History research: History & Maths

The invention of 0 research - Sneh

Rhetoricals and facts to include:

-Can we fathom the profound shift in human thought that accompanied the invention of zero,
transforming our understanding of numbers and mathematical systems?
- In a world dominated by tangible objects and concrete realities, how did ancient cultures
grapple with the revolutionary idea of representing "nothing" in the form of a numerical symbol?

RESEARCH:
Zero’s origins most likely date back to the “fertile crescent” of ancient Mesopotamia.
Sumerian scribes used spaces to denote absences in number columns as early as 4,000
years ago, but the first recorded use of a zero-like symbol dates to sometime around
the third century B.C. in ancient Babylon. The Babylonians employed a number system
based around values of 60, and they developed a specific sign—two small wedges—to
differentiate between magnitudes in the same way that modern decimal-based
systems use zeros to distinguish between tenths, hundreds and thousandths. A similar
type of symbol cropped up independently in the Americas sometime around A.D. 350,
when the Mayans began using a zero marker in their calendars.

According to Harvard professor Robert Kaplan, the first zero is documented to be used
in Mesopotamia almost 5000 years ago through a pair of angled wedges. The later
civilizations were like the Babylonians, who followed the Sumerians and the Chinese. But
even in these two civilizations, it was used as just a placeholder, aka, a way to tell ten
from 100 or to signify an empty column present in the case of hundreds and thousands.
There is no way to give true credit to any civilization for the discovery of zero.

The Babylonian concept is assumed to have traveled all the way to India, where the idea
of zero was developed into a numeral. In ancient India, mathematics was mainly linked
with astronomy and was used to express philosophical ideas.

Ancient India: The Birthplace of Zero

The breakthrough in understanding zero came from the Indian subcontinent. Indian
mathematicians, particularly during the Gupta period (5th to 6th centuries CE), made
significant strides in the development of zero as a concept. Brahmagupta, a prominent
mathematician of the time, introduced zero as a number and outlined its mathematical
properties in his seminal work "Brahmasphutasiddhanta."
Brahmagupta's treatise explained the rules governing mathematical operations involving
zero, such as adding, subtracting, and multiplying. He also discussed the idea of dividing
a number by zero, recognizing the challenges and ambiguities associated with such an
operation. Brahmagupta's insights laid the foundation for the integration of zero into
mathematical discourse.

Transmission to the Islamic World:

The concept of zero traveled westward through trade routes and scholarly exchanges,
eventually reaching the Islamic world. Arab mathematicians played a crucial role in
further developing and disseminating the concept. Al-Khwarizmi, often referred to as
the "father of algebra," extensively explored the use of zero in his work on solving
quadratic equations.

Zero in Europe:

The adoption of zero in Europe was a gradual process. Fibonacci, an Italian

mathematician from the 13th century, introduced the Hindu-Arabic numeral system to
Europe in his influential book "Liber Abaci." This system, including zero, gradually
replaced the Roman numeral system, revolutionizing mathematics and commerce.

Philosophical and Scientific Implications:

The introduction of zero had profound implications beyond mathematics. Philosophers

grappled with the concept of nothingness, raising questions about the nature of
existence and the void. In the realm of science, zero became a critical component in the
formulation of equations, enabling more sophisticated descriptions of physical
phenomena.

Cultural and Historical Significance

The invention and adoption of zero had profound cultural and historical implications. It
transformed mathematical thinking and laid the groundwork for advancements in
science, astronomy, and technology.

Zero's introduction as a placeholder in positional notation simplified mathematical

calculations, making it an essential tool in various fields.

Impact on Modern Mathematics and Beyond

Zero continues to play a crucial role in modern mathematics, serving as the foundation
for calculus, computer science, and cryptography, among other disciplines. The abstract
concept of zero has transcended its numerical origins, influencing philosophical and
scientific discussions on the nature of nothingness and the void.
 The Birth Of Zero: How human civilization brought “nothing” to
existence!

The creation of zero marks a pivotal moment in human history,

revolutionizing mathematics and shaping the foundations of our modern
world. The introduction of zero had a profound impact on many human
civilizations. It enabled the development of many mathematical theories
and equations, which paved the way for technological advancements and
scientific discoveries.

Shaping the “0”

The symbol used to dictate 0 was discovered to be used by the people of
ancient Babylon, around the third century BC. It was shaped using two
small wedges and likely had Chinese and Sumerian influence to its
infamous oval-like shape. However, there is no clear evidence that dates
back to which exact civilization sparked this trend.

Turning nothing into something

Brahmagupta, an infamous mathematician, holds credit for turning zero
into a numerical value. He introduced its mathematical properties and
explained the magnitude of the number in his treatise. Brahmagupta, like
all theorizing mathematicians, had to assimilate this new, ambiguous
concept into society and throughout his life he aimed to treat zero as a
number in its own right, rather than as simply a placeholder digit.

The Spread of 0
Zero then spread from India to the Islamic work, most likely through
scholars, and infamous figures like the “father of algebra”; Al-
Khwarizimi used the discovery in many of his equations. Another
influential figure known as Fibonacci introduced the Hindu-Arab
number system to Europe, replacing the Roman numeral system.

Significance
The concept of zero had significant implications in fields such as
astronomy, engineering, and economics. It laid the foundation for the
decimal numeral system and enabled the representation of both small
and large numbers.

Additionally, Zero also had implications in other fields like philosophy

and conceptualised nothingness, allowing theories like Nihilism to
flourish. The creation of zero was a crucial milestone in human history,
shaping the way we understand and manipulate numbers to this day.
The Golden Ratio research - Momina

Rhetorical questions and points to include:

-Are there misconceptions or exaggerated claims surrounding the golden ratio, and how
can a nuanced understanding of its historical context help dispel myths associated with
its mystique?
-In a world seemingly governed by chaos, does the prevalence of the golden ratio
suggest an inherent sense of order and harmony?

RESEARCH:
The golden ratio is an irrational number. It's a ratio between two numbers that equal to
around 1.618, usually written as the greek letter phi. This is in relation to the Fibonacci
sequence, which is the sequence in which each number is the sum of two former
numbers and the quotient between these consecutive pair of numbers approximates to
1.618

The history of golden ratio

A lot of mathematicians helped in contributing towards the discovery of the golden ratio

The golden ratio was discovered around 300 BC by Greek mathematicians Elucid and
pythagoras. They spent countless hours researching the equation and properties. The
golden ratio was then first mentioned in Euclid's elements as the “extreme and mean
ratio” . Euclid, in The Elements, explains the ratio as the line A B is divided in extreme and
mean ratio by C if AB : A C = A C : C B AB:AC = AC:CB AB:AC=AC:CB, the term “golden
ratio” wasn't coined until 1835 by German mathematician, Martin Ohm.
Plato, a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of
philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, wrote a dialogue named
Timaeus in the form of a long monologue, written circa 360 BC. The work puts forward
speculation on the nature of the physical world and human beings.

“For whenever in any three numbers, whether cube or square, there is a mean, which is
to the last term what the first term is to it; and again, when the mean is to the first term
as the last term is to the mean—then the mean becoming first and last, and the first and
last both becoming means, they will all of them of necessity come to be the same, and
having become the same with one another will be all one”; thereby he implies the
aesthetically perfect proportion known as Golden ratio or Golden mean.

In addition to early traces of the discovery of this sequence was found to be described
back in the 2nd or 3rd century BC in the works of and Indian mathematician named
Acharya Pingala in pieces of Sanskrit literature

In 1509, Luca Pacioli, an Italian mathematician published De Divina Proportione

accompanied by illustrations drawn by Leanardo da vinci. The illustrations helped the
ratio gain attention. Soon it was glorified as a symbol of divinely inspired simplicity and
orderliness.

The golden ratio has influenced the work of many painters since the Renaissance. This is
especially true of the golden rectangle, which is a recurring motif in Leonardo's artwork.
It depicts a rectangle that is roughly 1.5 times longer than it is wide. The Mona Lisa has
been said to follow this rule.

Extract from news article

Often scientists and academics argue over why the golden ratio is so aesthetically
pleasing to the eye.

Quotes from Adrian Bejan, professor of mechanical engineering at Duke University, in

Durham, North Carolina

“It is well known that the eyes take in information more efficiently when they scan side to
side, as opposed to up and down. When you look at what so many people have been
drawing and building, you see these proportions everywhere."
“This is the best flowing configuration for images from plane to brain and it manifests
itself frequently in human-made shapes that give the impression they were 'designed'
according to the golden ratio," said Bejan.

Golden ratio in the real world

Golden ratio in the real world can be found in aspects of nature. Sunflower spirals and
other seeds tend to hew close to phi, while leaves and pine cone seeds typically grow in
patterns that resemble the golden ratio. Proportions of nautilus shells and human bodies
are also examples of the golden ratio however these differ largely from each other

Golden ratio in math and physics

Phi appeared in Roger Penrose’s discovery in 1970s “Penrose Tiles”, allowing surfaces to
be tilted in five fold symmetry as well as again in 1980’s “Quasi crystals”, which are
aperiodic structures with long-range order, a form of matter, which can be found in
nature or made artificially.

GOLDEN RATIO ARTICLE :(((( (Avril and Lama ft. Diya)

TRACING THE GOLDEN RATIO: FROM ANCIENT AESTHETICS TO MODERN

WARFARE

The Golden Ratio is a concept often attributed to ancient Greeks that is found all around
us in our daily lives, but we often do not realize it. It is an irrational number that
represents the ratio between two numbers that equal around 1.618 and is usually
written as the Greek letter phi. The ratio is aesthetically pleasing and is used in
architectural contexts and various artworks by old experts such as Leonardo da Vinci's
renowned work, The Mona Lisa.

This mysterious Golden Ratio is also present in nature. Patterns resembling the shape
of phi can be observed in the growth of Sunflower spirals and seeds, leaves and
pinecones.
According to Adrian Bejan, professor of mechanical engineering at Duke University, "It
is well known that the eyes take in information more efficiently when they scan side to
side, as opposed to up and down. When you look at what so many people have been
drawing and building, you see these proportions everywhere."

The ratio was initially introduced by early mathematicians like Euclid and Pythagoras,
whose work heavily centered upon finding relationships in geometry and proportions.
Plato came to similar theories: a quote from his monologue Timaeus circa 360 BC, “For
whenever in any three numbers, whether cube or square, there is a mean, which is to
the last term what the first term is to it; and again, when the mean is to the first term as
the last term is to the mean—then the mean becoming first and last, and the first and
last both becoming means, they will all of them of necessity come to be the same, and
having become the same with one another will be all one”

Leonardo da Vinci and Pacioli's 'De Divina Proportione’ book which contained written
and illustrated information was proof of Plato's words.

Visible, even in ancient civilizations, the ratio's applications extended to making

sculptures and pottery, contributing to the overall extravagance of those ancient
cultures. The visual appeal of the structures reflected the significant cultural values of
balance, peace and order.

Amidst the turmoil of World War II, Soviet composer Dmitri Shostakovich turned to the
mathematical elegance of the golden ratio in crafting his Symphony No. 7, the
"Leningrad Symphony". As the city endured the brutal Siege, Shostakovich's music
became a testament to resilience and hope, mirroring the chaos of war while embodying
a deeper sense of order and aesthetic harmony. The intentional or intuitive
incorporation of the golden ratio in the symphony's structure reflects the enduring
influence of mathematical concepts in art creation during challenging historical
circumstances. Symphony No. 7 stands as a poignant example of the power of music to
transcend wartime chaos and offer solace through the subtle interplay of art and
mathematics.

As we enter the modern era, the golden ratio finds itself juxta positioned with the discord
of war. Wars disturb the naturally harmonious environment governed by the golden
ratio. As humans, we tend to disrupt this peace by instigating conflicts and our “survival
of the fittest” ideology in which we selfishly aim for our self-interests. World wars,
insurrections, and civil wars are all examples of taking the gifts given to us by this
perplexing golden ratio.
Although classified as an “irrational number”, the prevalence of the golden ratio in
various aspects of nature challenges this label. The spiral in the patterns of
arrangements in flowers and even the human facial structure have all been touched with
the phi, but long before the theory had even been suggested, the golden ratio
coincidentally appeared in the structures of Greek architecture! This alludes to the idea
that perhaps, to humans, this shining ratio is more rational (in a linguistic sense) than
we think. This is proven by our tendency to recreate it in our art, and it is a core part of
our nature.
In the enigma of the golden ratio, we discover not only a mathematical constant, but a
thread woven into the rich tapestry of human existence, connecting art, nature, and the
turbulence of our shared history.

● Nature
● DEFINE: the golden ratio
● uses in ancient civilizations
● diya's research (later)
● Rationality of the ratio
● art/architecture
● pythagoreans
● golden ratio is perfect but humans aren't perfect??? because we keep instigating
wars and avoid peace

Pandrosion - Momina

who was Pandrosion

Pandrosion, the greatest and most ancient female mathematician of all times even
before Hypatia (thought to be the world's first female mathematician), was assumed to
be a man by many historians.
(Contributions)
Pandrosion made fundamental contributions to the math we know today, particularly in
the study of polygons and polyhedra. She developed a technique to calculate
approximate, but numerically accurate, cube roots using a three dimensional geometric
technique. Her work on understanding the properties of these shapes paved the way for
advancements in various fields, including architecture, engineering, and computer
graphics. Her insights continue to inform modern mathematical principles and design
concepts, serving as foundational knowledge for geometric modeling, 3D visualization,
and structural engineering, demonstrating the enduring relevance and impact of her
contributions.
This mysterious woman doesn't have many personal accounts from which people could
learn about her upbringing but what is clear is that Pandrosion was a math and
philosophy teacher during the 4th century in Alexandria.

Origin

Most of the information gathered about her came from the works of a famous
Alexandrian mathematician, Pappus. Pandrosion wasn't ever really lost in history, it was
more a matter of how she wasn’t acknowledged properly for who “she” was. First
mentions of Pandrosion were discovered in the writings of Pappus. Though he had used
feminine pronouns when addressing Pandrosion, early translators either didn't pay
attention or chose to ignore this fact and turned the feminine pronouns into male ones.
Given that math was and still is a very male dominant subject, maybe the translators
held their own prejudice against female mathematicians and assumed that Pappus
might have made a mistake in his writing since gender bias in mathematics is not
something new
( i'm just theorizing for fun).
(WAIT, i found something )

The great mistake

In 1878 when Friedrich Hultsch, a German classical philologist and historian of

mathematics was preparing the translation of Pappus's Collection from Greek into Latin
he noticed the Pandrosion was referred by a feminine address but assumed that it was
a mistake and referred to Pandrosion as masculine and others followed suit. Then in
1988 (110 years later) Alexander Raymond Jones "argued convincingly" that the
original feminine form was not a mistake and others took him up on the stance and after
deep diving into her name it was discovered she was in fact a female.

The Restoration of Pandrosions gender

In depth study of Pandrosion’s name revealed that the –ion ending in Pandrosion is a
form of a nickname, like the –y ending in Gabby for Gabrielle. In the end researchers
arrived at the conclusion that Pandrosion’s full name was Pandrosos, which is a
feminine name referenced in the Greek mythologies of Pandrosos. The name,
Pandrosos, means “all dewey,” which also alludes to a feminine name.

The curmudgeon

Pappus criticized Pandrosion as well as her students a lot. In his writings, Pappus
sarcastically defined for Pandrosion what the basic mathematical terms problem and
theorem mean. Pappus then wrote that anyone who claims to know mathematics should
be censured if she confuses these things and sets up a mathematical investigation
incorrectly, "some people who claimed to have learned mathematics from you lately
gave us an ignorant explanation of problems”. Though Pappus saw the Pandrosion's
students explanation of problems “ignorant”, mathematicians found the approach taken
by Pandrosion's students work just as well as pappus’s own approach.

Some people suggest that the attack on Pandrosion and her prominent student reflects
a genuine rivalry between Pandrosion and Pappus while others say that Pappus in
general liked to critique everyone's work revealing to us how big of a superiority
complex he had (like bro chill)

“One wonders whether his criticism would have been quite so terse if Pandrosion had
not been a woman”
[Winifred Frost, University of Newcastle, 1992] (This quote speaks for itself)

When looking at how women influenced philosophy and science over time, it's crucial to
realize they often got overlooked in the mostly male-focused history. Social barriers not
only kept women from actively participating but also made it hard to acknowledge their
role. The example of Pandrosion illustrates the fragile nature of recognizing a woman's
contribution, where her existence is determined by a single vowel. Unlike her, Hypatia,
who came later, has more documentation, but there's still a shortage of sources. It takes
about 500 years before some women get a chance to share their thoughts and ideas.

ARTICLE:
It is late at night, amidst the strong scent of ink and the scratching of quills, papers upon
papers lay scribed in Latin, translated from a series of ancient texts. To Fredrichs, it was
but another pronoun, insignificant to the grand scheme of the literary piece- book 3 of
Pappus's collection.

We take pride in the fact that we progress as a society, from centuries of discrimination
and injustice due to ‘barbaric’ ideologies to more civilized and compassionate
philosophies through which even women could fulfil their aspirations, or so we thought.

When speaking of women in STEM, the first name that marks our history is probably
Hypatia, and rightfully so because her contributions to the fields of mathematics and
philosophy greatly impacted the world as we see it today. However, a name much
proceeds Hypatia by a couple of years. Born in 300. CE Alexandria, Egypt, Pandrosion
is notably the first documented female mathematician. You might be wondering how
such a prominent character could be overlooked by history. Among the many male
mathematicians of her time, it would be simple to lose track of a passing figure.
However, being the first female mathematician of her period, one would consider her an
emblem of female versatility, assuming her female identity wasn't destroyed.

The misgendering led to her name being nearly erased from our textbooks. Such
mistakes trace back to 1878, in the German city of Dresden where philologist and
historian, Friedrich Hultsch, assumed addressing "Pandrosion" in female pronouns was
a mere mistake. Surely no such great arithmetician could be a female?
It is not unheard of for women in history to be victims of misgendering due to common
biases against their capabilities, who knows if future translators simply chose to ignore
the mistake.

An entire century later Alexander Raymond Jones "argued convincingly" that it was not
a mistake. The name was hence discovered to be of feminine origins and all clues
pointed to the fact that Pandrosion was a female.

Her full name was Pandrosos, “ion” is an endearment that she was simply known for
meaning “all Dewey”. Although her works did not withstand the transience of time, nor
did her students achieve colossal fame, she contributed immensely in the fields of
architecture, engineering, and computer graphics. Her insights continue to mould
modern mathematical laws and design, encapsulating a rudimentary base for 3D
visualization, civil engineering and a million other aspects of modern geometry.

Pandrosos was most well known for Pappus’s criticism of her in which he said "Some
people who claimed to have learned mathematics from you lately gave us an ignorant
explanation of problems''. Though Pappus saw Pandrosion's students' definition of
problems as “ignorant”, many centuries later mathematicians concluded that the
approach taken by Pandrosion's students works just as well as pappus’s approach.

Many suggested that Pappus’s criticism of her would not have been as “terse” (as
Winifred Frost termed it) if she hadn't been a woman. Though it can be argued that
perhaps if it weren't for her great work and indisputable contributions, she never
would’ve made it into Pappus’s criticisms, which he did not preserve for women, much
rather he was a critic of many mathematicians and his suggestion that her students'
misinterpretations were blamed upon Pandrosion herself implied that she was somehow
involved in the creation, review, or publication of the texts that Pappus had read.