19PHY102 Engineering Physics – B
B Tech. Mech A & B I SEM
Academic Year 2021-2022(ODD Semester)
Dr. Sreekanth K M,
Assistant Professor Sr. Gr.,
Department of sciences,
Amrita School of Engineering,
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham,
Amritanagar, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu,
India- 641 112.
Email:
[email protected] 21/10/2021
Unit I: Mechanics
Newton’s laws of motion - forces, frictional forces, dynamics of uniform circular motion,
work, kinetic energy, work-energy theorem, potential energy, conservation of energy,
Newton’s law of gravitation, motion in uniform gravitational field, centre of mass,
conservation of linear and angular momentum
Newton’s Law in Two Dimensions: Skiing
A skier of mass m=65 kg glides down a slope at angle θ = 32o as shown in Fig. Find (a) the
skier’s acceleration and (b) the force the snow exerts on the skier. The snow is so slippery
that you can neglect friction.
Newton’s second law,
The components of Newton’s law in coordinate
system is
(a) The x equation solves directly to give
(b) Solve the y equation to get
Circular motion
Newton’s second law then tells us that the magnitude of the net force on an object of mass m
in circular motion is
The force is in the same direction as the acceleration—toward the center of the circular path.
For that reason it’s sometimes called the centripetal force, meaning center-seeking (from the
Latin centrum, “center,” and petere, “to seek”).
EXAMPLE:
A ball of mass m whirls around in a horizontal circle at the end of a mass less string of
length L (Shown in Fig. given below). The string makes an angle θ with the horizontal. Find
the ball’s speed and the string tension.
Newton’s second law,
A ball whirling on a string
The components of Newton’s law become
Free-body diagram for the whirling ball
FRICTION: A force that opposes the relative motion of two surfaces in contact.
The Nature of Friction
Friction is ultimately an electrical force between molecules in
different surfaces. When two surfaces are in contact, microscopic
irregularities adhere, as shown in Fig.a. At the macroscopic level,
the result is a force that opposes any relative movement of the
surfaces. Experiments show that the magnitude of the frictional
force depends on the normal force between surfaces in contact.
As the normal forces push the surfaces together, the actual contact
area increases. There’s more adherence, and this increases the
frictional force (figure b). At the microscopic level, friction is
complicated.
Friction is important in everyday life, but it’s not one of the
fundamental physical interactions.
FRICTIONAL FORCE:
Static friction (fs) is the frictional force between the surfaces of two substances when they
are not in motion with respect to each other.
Therefore, in this case, instead of the bodies being in relative motion, the bodies are
stationary with respect to each other.
Experimentally, we find that the maximum static-friction force is proportional to the normal
force between surfaces, that is
Kinetic Friction (fk) is defined as a force that acts between moving surfaces. A body
moving on the surface experiences a force in the opposite direction of its movement. The
magnitude of the force will depend on the coefficient of kinetic friction between the two
materials.
This proportional to the normal force between the surfaces:
The direction of the frictional force is parallel to the two surfaces, in the direction that
opposes any applied force (Fig. a) or the surfaces’ relative motion (Fig. b).
Direction of the frictional force
EXAMPLE : Frictional Forces: Stopping a Car
Figure shows the free-body diagram.
We have a two-part problem here:
First, we need to use Newton’s second law to find the acceleration,
and then we can use Equation , to relate distance and
acceleration.
With the three forces acting on the car, Newton’s law becomes
A horizontal/vertical coordinate system is most appropriate for the
Free-body diagram for the braking car.
components of Newton’s law.
The only horizontal force is friction, which points in the – x direction and has magnitude μn
where μ can be either the kinetic- or the static-friction coefficient.
The normal force and gravity act in the vertical direction, so the component equations are
Solving the y equation for n and substituting in the x equation give the ax = - μg
acceleration: We then use this result in Equation
and solve for the stopping distance ∆x. With final speed v = 0 this gives
Using the numbers given, we get ∆x = 36 m for the minimum stopping distance (no skid;
static friction) and 52 m for the car skidding with its wheels locked (kinetic friction).
Drag Force
Friction isn’t the only “hidden” force that robs objects of their motion and obscures
Newton’s first law. Objects moving through fluids like water or air experience drag forces
that oppose the relative motion of object and fluid. Ultimately, drag results from collisions
between fluid molecules and the object. The drag force depends on several factors, including
fluid density and the object’s cross-sectional area and speed.
Terminal Speed
When an object falls from rest, its speed is initially low and so is the velocity-dependent
drag force. It therefore accelerates downward with nearly the gravitational acceleration g.
But as the object gains speed, the drag force increases—until eventually the drag force and
gravity have equal magnitudes. At that point the net force on the object is zero, and it falls
with constant speed, called its terminal speed.
Because the drag force depends on an object’s area and the gravitational force depends on its
mass, the terminal speed is lower for lighter objects with large areas.
A parachute, for example, is designed specifically to have a large surface area that results,
typically, in a terminal speed around 5 m/s. A ping-pong ball and a golf ball have about the
same size and therefore the same area, but the ping-pong ball’s much lower mass leads to a
terminal speed of about 10 m/s compared with the golf ball’s 50 m/s. For an irregularly
shaped object, the drag and thus the terminal speed depend on how large a surface area the
object presents to the air. Skydivers exploit this effect to vary their rates of fall.
