (analogRead(A6) * (500 / 1023.0));

if (temperature >= 30) { digitalWrite(11, HIGH);

} else {
digitalWrite(11, LOW); }
//lcd.clear(); lcd.setCursor(0, 0);

lcd.print(c1, 2); lcd.print("V");

lcd.setCursor(6, 0);
lcd.print(soc1, 2); lcd.print("%");

lcd.setCursor(0, 0);
lcd.print(c1, 2); lcd.print("V");
lcd.setCursor(6, 0);
61
lcd.print(soc1, 2); lcd.print("%");
lcd.setCursor(13, 0);
lcd.print(c1 * current, 2); lcd.print("W");

lcd.setCursor(0, 1);
lcd.print(c2, 2); lcd.print("V");
lcd.setCursor(6, 1);
lcd.print(soc2, 2); lcd.print("%");
lcd.setCursor(13, 1);
lcd.print(current, 2); lcd.print("A");

lcd.setCursor(0, 2);
lcd.print(c3, 2); lcd.print("V");
lcd.setCursor(6, 2);
lcd.print(soc3, 2); lcd.print("%");
lcd.setCursor(13, 2);
lcd.print(temperature, 2); lcd.print("C");

lcd.setCursor(0, 3);
lcd.print(c4, 2); lcd.print("V");
lcd.setCursor(6, 3);
lcd.print(soc4, 2); lcd.print("%");
lcd.setCursor(13, 3);
lcd.print(soh, 2); lcd.print("%");delay(100);

}
}
}

float readVoltage(int VOLTAGE_P) {

int rawValue = analogRead(VOLTAGE_P); float voltage = (float)rawValue * 1.0 / 1023.0;return
voltage;

}
float calculateSOH() {
static float chargeCycles = 0;

62
if (chargeCycles < CHARGE_CYCLE_THRESHOLD) {chargeCycles = chargeCycles + 0.01;

}
float soh = 100.0 - (chargeCycles * 100.0 / CHARGE_CYCLE_THRESHOLD);return soh;

float calculateSOC(float voltage) {float minVoltage = 2.5;

float maxVoltage = 4.7;

if (voltage < minVoltage) {voltage = minVoltage;

} else if (voltage > maxVoltage) {voltage = maxVoltage;

}
float soc = ((voltage - minVoltage) / (maxVoltage - minVoltage)) * 100.0;return soc;

void calculatePWM(int soc1, int soc2, int soc3, int soc4, int PWM1, int PWM2, int &s1, int &s2,
int &s3, int &s4, int &s5, int &s6, int &s7, int &s8) {

int High = max(max(soc1, soc2), max(soc3, soc4));int Low = min(min(soc1, soc2), min(soc3,
soc4));

if (High == soc1 && Low == soc2) {s1 = PWM1;

s2 = 1;
s5 = PWM2;
s3 = 0; s4 = 0; s6 = 0; s7 = 0; s8 = 0; }
else if (High == soc1 && Low == soc3) {s1 = PWM1;

s2 = PWM1;
s4 = PWM2;s7 = PWM2;

s3 = 0; s5 = 0; s6 = 0; s8 = 0;
}
else if (High == soc1 && Low == soc4) {s1 = PWM1;

s2 = PWM1;s6 = PWM2;

s3 = 0; s4 = 0; s5 = 0; s7 = 0; s8 = 0;
}
else if (High == soc2 && Low == soc1) {s3 = 1;
63
 s4 = PWM1;
s1 = 0; s2 = 0; s5 = 0; s6 = 0; s7 = 0; s8 = 0;
}
else if (High == soc2 && Low == soc3) {s3 = PWM1;

s4 = 1;
s7 = PWM2;
s1 = 0; s2 = 0; s5 = 0; s6 = 0; s8 = 0;
}
else if (High == soc2 && Low == soc4) {s3 = PWM1;

s4 = PWM1;s6 = PWM2;

s1 = 0; s2 = 0; s5 = 0; s7 = 0; s8 = 0;
}
else if (High == soc3 && Low == soc1) {s3 = PWM2;

s5 = PWM1;s6 = PWM1;

s1 = 0; s2 = 0; s4 = 0; s7 = 0; s8 = 0; }
else if (High == soc3 && Low == soc2) {
s2 = PWM2;s5 = 1;

s6 = PWM1;
s1 = 0; s3 = 0; s4 = 0; s7 = 0; s8 = 0;
}
else if (High == soc3 && Low == soc4) {s5 = PWM1;

s6 = 1;
s1 = 0; s2 = 0; s3 = 0; s4 = 0; s7 = 0; s8 = 0;
}
else if (High == soc4 && Low == soc1) {s3 = PWM2;

s7 = PWM1;s8 = PWM1;

s1 = 0; s2 = 0; s4 = 0; s5 = 0; s6 = 0;
}
else if (High == soc4 && Low == soc2) {s2 = PWM2;

s5 = PWM2;s7 = PWM1;s8 = PWM1;

s1 = 0; s3 = 0; s4 = 0; s6 = 0;

64
 }
else if (High == soc4 && Low == soc3) {s4 = PWM2;

s8 = PWM1;s7 = PWM1;

s1 = 0; s2 = 0; s3 = 0; s5 = 0; s6 = 0;
}
else { s1 = 0; s2 = 0; s3 = 0; s4 = 0; s5 = 0;s6 = 0; s7 = 0; s8 = 0;

}
}

65
 APPENDIX B: PCB Designs and Hardware
PCB design of Driver 2110:

Fig 1: Gate drive circuit PCB (IR 2110)

Fig 2: Topology board

Fig 3: PCB board OF driver

66
 Fig 4: Hardware Implementation

TIMELINE

67