DEVELOPMENT

STUDIES
MODULE 1-8 NOTES

MASUNGA SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

 Module 1: Measuring & Investigating Development - Economic Development is when the country’s production
increases so that the people become richer or wealthier
TOPIC GENERAL OBJECTIVES SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Learners should be able to: Learners should be able to:
Development Explain the concept and practice - Explain the concept of development; - Social aspect of development is when people’s basic needs are
of development within the context - Explain the following divisions: First, fully met. For example people will have better and more shelter,
of their social, economic and Second and Third world, Newly access to clean water.
political environment. Industrialised Countries, North, South, Least
Developed Countries and Developed
Countries; - Political aspect of development is when people have more
- Give reasons for the differences in the freedom and justice in a country. This means that all the basic
development levels in different countries; human rights are guaranteed by law.
- Identify and discuss different development - Political development is when there is more freedom and justice,
indicators including Gross Domestic Product
(GDP), Gross National Product (GNP), and people are free to participate in decision making; respect for
health, life expectancy, education and energy human rights/safety and security, for example, democracy,
consumption. equality, justice, etc.
- Show why political aspects of development - Political Development is when people’s participation in marking
are difficult to measure;
- Describe the characteristics of the developed
decisions about their lives increases/ when people take control of
and developing countries; their lives/ when people enjoy human rights
- Analyse and evaluate theories of
development: modernisation, dependency, THE REASONS WHY IS IT DIFFICULT TO MEASURE
sustainable development and alternative
strategies; POLITICAL ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT

What is development? - The political aspects of development are difficult to quantify because
- Development is a process of change that makes people happier, freer, are intangible or immeasurable, for example, they can neither be seen
better fed, richer and take part in decision making nor touched.
- Development is a process of change and growth in societies which - Political aspect of development is difficult to measure because most
improves people’s quality of life. countries prohibit independent human rights groups to monitor human
- Development is when the economy grows, standards of living rise, rights violations.
quality of life improves, wealth is shared more fairly and more people - In developing countries most people are illiterate and unaware of their
take part in decision making rights.
- Development is when societies change for the better - Political aspects of development are affected by cultural or religious
beliefs, for example, women being marginalised or there are gender
THE ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT inequalities.
- The issue of sovereignty makes it difficult to measure political aspect
Societies develop when various systems interact to cause change. These of development because countries belief that they are independent
systems are called aspects of life. therefore nobody can tell them how to treat their citizens.
- Economic aspect of development is when a country produces - Political aspects of development are affected by different political
more or enough for everyone and gets richer or wealthier. This is systems, for example, dictatorship prohibits human rights because
characterised by more industries, better improved technology and they are no voting, no freedom of speech.
higher income.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 DIVISION OF THE WORLD
DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
The world can be divided into three groups based on the levels of
development, namely; They can be divided into two categories based on the ideology that they
1. Developed/ Industrialised countries/ Countries of the North followed:
2. Newly Industrialised Countries (NIC’s)  First World Countries/ Capitalist Countries
3. Less Developed Countries/ Countries of the South/ Developing  Second World Countries/ Communist Countries
Countries
THE DIVISION OF THE WORLD SHOWN BY WORLD MAP These two categories are also known as Countries of the North or
Industrialised Countries or High income countries.
Today the second category is almost non-existent because the countries
have either ceased to be communist or they have embedded capitalism in
their mode of production, besides Capitalism has now become a world
system.
Example are mostly found in Western Europe, United Kingdom, France,
Germany, Spain etc
North America: USA and Canada
Japan, Australia, New Zealand.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

Economic Characteristics Social Characteristics

Fig.1  High industrialised  High standards of living
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATIONS OF COUNTRIES OF THE SOUTH [DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES]  High employment levels  High levels of literacy
- The geographical location of countries of the South is that there are  High levels of income  Good and adequate social
found in Central America, for example, Mexico.  Highly developed infrastructure facilities, for example, clinics/
- The countries of the South are found in South America or Latin  High GNP/ GDP hospitals and schools
America, for example, Brazil and Argentina.  High energy consumption  High calorie intake or food
- The countries of the South are mostly located in Africa, for intake
example, Botswana, Nigeria, Ethopia, Kenya, Egypt, Algeria,  Low birth rates and low
Tunisia, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Angola, Mozambique, population growth rate
Somalia, South Africa and Cameroon.  High levels of urbanisation
- The countries of the South are found in South Asia, for example,
India.
- The countries of the South are located in Far East, for example,
Malaysia.
- The countries of the South are found in East Asia, for example,
China.
- The countries of the South are located in the Middle East, for
example, Saudi Arabia.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COUNTRIES OF THE NORTH DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Also known as;
- The economic characteristic of countries of the North is that there  Less Developed Countries
is high use of complex technology to produce goods.  Third World Countries
- The countries of the North have high development of transport and  Countries of the South
telecommunication networks or high infrastructural development.  Least Developed Countries
- The economic characteristic of countries of the North is that they
 Under Developed Countries
dominate international trade or they have high share of
international trade.  Middle income or low income Countries
- The countries of the North have high income or high wages.
- The countries of the North have high energy consumption because Example: Most African countries, for example, Botswana, Malawi, Zambia
people own many electrical appliances such computers, televisions etc
and refrigerators. South American countries such as Peru, Colombia, Nicaragua, Chile,
- The countries of the North have high industrialization or mass Bolivia etc.
production or high manufacturing of goods. Asian countries such as Iran, Iraq, Bangladesh etc.
- The economic characteristic of the North is that they export
finished goods and they import raw materials. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
- The countries of the North have low percentage population
depending on agriculture because few people practise commercial
agriculture. Economic Characteristics Social Characteristics
- The countries of the North have high GNP because they have  Developing countries depend on raw  Developed countries have
many industries that produce goods and services. materials for export, for example, low standards of living.
- The countries of the North have high GNP per capita. crop and minerals.  They have high levels of
- The economic characteristic of countries of the North is that they  Developing countries have low levels illiteracy or low education
have high GDP. of industrialisation. levels.
 They have high levels of  Developed countries have
THE REASONS WHY DEVELOPED COUNTRIES ARE HIGHLY DEVELOPED unemployment poor and inadequate social
 Developed countries use advanced technology to produce goods  Developed countries have low facilities, for example, school
and services. incomes and widespread poverty. and hospitals.
 Developed countries have long history of urbanisation.  Developed countries have poorly  Developed countries have
 Colonialism is the other reason why developed countries are highly developed infrastructure. low life expectancy.
developed.  They have low GNP/GDP  They have low urbanisation
 Developed countries are highly developed because of importation  Developed countries have levels, for example, most
of raw materials at cheap rates from Less Developed Countries. dependence on subsistence people live in the rural areas.
 Developed countries are selling or exporting expensive agriculture.  Developed countries have
manufactured goods few stable democracies.
 In developed countries, there are highly skilled and productive  Oppression of women.
work forces.
 Developed countries have control and domination of the World
Trade

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE REASONS WHY DEVELOPING COUNTRIES ARE
UNDERDEVELOPMENT/LESS DEVELOPED
 The slave trade which depleted Africa’s human resources.
 Colonialism /imperialism that exploited Africa, for example, took
raw materials.
 Developing countries use backward or poor technology.
 Developing countries depend on cheap raw materials for export.
 Developed countries set unfair international trading terms that
disadvantage developing countries.
 Developing countries have unskilled and less productive labour
force.
 Huge foreign debts.
 Neo-colonialism, for example, domination of the economies by
developed countries through Trans National Companies.

NEWLY INDUSTRIALISED COUNTRIES Fig.3

These are countries that have achieved industrialisation in the last thirty THE LOCATION OF THE NEWLY INDUSTRIALISING
years. They used to be less developed. COUNTRIES IS AS FOLLOWS:
For example, Korea, Thailand, Singapore, Hong Kong, India, Brazil, - The Newly Industrialising Countries are found in Southern Africa, for
Indonesia, Mexico etc. example, South Africa.
THE WORLD MAPS SHOWING LOCATIONS OF NEWLY INDUSTRIALISED
COUNTRIES (NICs)
- Newly Industrialising Countries are located in the Far East countries
such as Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore, Philippines, South Korea and
China.

- The Newly Industrialising Countries are found in South of North

America, for example, Mexico.

- Newly Industrialising Countries are found in Northeast of South

America, for example, Brazil.

- The Newly Industrialising Countries are found in South Asia, for

example, India.

- Newly Industrialising Countries are located in the Middle East, for

example, Saudi Arabia and Turkey.

Fig.2

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF NEWLY INDUSTRIALISED THE CHALLENGES WHICH ARE FACED BY THE NEWLY
COUNTRIES INDUSTRIALISING COUNTRIES

Economic Characteristics Social Characteristics - The challenge faced by the Newly Industrialising Countries is that of
high inflation rates/ weak currencies/ high fuel prices.
 NIC’s have fast growing industrial sector  NIC’s have rapid
- The Newly Industrialising Countries faces the challenge of having
 NIC’s have greater dependence on urbanisation
foreign debt or debt crisis.
exports of manufactured goods.  They have improving
 They have rapidly commercialised standard of living.
- The challenge faced by the Newly Industrialising Countries is that of
agricultural sector, for example, from  NIC’s are having higher the wide gap between the rich and the poor or huge disparities of
subsistence to commercial agriculture. levels of education therefore wealth.
 NIC’s have raising income levels. high literacy.
 They have emergence of new Trans  They have improved - The Newly Industrialised Countries are faced with the challenge of
National Companies, for example, provision of social services dominance of the industrial process by Multi-National Companies
Samsung, Daewoo, Kia, all from South  NIC’s have rising life who move their investment of the country.
Korea. expectancy.
 They have falling birth and - Newly Industrialising Countries are faced with the challenge of
population growth rate. depletion of their natural resources or damage to the environment.
THE REASONS WHY THE NEWLY INDUSTRIALISED - The challenge faced by Newly Industrialising Countries is that of fast
COUNTRIES (NIC’s) DEVELOPED SO FAST growth of the private sector which makes it difficult to be controlled
by the government.
 The NIC’s have heavy investment in science and technology
education. - Newly Industrialising Countries are faced with the challenge of
 They have large scale foreign direct investment, for example, exploitation of workers by the employer.
Multi-National Companies/ Trans National Companies.
 Export Oriented Industrialisation based on the production of - The Newly Industrialising Countries are faced with the challenge of
consumer goods for the world market. declining exports because of tough competition from the mostly
 Foreign Aid from the developed western countries in an attempt to developed countries or in the world market.
stop the spread of communism, for example, South East Asia.
 NIC’s got loans from international financial institution, for - The challenge faced by the Newly Industrialising Countries is that of
example, World Bank and International Monetary Fund. high expenditure on imports and less on exports.
 NIC’s have technology transfer from the Western countries
 They have cheap labour costs that helped to attract foreign - Newly Industrialising Countries are faced with the challenge of
investment. declining real income.
 NIC’s had agricultural and land reform that helped to modernize - The Newly Industrialising Countries are faced with the challenge of
and improve productivity. corruption.
 They have heavy investment in modern infrastructure. - Newly Industrialising Countries are faced with the challenge of urban
poverty.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE DIFFERENCES IN THE DEVELOPMENT LEVELS IN DIFFERENT THE FACTORS THAT SLOW DOWN DEVELOPMENT IN THE
COUNTRIES DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Explain why there are differences in the levels of development between
developed and developing countries. - The factor that slows down development in the developing countries
- The differences in levels of development between developed and is lack of funds.
developing countries is that developed countries export finished
goods whereas developing countries export raw materials. - Developing countries have slow down development because of use of
poor technology to produce goods and services.
- Developed countries have skilled manpower because they have
many educational institutions and developing countries have brain - The slowdown in development of developing countries is caused by
drain because most of skilled people prefer working in developed lack of skilled labour because of poor education.
countries.
- The factor that slow down development in developing countries is
- The difference in levels of development between developed countries caused by wars and conflicts.
and developing countries is that developed countries dominate or
control world trade whereas developing countries have less control - Developing countries have slow down development because they
over world trade. have high populations.

- Developed countries have many Multinational companies which - The slowdown in development in developing countries is caused by
contribute towards government revenue by paying tax and developed corruption and mismanagement of public funds by most of the leaders
countries have huge debts because they have only few companies for their own personal benefit.
that export finished goods.
- Developing countries have slowdown in development due to brain
- There is peace in developed countries whereas developing countries drain because many skilled people in developing countries prefer
are involved in political instabilities caused by wars and civil strife. working in developed countries.

- Developed countries policies are directed to high infrastructural - The factor that slows down development in developing countries is
development while developing countries policies are directed dependency syndrome. This means developing depend on developed
towards poverty and disease eradication. countries in order for them to develop.

- The difference in levels of development between developed countries - Developing countries are involved in foreign debts which slow down
and developing countries is that developed countries use advanced their development, for example, they get loans from financial
technology to produce goods whereas developing countries use institutions such as the World Bank, International Monetary Fund and
simple technology to produce goods. developed countries.

- Developed countries have high skilled manpower whereas developing

countries have shortage of skilled manpower.
- Developed countries have created dependency syndrome in
developing countries by giving them aid or assistance, for example,
foreign aid in the form of grants and loans.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Study Fig.2, which shows the division of the world into countries of the North and countries of
the South
- What is development?

- Identify and define three aspect of development

- Describe is a process of change which involves economic, social and political

development. Describe these three aspects of development

- What is meant by political development?

- Give three reasons why political aspects of development are difficult to measure.

Fig.2

- Describe the geographical locations of countries of the South

- Describe the economic characteristics of countries of the North

- Describe any two aspects of development other than social development Study Fig. 3 which shows Newly Industrialise Countries (NICs) in different countries

- Suggest ways by which the government of Botswana is promoting social

development

- How can developing countries encourage economic development?

- Describe actions that the government takes to promote economic development in

Botswana.

- Suggest ways by which income generating projects can help people to achieve
social development

Fig.3

- Describe the geographical locations of Newly Industrialised Countries (NICs)

shown in Fig.3.
- Suggest factors Less Developed Countries (LDCs) could copy from Newly
Industrialised Countries (NICs) to speed up development.

- Describe the social characteristics of Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs)

- Explain the challenges which are faced by the Newly Industrialising Countries.

- Explain why there are differences in levels of development between developed and
developing countries.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Study Fig. 4, which shows the New industrialising Countries (NICs), and answer questions MEASURING DEVELOPMENT/ INDICATORS OF
below.
DEVELOPMENT

Indicator Economic Development

Developed Developing
GNP High Low
GDP high Low
GNP per capita High low
Energy consumption High low
Employment High low
Number of people in Less people in agriculture More people in agriculture
Agriculture

Social Development
Indicator Developed Developing
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) Low High
Life expectancy High Low
Death rate Low High
Birth rate Low High
Doctor-patient ratio Low High
- Describe the location of the Newly Industrialising Countries.
Teacher-student ratio Low High
Number of people per Low High
- Explain why countries of the South are less developed than the countries of the
telephone
North.
Number of people per tap Low: Many houses with High: few houses with water
water
- Suggest why development is slow in most Southern African Countries. Dependency ratio Low High
Literacy rate High Low
Adult literacy rate High Low
- Describe the factors that slow down development in developing countries Calorie intake High Low
Daily food intake High Low

Political Development
Indicator Developed Developing
Democracy
Peace Civil wars/civil strife
Elections More Few
Women in managerial positions More Few
Human rights
Freedom
Number of wrongful imprisonment
Number of political parties in a country
Percentage of people who vote during elections

Fig.1

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 SOCIAL INDICATORS ECONOMIC POLITICAL INDICATORS - Infant mortality rate is caused by pandemic diseases such HIV/AIDS
INDICATORS because some of the babies are born with the virus.
Infant Mortality Rate Gross National Product per Number of political parties in
Capita a country
- The reason why developing countries have high infant mortality rate is
Life expectancy Gross Domestic Product Percentage of people who Poor sanitation / unhygienic conditions
vote during elections
Adult literacy rate Gross National Product Freedom of expression - Developing countries have high infant mortality rate because of poor
care / parent negligence
Number of people per doctor Energy Consumption per Percentage of women in
Capita managerial positions
2. LIFE EXPECTANCY
Number of pupils per teacher Number of people employed Number of wrongful
in agriculture imprisonment What is life expectancy?
Birth rate Employment rate Human rights - Life expectancy is the average number of years a person is likely to
live in a country.
Death rate Manufacturing production Justice
What is life expectancy at birth?
Fig.2 - Life expectancy at birth is the average number of years a new born
baby is likely to live in a country.
SOCIAL INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT
THE REASONS WHY LESS DEVELOPED/ DEVELOPING /THIRD WORLD
COUNTRIES HAVE HIGHER INFANT MORTALITY RATE
1. INFANT MORTALITY RATE

- The reason why developing countries have high infant mortality rate is
What is infant mortality rate?
that of shortage of health facilities where health care can be provided
- Infant mortality rate number of babies who die before their first by doctors and nurses.
birthday per thousand per year in a country.
- High infant mortality rate in developing countries is caused by
- Infant mortality rate is the percentage of babies who die before their widespread of diseases and epidemics, for example, cholera, malaria
first birthday in a country and HIV/AIDS.

THE REASONS WHY DEVELOPING COUNTRIES HAVE A HIGH INFANT - Developing countries have high infant mortality rate because of poor
MORTALITY RATE nutrition which may lead to kwarshikor due to high unemployment
rate or poor farming methods.
- Developing countries have high doctor patient ratio/ inadequate access
to health care because there are few trained doctors and nurses.
- High infant mortality rate in developing countries is caused by poor
- There is poor nutrition in developing countries leading to such health sanitation and hygiene.
conditions as kwashiorkor
- Infant mortality rate is high in developing countries because of poverty
- In developing infant mortality rate is caused by teenage pregnancy which lead to low living standard
which may lead to delivery complications.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE REASONS WHY DEVELOPED COUNTRIES HAVE LOWER INFANT 3. CALORIE INTAKE
MORTALITY RATE

- Developed countries have adequate health facilities where health care What is calorie intake?
- Calorie intake is the energy value of the food eaten in a country.
is provided by trained doctors and nurses.
THE REASONS FOR LOW CALORIE INTAKE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
- Low infant mortality rate in developed countries is caused by
immunisation programmes that help to eradicate child killer diseases, - The reason for low calorie intake in developing countries is that
for example, cholera, malaria and polio. there is high unemployment so less money to buy food

- Developed countries have low infant mortality rate because of - There is lack of purchasable food in some areas
adequate and balanced nutrition.
- Developing countries have quality and quantity food shortage
because of drought
- Low infant mortality rate in developed countries is caused by good
sanitation and hygiene. - The high illiteracy rate in developing countries lead to inability to
determine food quality
- Infant mortality rate is low in developing countries because of high
living standard. - Developing countries have low calorie intake because of low
productivity in agriculture.
THE REASONS WHY WORLD LIFE EXPECTANCY IS RISING
- Low calorie intake in developing countries is caused by drought
- The life expectancy is rising in the world because cleaner water and famines.
supplies to prevent waterborne diseases such as cholera.
- Developing countries have low calorie intake due to wars and
- The governments of the world provide better sanitation to their citizens political instability.
to improve hygiene.
THE REASONS FOR HIGH CALORIE INTAKE IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
- The world life expectancy is rising due to provision better health care
whereby there is enough trained medical personnel such as doctors and - Developed countries have high calorie intake because of high
nurses. income because most of the people are employed.

- Countries provide primary health care to citizens which focuses on the - High calorie intake in developed countries is caused by surplus
prevention of diseases and giving assistance to the sick, for example, food production.
provision of clean water, health education and immunisation
programmes - Developed countries have high calorie intake due to high levels of
education.
- In the world some of the countries provide citizens with better
nutrition for example, in Botswana children are given supplementary - Calorie intake is high in developed countries because of the use of
feeding such as Tsabana. advanced technology to produce food.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 4. LITERACY RATE Male literacy rate is higher in most countries than female literacy rate
Fig.4
Define literacy rate
THE REASONS FOR THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE
- Literacy rate is the percentage of the population or average LITERACY RATES
number of people who are able to read and write in a country. - The reason for the difference between male and female literacy
rate is that girls are denied the chance to go to school and are
What is the importance of literacy to development? expected to stay home and help their mothers

- The importance of literacy to development is that when people are - The girls drop out of school because they marry or get pregnant
able to read and write they are able to learn or acquire new skills which lead to the difference between male and female literacy rate.
easily
- Girls are neglected for cultural/traditional reasons
- They can better participate in decision making and national
campaigns e.g. elections, immunisation programmes - It is believed a girl child has a smaller brain than their male
counterpart (and this makes them less intelligent) and so sending
- They can read and understand environmental issues or them to school is a waste of time and money
conservation better
THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS LOW SCHOOL ENROLMENT CAN HAVE ON A
COUNTRY’S DEVELOPMENT
- Reduces dependency on those who are literate and promotes
privacy e.g. reading own letters or mail - The negative effect of low school enrolment can have on a
country’s development is low literacy rate
- Literate mothers can access information on childcare leading to
better hygiene and lower IMR - The low school enrolment can have negative effect on a country’s
development because it can lead to fewer skilled personnel
- Improved nutrition when the mother is literate
- Increase the gap between the educated rich and the uneducated
- They can easily find out and fill themselves application forms e.g.
poor
at the post office, credit facilities forms and can even write
application letters for jobs etc. - The negative effect of low school enrolment may lead to fewer
people will be involved in decision making
5. ADULT LITERACY RATE
- Low school enrolment may lead to high birth rates because of lack
Define adult literacy rate
of knowledge on how to use contraceptives.
- Adult literacy rate is the percentage of people or number of
- The negative effect of low school enrolment on country’s
people 18 years and above who can read and write in a country.
development leads to High Infant Mortality Rate or death rates
because of lack of knowledge on how to take care of their babies.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE CHALLENGES FACED BY DEVELOPING COUNTRIES IN TRYING TO - Developing countries have high school dropout because of civil
IMPROVE THEIR CITIZENS’ EDUCATION
wars e.g. Ethiopia/Eritrea, Sudan etc.
- The challenge faced by developing countries in trying to improve - High school dropout in developing countries is caused by long
their citizen’s education is that they have shortage of funds which distance to educational facilities or school
lead to inadequate educational facilities.
6. BIRTH RATE/ POPULATION GROWTH RATE
- The challenges faced by developing countries in trying to improve
their citizens’ education is shortage of trained personnel, for What is birth rate / Population growth rate?
example, teachers.
Birth rate is the number of babies per 1000 born in a year in a country.
- Developing countries inaccessible educational facilities because of
shortage of funds, for example, students have to walk long Population growth rate is the speed at which the population grows in
distances to access educational facilities. a year, and it is expressed in percentages in a country.

- Uncooperative, unruly & bad behaved students DEVELOPING COUNTRIES HAVE HIGH BIRTH AND POPULATION
GROWTH RATES BECAUSE OF:
- Corruption and bribery
- Large family seen as a symbol of social prestige, for example,
- Developing countries have high unemployment rate which makes proves ones virility.
parents to be unable to pay school fees.
- Ignorance of the use of family planning and contraceptives.
THE CAUSES OF HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUT RATES IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES
- The cause of high school dropout rates in developing countries due - Low levels of education.
to teenage pregnancy.
- Children are regarded as a source of social security
- Developing countries have high school dropout rates because
domestic responsibilities e.g. looking after livestock - Early marriages.

- Poverty causes high school dropout rates in developing countries - Polygamy

because of inability to pay school fees by some parents
- Desires for sons if girls are born first to continue family name
- In developing countries, there is high school dropout rates because because girls get married and change the surname.
of early marriage.

- Family disputes / divorce / lack of parental guidance

- High school dropout rates in developing countries is caused by

diseases, for example, HIV/AIDS, TB, etc. / accidents leading to
disability

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 DEVELOPED COUNTRIES HAVE LOWER BIRTH AND POPULATION
GROWTH RATE BECAUSE OF:
EXPLAIN HOW SOCIAL INDICATORS ARE USED TO MEASURE
- Widespread of use of contraceptives and also family planning is DEVELOPMENT
done.
- When infant mortality rate is low it means that development is
- High levels of education. high and when infant mortality rate is high, it means that
development is low.
- Social security as they have pension schemes in place.

- High standards of living that make a large family expensive to - High literacy rate means that a country is developed whereas low
have. literacy rate means that a country is less developed or developing.

- Banning of child labour. - High Birth Rate means that a country is less developed and a low
Birth Rate means that a country is developed.

7. DOCTOR-PATIENT RATIO - When there is a high doctor-patient ratio it means that the country
is less developed and a low doctor-patient ratio means that the
What is meant by doctor-patient ratio?
country is developed.
- Doctor-patient ratio is (average) number of sick people to be
attended or attended by a medical practitioner in a day. - High life expectancy shows that the country is developed and a
low life expectancy shows that the country is less developed.
- Doctor-patient ratio is the (average) number of hospital attendants
to a medical practitioner in a day.
- High calorie intake shows that a country is developed whereas a
low calorie intake shows that a country is less developed.
- Doctor-patient ratio is the proportion of medical practitioners to
sick people in a day.

THE REASONS WHY DOCTOR-PATIENT RATIO IS WORSE

IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

- High population growth rate/high birth rate/high population

- Outbreak of diseases/high rate of communicable diseases
- Few health personnel/few doctors/brain drain/poor health care
- Shortage of training health facilities
- High incidents of wars/casualties
- Shortage of health facilities/clinics/hospitals/poor health care
- Long period of training
- Lack of knowledge on health education.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT THE DISADVANTAGES OF GNP PER CAPITA

1. GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT The reasons why GNP per capita is not a good measure of development

- The reason why GNP per capita is not a good measure of development
Define Gross National Product
is that few people might own most of the land, farms, shops, factories,
- Gross National Product is the total value of goods and services that a etc. leaving the majority very poor i.e. it ignores the difference
country produces in one year including earnings from abroad or between the rich and the poor within the country
outside the country.
- GNP per capita ignores the informal sector and illicit trades;
Define GNP per capita economists only count goods and services marketed openly and
recorded by government.
- GNP per capita is the proportion or share of a country’s wealth each
individual is entitled to if the country’s money is shared equally or - Production/income statistics may be inaccurate / concealing of actual
evenly amongst the population earnings to avert tax or Business officials hiding information

- GNP per capita is the total money value of goods and services - Population statistics may be inaccurate and/or outdated
produced within and outside the country divided by the total
- There is official biasness of statistics to score a political mileage
population

THE ADVANTAGES OF GNP PER CAPITA - GNP per capita assumes that everyone is working and benefiting from
the economy and ignores the quality of life, social and environmental
- GNP per capita is a standard measure, therefore, allows easy consequences of wealth/ignores happiness
comparison between countries and years.
REASONS WHY COUNTRIES OF THE NORTH/DEVELOPED COUNTRIES HAVE
A HIGHER GNP THAN THOSE OF THE SOUTH/DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
- The data on GNP per capita is available from the World Bank.
- The countries of the North have mass production due to use of
- GNP per capita highlights international wealth differences. complex and many industries whereas countries of the South have low
production because of use of simple technology and few industries.
- GNP per capita is better than raw GNP measurement, which ignores
the size of the population, or GDP, which does not include investments - Countries of the North export a lot of high value or expensive goods &
services while countries of the South export low value goods and
abroad. services
- GNP per capita helps to estimate productivity capacity of country’s - The reason why countries of the North have high GNP is because they
economy. price the commodities themselves while the prices of raw materials
from the countries of the South are determined by the North.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

- The countries of the North have favourable terms of trade whereas POLITICAL INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT
countries of the South have unfavourable conditions of trade because HUMAN RIGHTS: These are things or conditions that every person is
are determined by the countries of the North entitled to have and they are part of the constitution of every country.
Respect for human rights marks a high level of development for any
- Most Multi-National Companies originate from countries of the North country. Conditions that fulfil human rights include the following:
and operate in other countries which lead profit repatriation - Regular free and fair elections
- Freedom of speech or opinion
- Countries of the North earn a lot of interest from loans to the
developing countries. - Right to education
- Freedom of association and worship
2. ENERGY USE/ ENERGY CONSUMPTION - Impartial/ fair justice
- Law and order
Define Energy use/ Energy consumption - Peace and security
- Equal opportunities in all spheres of life.
Energy consumption is the average amount of kilograms of oil, gas, However if these conditions are not met, there is bound to be discrimination
electricity or wood that utilized by each person in a country.
THE WAYS IN WHICH POLITICAL INDICATORS CAN BE USED TO MEASURE
- Developed countries use large quantities of energy while Developing DEVELOPMENT
countries use small quantities.  Number of women in decision making positions – If the
- Developed countries use a lot of energy because they have a lot of percentage of females in leadership [posts] is high it mean high
industries, machines, vehicles and gadgets that use electricity and have development whereas if it is low it mean low development
large urban areas.  Voter turnout/number of people who vote- If the percentage of
- Developing countries use smaller quantities of energy because there adults who participate in elections is high then development is high
have very few industries, vehicles and machines. Most work is done and if it is low the development is low
manually.  Adherence to human rights/human rights ratings/ranking- If
the respect that a country has for people’s entitlement is high then
3. EMPLOYMENT development is high and if it is low then development is low, for
In developed countries there are a lot of employment opportunities in: example, good governance and transparency
- Large industrial sector  Incidents of discrimination/inequality (times when people are
- Large commercial service sector treated unfairly for who they are)- If there are many incidents of
- Quarternary sector discrimination development is low and if there are few
In developing countries employment is very low because of development is high, for example, justice and fair trial
- Small industrial sector  Incidents of conflict- If the occurrence of serious disagreements,
- Small commercial sector for example, war and social unrest is high then development is low
 Peace –If there is calmness in the country or the absence of wars
- Dependence on subsistence agriculture.
or social unrest then development is high
4. TRADE  Security- If the sense of safety in a country is high, then
Developed countries are dependent on exporting manufactured or finished development is high
products.  Happiness-If the feeling of joy/gladness among people in a
Developing countries are dependent on exports of raw materials. country is then development is higher

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Check your progress Section B

Section A 1. Study Fig 1, which shows population statistics for selected African
1. What is life expectancy? countries and answer question 1(a)

2. What is life expectancy at birth?

3. Describe any three reasons why world life expectancy is rising

4. What is calorie intake?

5. Give three reasons for low calorie intake in developing countries.

6. Define literacy rate

7. Describe three importance of literacy to development Fig1

8. Define adult literacy rate (a) (i) Describe the causes of high infant mortality rate in developing countries.
Male literacy rate is higher in most countries than female literacy rate
9. Suggest three reasons for the difference between male and female literacy rates (ii) Describe the ways in which the government is trying to reduce the infant
mortality rate in Botswana.
The girl child school enrolment is lower in African countries.
2. Study Fig. 2 which shows some indicators to measure development.
10. Give three reasons for the low enrolment of girls in African countries

11. Give any three negative effects low school enrolment can have on a country’s
development

12. Describe three challenges faced by developing countries in trying to improve their
citizens’ education.

13. Describe three causes of high school dropout rates in developing countries?

14. Define Gross National Product

15. Give three reasons why GNP per capita is not a good measure of development.
16. Define GNP per capita
17. Give three reasons why Countries of the North have a higher GNP than those of the
South
18. What is infant mortality rate?
19. Give three reasons why developing countries have a high infant mortality rate

20. What is meant by political development? Fig.2

21. Why is it difficult to measure political aspects of development

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
(a)(i) Explain how each indicator shown in Fig.1 is used to measure development.
A theory is a set of ideas offering explanation about something.
(ii) State the disadvantage of using GNP per capita to measure development.

(b)(i) Explain how any three political indicators can be used to measure
Theories of development are ideas from such disciplines as economics,
development. politics and sociology that attempt to explain how the world can be
developed.
(ii) Explain why political development is difficult to measure. Different views have been brought forward, these include:

 Modernisation theory
3.Fig. 3 shows a list of countries and their indicators of development. Use it to
 Dependency theory
answer question 1(a)
 Sustainable Development theory
 Environmentalism and sustainable development theory
 Populism
 Globalisation
 Gender and Development

Fig.3

(a)(i) Using Fig. 3 only, describe three economic characteristics of developed

countries.

(ii) Explain why there are differences in the levels of development between
developed and developing countries. Fig.1

MODERNISATION THEORY

Modernisation theory is a set of ideas that states that for developing

countries to advance, they should copy development pattern that was taken
by the developed countries.

It is also referred to as the ‘Stages of Growth theory’.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE STAGES OF MODERNISATION THEORY POLICY IMPLICATIONS/ PRINCIPLES

The theory suggests that a country goes through the following stages of Policies that should be implemented:
development.
 There should be investment in industry and infrastructure.
Stage 1: Traditional society stage depends on subsistence agriculture.  Apply or borrow ideas from the Capitalist countries of the North.
 Technology is still simple or rudimentary.
 There should be emphasis on the importance of education and
 People live a simple life, therefore low standard of living.
training.
 In traditional society, people practice barter trading.
 People should give up their traditional habits and experiment with
 Traditional societies have few towns new ideas.
Stage 2: Pre-Conditions for take-off is when there is improvement of  There should be change from subsistence agriculture to
transport network, for example, roads, canals and railways.
 Agriculture revolution, for example, changes from subsistence to commercial agriculture.
commercial farming.  New production technologies should be introduced.
 In Pre-Conditions for take -off stage, there is introduction of  There should be specialisation in production.
fertilizers, hybrids and pesticides.  Urbanisation should take place.
 Specialisation of work begins.  There should be industrialisation.
 Improved technology that raises productivity.  People should be patient enough to accept less income until the
 Urbanisation starts. economy of the country has grown.
Stage 3: Take-off is when industry stimulates city growth.
 There is rapid urbanisation in take-off stage. THE STRENGTHS/ ADVANTAGES OF MODERNISATION
THEORY
 Investment in capital goods rises and quickens economic growth.
 In take-off stage, some people become rich.  Modernisation theory shows the importance of capital investment
Stage 4: Drive to Maturity is when there is rapid increase in as a fuel for economic development.
manufacturing and service industries, have more exports and fewer imports.
 Modernisation theory lays emphasis on the need for change in the
 More people dependent on paid employment and wages generally
attitudes and ways of life of people.
improve.
 Modernisation theory stresses the need to work hard for little
 Agriculture now fully mechanized with very few people engaged
money, for example, working for low wages so as to enjoy full
in it, more people in industries.
benefits later.
 Demand for consumer goods increases.
 Modernisation theory recognises that change can be unpleasant and
Stage 5: The Age of High Consumption is when there is high production
of consumer goods. that certain groups will suffer in the process.
 Large services sector that employs the majority of the people.
 High standards of living as wages are good for most people.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE WEAKNESSES/ DISADVANTAGES OF MODERNISATION Describe the stages of the modernisation theory
THEORY
 Modernisation theory neglects political and social development. The traditional society is where people practise barter system and
 Modernisation theory ignores the fact developing countries are subsistence farming. The people make simple crafts. The people also
affected by circumstances beyond their control that are deterrent to experience low standards of living. The Preconditions for take-off stage is
development, for example, natural disasters. where new technology arises. The people start to practise commercial
 Modernisation theory neglects the fact that some people value their farming. The specialisation increases in this stage. In this stage urbanisation
cultural practices too much to relinquish them. starts to happen. The people start to use hybrid seeds and fertilizers. The
 Modernisation theory also ignores the fact that developing take-off stage is when there is investment in capital goods. There is also
countries lack cheap sources of raw materials that developed growth of cities in the take-off stage. Some people become rich. In take-off
countries got from their former colonies. stage there is rapid urbanisation. The Drive to maturity/ maturity stage is
 Capitalism is not the only way to achieve development, USSR and where manufacturing dominates the economy. There are more exports than
China developed under the Socialist mode of production. imports in drive to maturity stage. The wages increase as most people get
 Developing countries are unable to follow the pattern of employed. The demand for consumer goods increases. The age of high
development because developed countries control their economies consumption/ high mass consumption stage is where service industries
and determine trade terms. and consumer goods dominate the economy. The wages are high for many
 Globalisation, Multi -National Companies, free trade all make it people. Many people experience high living standards.
difficult for developing countries to develop.
Describe the benefits to the people of a country where modernisation
 There is an unfair international trading term that favours the has taken place.
developed countries at the expense of the developing countries, the
trade terms are set or determined by the developed countries. The benefit to the people of a country where modernisation has taken place
 In many countries the wealth has never trickled down. is that they will be technological development or people will start to use
 In some countries industrialisation is slow with the economy modern technology. In a country were modernisation has taken place there
trapped by dependence on producing primary products. will be infrastructural development, for example, tarred roads, hospitals
and schools. The benefit to the people of a country where modernisation has
taken place is having human resource development/ skilled manpower/
high literacy rate because the modernisation theory emphasis training and
education. The countries were modernisation has taken place people will
have improved standard of living. In a country were modernisation has
taken place they will be improved service delivery through research and
development. The benefit to the people of a country where modernisation
has taken place is availability of affordable goods. They will be wealth
creation in a country where modernisation has taken place. They will be
employment creation in a country where modernisation has taken place.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 DEPENDENCY THEORY POLICY IMPLICATIONS/ PRINCIPLES

Define dependency theory  The Countries of the South/ developing countries should cut
economic links with Countries of the North/ developed countries.
Dependency is a set of ideas that argue that the South was unable to copy  Developing countries should reduce spending on consumer goods
and adopt the North’s path of industrialisation because the North exploited
but spend more on capital goods, for example, machinery.
the South’s resources to enhance their economy and kept the South poor
 Countries of the South should save and invest locally instead of
- Dependency theory is a set of ideas that states that in order to borrowing.
advance, developing countries should rely less on developed ones.  Local inventions should be encouraged, for example, development
of local technology.
- Dependency theory argues that less developed countries became  Developing countries should become self-sufficient reliant.
economically reliant on the North and thus the North became  Dependency theory encourages people to be patient and sacrifice
industrialised at the expense of the South who remained for a better future.
underdeveloped
THE STRENGTHS/ ADVANTAGES OF DEPENDENCY THEORY
Dependency was developed in the 1960’s to try and explain why
developing countries were failing to develop.  It focuses on all aspects of development which are social,
Europe and North America became rich and developed through exploiting political, economic and environmental development.
the poor countries during colonialism.  Dependency theory acknowledges the inter-linkage of countries
They exploited resources of developing countries and neglected their
economies by not developing any industries or infrastructure. globally.
 Dependency theory explains the crippling effect of colonialism.
Exploitation is still continuing today in the form of Neo-Colonialism, that  Dependency theory emphasis the need for self- reliance in capital
is the control of the economies of developing countries through; and technology.

 Trans National Corporations or Multi- National Companies THE WEAKNESSES /DISADVANTAGES OF DEPENDENCY
 International loans (the debt trap) THEORY
 Foreign Aid Control  It ignores the fact that the South lacks investment capital that
 International trade would make cutting links difficult.
 Dependency theory also ignores the fact that the developing
Dependency theorists argue that developing countries would be better off if countries would lose the benefits of international trade if it cuts
they break off economic relations with the developed countries and develop links with the Countries of the North.
on their own.  Producing for the local market may result in the inefficient use of
resources.
 It neglects the fact that most people in the South aspire to the
lifestyle of the people of the Countries of the North, and may

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 likely object when asked to stop importing products from SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Countries of the North.
 Most developing countries lack the capacity to develop the Define Sustainable Development:
industrial technology own their own.
Sustainable Development is the wise use of resources by the present
 Governments will face a lot of opposition if they stop importing generation to meet its needs without jeopardizing the ability of future
western goods, for example, television and cars. generations to meet their needs
 Some countries which have links with the Countries of the North
developed successfully without cutting links with the Countries of Sustainable Development is the wise use of resources by the present
the North, for example, Cuba and Tanzania. generation to meet its needs so that future generations could also meet their
needs.
THE WAYS IN WHICH DEVELOPING COUNTRIES CAN USE
THE DEPENDENCY THEORY TO DEVELOP. Sustainable Development was developed in the 1970’s as a response to the
damage to the environment by the developed countries, for example,
The way in which developing countries can use dependency theory to pollution, depletion of species and resources, soil erosion, desertification
develop is by breaking off all links with the West and become self - and rapidly rising global population. There was also concern with the
reliant. Developed countries can use dependency theory to develop by unequal sharing of the world’s resources, for example, 80% are consumed
avoid borrowing from outside but save and invest within the country. by the developed countries and 20% by developing countries. It calls for
The way in which developing countries can use dependency theory to both equitable sharing and the caring for the environment.
develop is by spending less on consumer goods. Developed countries can
use dependency theory to develop by using appropriate technology and POLICY IMPLICATIONS/ PRINCIPLES
make its own industries or encourage local inventions. The way in which
developing countries can use dependency theory to develop by - There should be conservation of the environment.
encouraging its people to exercise patience, work hard and shun
modern lifestyles. - Population growth should be stabilized, for example, contraceptive
use and family planning.

- World agreements on environmental issues should be set up.

- There should be equitable distribution of resources of the world.

- Use of appropriate technology to conserve resources and limit

pollution.

- Recycling and reuse to prevent depletion.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THESTRENGTHS/ ADVANTAGES OF SUSTAINABLE THEWAYS OF ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN
DEVELOPMENT THEORY A COUNTRY

 Sustainable Development encourages one to think about - Stock piling of minerals / preservation until prices in the world
conservation, which is a good thing. market has improved.

 It highlights the dangers facing the globe, such as pollution. - Introduction of Legislation / seasonal hunting / quotas / hunting
licenses / National Parks & Game Reserves / Anti-poaching laws
 Sustainable Development makes people aware that they have the to prevent extinction of natural resources.
common problems.
- Stabilising population growth e.g. planning for small families,
 Makes the world realize the need for cooperation in solving
birth control, practicing population control, giving incentives to
environmental problem.
 It alerts the world to the unfair distribution of the global resources. small families or penalize for large families

THE WEAKNESSES/ DISADVANTAGES OF SUSTAINABLE - Conservation measures; tree planting, recycling, re-use, reduce,
DEVELOPMENT THEORY refuse, clean-up, limited use of resources, good farming methods,
Wildlife Management Areas
 Sustainable development ignores the possibility of the discovery of
new sources of resources. - Education on resource use
 It dispels the possibility of a development of new technologies
which will help increase food supply, reduce pollution, and - Use of synthetic products
substitutes for minerals that pollute the environment, for example,
solar energy for wood and coal. - Finding alternative energy sources, for example, the use of solar
 Sustainable development neglects a possibility of people and energy instead of coal which causes air pollution.
government joining hands to find ways of equitable distribution of
resources.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 ALTERNATIVE STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPMENT POLICIES THAT WILL ALLOW WOMEN TO PARTICIPATE IN
DEVELOPMENT
GENDER DEVELOPMENT
- Giving women full access to credit capital.
There has been a realisation that women, despite being the majority
population, have been excluded from most areas such as: - Giving women property rights.

Political rights, there are few women in leadership positions. - Giving women access to education, for example, universal
Legal rights, no laws protecting women against oppression or education (compulsory and free).
abuse.
Access to education and training, most girls are uneducated - Affirmative action for women that is programmes that deliberately
because they are regarded as being less important. accelerates the promotion of women over men in education,
Accesses to property, most societies prohibit women from politics, business and the workplace.
owning property, for example, land and livestock.
- Promoting women’s organisations that fight for their rights, for
The unequal treatment at the work place, women are given low
example, Emang Basadi and Metlhaetsile.
paying jobs even if they have the same qualifications as men, for
example, managerial positions are held by men mostly. - Including gender studies in the school curriculum to remove
prejudice among the young population.
GENDER EQUALITY IN DEVELOPMENT
- Legislation, passing a law that gives equal rights to both men and
The move to include women in development started in the 1970’s and women.
1980’s as a result of the pressure from human and women’s rights groups.

There was a realisation that sidelining women and serious implications.

THE PROBLEMS OF SIDELINING WOMEN

- More than half of the human resources are underutilized.

- Large population families because women are ignorant of birth

control because of being illiterate.

- Poor health for families and consequently an unhealthy nation.

- Less skilled manpower.

- Fewer enterprises since women have less access to credit.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 GLOBALISATION THE WEAKNESSES/ DISADVANTAGES OF GLOBALISATION

Globalisation is a set of ideas that emphasis that all people of the world Globalisation may perpetuate domination of the world trade by the
should become once nation in order to bring democracy as a way of developed nations.
maintaining peace and stability. The regional blocks that already exist run against the concept of free trade.

Globalisation is the integration of the world’s economic, social and political THE DEVELOPMENT THAT SHOW THE GROWTH OF A
systems into one entity. It involves interaction and interdependence of all GLOBAL VILLAGE
the countries in the world- The Global village.
Globalisation came about after the collapse of the Communist bloc in the - The emergence of satellite and high-tech global information
1980’s. Capitalism became the dominant political and economic system. systems, for example, DSTV and internet.

POLICY IMPLICATIONS/ PRINCIPLES - Globalised patterns of consumerism, for example, consumer rights
movements.
- Organisations for economic cooperation for both developed and
developing nations must implement -mutually agreeable and - Growing appeal for a universalized wealthy ‘cosmopolitan life
style’.
sustainable policies to reinforce macro-economic structures.
- Nation’s participation in world sport such as Miss World and FIFA
- Infrastructure should be improved in developing countries. World Cup.

- Relative decline of the Soviet Block, and other blocks.

- There should be fostering of good governance and participatory - The growth of regional and international agencies and
democracy. organisations.

- Emergence of Human Rights Protection Organisations, for

example, Ditshwanelo.
- Policy makers in developing countries should facilitate the
dissemination and application of technological knowledge.

THE STRENGTHS/ ADVANTAGES OF GLOBALISATION

There will be emergence of more democratic system in the world.

More economic opportunities will be developed, especially for developing
countries.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE ELEMENTS/ CHARACTERISTICS OF GLOBALISATION THE GLOBALISATION CHALLENGES FOR AFRICA
 Education and training to produce competitive people who can
- Globalisation improves technology and production, for example, work anywhere in the world.
use of automated machines, information technology and  Regional integration and continental Union to enable African
technology transfers to the developing countries. economies to compete on the international market.
 Controlling the repatriation of profits by Trans-National
- Globalisation integrated global communication network, for
Corporations.
example, satellite, radio, television and radio networks, the internet
 Controlling the brain drain, for example, the flight of skilled and
and global media publication such as newspapers and magazines.
professional labour to the developed countries.
- Globalisations lead to trade liberation which is the removal of trade  Globalisation leads to shifting from primary production to
barriers to facilitate the free movement of goods and services secondary production.
across international boarders.  Globalisation leads to controlling the HIV/AIDS pandemic.
 Globalisation builds a stable political climate in order to be able to
- Globalisation leads to the rise of Trans-National Corporations, attract investment.
Global business empires with subsidiaries all over. They are far  Changing the African mindset from consumerism to saving,
much more powerful economically than national governments. investment and production.
 Respect for human rights and upholding their dignity and pride.
- Globalisation caused decline of sovereign state, independent nation
states will cease to exist and to be replaced by regional and
Describe the challenges faced by Africa/ the countries of the South as a
international economic groupings, for example, European Union. result of globalisation
THE PROBLEM CREATED BY GLOBALISATION The challenge faced by the countries of the South as a result of globalisation is that
- Increase in poverty and inequalities between the developed and of development of international crime syndicates or terrorism. The countries of
developing countries. the South are faced with the challenge of increase of brain drain as a result of
globalisation because most of skilled people in developed countries prefer working
- Globalisation leads to concentration of capital and wealth in the in developed countries. The challenge faced by the countries of the South as a result
of globalisation is that of the dominance or control of the economy by the Multi-
developed countries. National Companies taking profit away to their countries of origin. The
countries of the South are faced with the challenge of lack of funds to educate and
- It lead to emergence of Trans-National Corporations that are train people to compete for jobs locally or have high illiteracy rate. The
difficult to control and monitor. challenge faced by the countries of the South as a result of globalisation is that of
HIV and AIDS killing their skilled manpower. The countries of the South are
- Globalisation caused marginalization of the developed countries faced with the challenge of having weak economies which fail to compete in a
globalised world because of dependence on exporting raw materials instead of
from the global village because they lack capital, technology, skills finished goods. The countries of the South are faced with the challenge of loss of
and have weak economies that are unable to compete. sovereignty as a result of globalisation. The challenge faced by the countries of the
South as a result of globalisation is that of loss of culture. The challenge faced by
- Globalisation cause environmental degradation by Trans-National the countries of the South as a result of globalisation is that of difficult to accept
Corporation. change.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Suggest ways through which globalisation encourages development of CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
all countries.
The way through which globalisation encourages development of all 1. Define Sustainable Development:
countries is by transfer of technology from developed countries to less 2. Discuss three ways of achieving sustainable development in a country.
developed countries, for example, automated machines. /Improvement of 3. Define the modernisation theory
technology/ from simple technology to complex technology, for example 4. Describe any three stages of the modernisation theory
automated machines. The way by which globalisation is used to develop the
world is through introduction of global communication networks, for Pollution has proved to be a global problem and an obstacle against sustainable
development.
example, internet and televisions. The way through which globalisation
encourages development is by trade liberalisation or promotes foreign
5. What is pollution?
exchange. The way by which globalisation is used to develop the world is
6. State three sources of air pollution
through international policing/ Interpol/ peaceful interventions. The way
7. Describe three ways by which air pollution can be prevented
through which globalisation encourages development is by increase of
Trans-National Companies. The way by which globalisation is used to Land pollution is also an obstacle towards sustainable development.
develop the world is through formation of regional and international
groupings such as European Union and African Union. The way by which 8. Define land pollution
globalisation is used to develop the world is through the promotion of 9. Give three causes land pollution
democracy. The way by which globalisation is used to develop the world is 10. Describe three ways by which land pollution can be controlled
through the free movement of labour. The way by which globalisation is 11. What is sustainable development theory?
used to develop the world is through the encouragement of investment or 12. State three policy implications of the sustainable development theory
saving. 13. Define the modernisation theory
POPULISM 14. Define dependency theory

Populism is a set of ideas that emphasizes that people should be agents of 15. Study Fig. 1, which shows some theories of development.
their own development.
They should deal with their problems on an individual level.They should
deal with their problems via local non-governmental and voluntary
organisations.
The theory recognizes three sets of problems as obstructing human
development:
 Concentration of power within government bureaucracies and
large private sector firms and organisation.
 The tendency to evoke narrow economic and technical criteria and
procedures as a basis for their decisions and general operations.
 Exclusive mechanisms working through the state and the market
marginalize the vast majority of poor people from political and
economic life.
Populism also opposes large –scale industrialisation and, instead, supports
smaller scale and community-oriented ventures in industry and agriculture. Fig.1

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 MODULE 2: PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND INVESTMENT
(a)(i) Describe the stages of the Modernisation theory.
TOPIC GENERAL SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
(ii) Describe the benefits to the people of a country where modernisation has taken OBJECTIVES
place. Learners should be able Learners should be able to:
to:
(b)(i) Describe the factors that slow down development in the developing countries. Production Explain the concept and - Explain the concept of production;
the process of - Discuss the need for production
production including basic needs, needs, wants
(ii) Explain how social indicators are used to measure development.
(material and non-material), choice,
scarcity and opportunity costs;
16. Study Fig. 6, which shows the division of the world into countries of the North - Discuss production in hunting and
and countries of the South. gathering societies;
- Identify and define the factors of
production;
- Discuss land ownership and
problems related to utilisation and
ownership;
- Explain the various forms of capital
such as finance, machinery and
technology;
- Discuss ways of raising capital;
- Discuss labour and capital intensive
modes of production
- Discuss the determinant factors for
appropriate technology;
- Evaluate progress in the
development of relevant technology
in Botswana including efforts by
Rural Industries Innovation Centre
and Botswana Technology Centre;
- Discuss specialisation and division
of labour;
Fig.6 - Describe different types of labour
including specialised, skilled, semi-
skilled and unskilled;
(a)(i) Describe the geographical locations of the countries of the South.
- Discuss conditions which either or
promote labour efficiency;
(ii) Describe the economic characteristics of the countries of the North. - Assess how far local conditions
facilitate or militate against labour
(b)(i) Describe the challenges faced by the countries of the South as a result of efficiency;
globalisation. - Explain entrepreneurship;
- Describe the role played by an
(ii) Suggest ways through which globalisation encourages development of all entrepreneur in the process of
production;
countries.
- Discuss economic production
systems;
- Suggest and justify an alternative
production system for Botswana’s
economy.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Enterprise Demonstrate an - Explain enterprise; Goods are physical products that can be seen or touched, for example,
understanding of the - Discuss the characteristics of sole bread, sugar, books and furniture.
role of enterprise in the proprietors, private companies,
process of production. parastatals, joint venture,
partnerships and co-operatives; Services are non-tangible activities that meet people’s needs and wants
- Discuss privatisation of parastatals, (intangible or invisible). For example:
citizen empowerment, localisation,
women and property ownership
 Trading which is buying and selling of goods.
strategies for development;  Teaching which is imparting of knowledge to children by
- Evaluate the role and development teachers.
of the primary, secondary, tertiary  Nursing which is medical care given to ill people at hospitals by
and quaternary sectors of
production in developing countries health workers.
with specific reference to  Insurance is the industry that protects society and businesses from
Botswana. unforeseen risks.
Consumption Develop an - Explain consumption;
and investment understanding and - Describe the relationship between
 Transportation is the carrying of people, goods and services.
appreciate consumption consumption and production,
and investment in supply and demand, consumption, THE NEED FOR PRODUCTION
Botswana savings and investment;
- Discuss the benefits and risks of
investment;
In order to develop we have to satisfy our basic needs and wants to start the
- Discuss foreign reserves as a form process of economic growth.
of investment; To satisfy our needs and wants, we produce and exchange goods.
- Evaluate the promotion of a culture
of investment in Botswana’s
economy.
Development emphasizes satisfaction of people’s needs and the production
process ensures that goods and services are made to satisfy basic needs first
PRODUCTION and wants later.

- Production is a process whereby natural resources are transformed or Development requires money for it to take place and this money is
changed into more useful goods/commodities to satisfy human needs generated by production activities such as mining, industry and agriculture.
and wants.
Production creates wealth to fuel the development process.
- Production is any economic activity that satisfies human needs and
wants The higher the level of production the higher the level of development

- Production is any process whereby natural resources and human

effort are used to provide goods and services to satisfy human needs
and wants.

- Production is the making of goods and provision of services in order

to satisfy human needs and wants.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 NEEDS SCARCITY, CHOICE AND OPPORTUNITY COST

Needs are items that are essential for human beings to survive. SCARCITY
Needs are items without which human beings will be unable to survive. In order for production to occur resources have to be used.
They can be divided into material and non-material needs. Resources can be in any of the following forms.

MATERIAL NEEDS  Human resources which is knowledge, expertise and skills

provided by people.
Material needs are tangible, for example, they can be seen or touched.  Economic resources which is capital in the form of machines and
They are usually referred to as basic needs. finance (money).
 Natural resources which are items provided by nature that people
They are four basic or material needs: can utilize for their own good, for example, soil, water, vegetation
and minerals.
(a) Food which is essential for providing energy.
(b) Clothes which are important for providing warmth. - People’s needs and wants are unlimited (infinite). Therefore if
(c) Shelter provides protection from harsh weather conditions, for resources were in abundance people would produce more goods
example, cold, sun and winds. and services to satisfy their needs and wants.
(d) Clean and safe water which is important for excretion of waste
from the body or prevention of diseases. - Resources are, however, limited (finite) and insufficient to satisfy
all people’s needs and wants.
NON-MATERIAL NEEDS
- The inadequacy of resources is what is called scarcity. This
Non-material needs are services that we require for survival, they are means that some people in a society will be able to meet their basic
intangible and invisible. For example, love, security, education, health care needs and wants and enjoy high standards of living while others
and human rights. will remain poor.
WANTS
- Scarcity of resources differs from society to society since this is
Wants are items that make human lives easier and more comfortable. dependent on the level of development, for example:
Wants are inessential for human survival that man can do without them.
Human societies only produce wants after meeting their basic needs. (a) Simple traditional societies: People mostly concerned with
Societies have to produce surplus for it to be able to have wants, for acquiring basic needs hence low levels of scarcity, for example
example, if excess food is produced it can be exchanged for jewellery. Basarwa become satisfied once they have killed an animal for their
food.
Examples of wants
(i) Non-material wants, entertainment, banking and electricity. (b) Modern societies: they have higher level of scarcity since they
have many and diverse needs and wants which are difficult to fully
(ii) Material wants, jewellery, expensive/flashy clothes, satisfy. For example, after a person meets the basic needs there are
mansion/big house, cars and furniture. so many luxuries that one desires which are usually difficult to
satisfy, for example, car, furniture and holiday.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 CHOICE PRODUCTION IN HUNTING AND GATHERING SOCIETIES

- Given the scarcity or insufficiency of resources, people are unable  Hunting and gathering societies are the earliest forms of human
to have all things they desire. People are, therefore, forced to societies.
choose what to spend the available resources on. For example,  They depended on products of the local environment that is the
people have to decide on whether to spend on needs or wants if wild animals, vegetation and water.
their income is limited.  They hunted wild animals, collected insects and gathered wild
- A country or the government also has to make similar choices on plants and fruits. For example, the Basarwa of the Kgalagadi
how to best use the limited resources. For example, whether to desert.
spend money on industrial development or social development, for
example, education and health; use land for agriculture or wildlife  Hunter –gatherers are nomadic or wanderers, that is, they move
conservation; education or military expenditure. from place to place without any permanent homes.
- All these choices, made by people and government, will affect the
way in which a country uses its resources and therefore they will Production Activities:
determine what is produced.  Gathering was done mostly by women and children. Gather water
bearing plants like the tsama melon and makatane, nuts fruits,
OPPORTUNITY COSTS edible roots and tubers and morama beans.
 Whenever resources are committed to the production of one item,  Hunting was done mostly by men. Hunting big and small game, for
then the society must forego the outputs of other items that could example, eland, kudu, hares, and duiker and so on. They used
have been produced but have been forfeited or sacrificed because simple weapons like bows and poisoned arrows, clubs. They also
of the choice made. used traps, for example, pit traps and snares. Mostly hunted as
 This means opportunity cost is the act of choosing one item over individuals or in groups or communal hunting.
the other as a result of scarcity of resources. For example:
 Animal products: meat for food; skins for clothing; bones to make
(i) If a student chooses to use his/her own free time to study for tools, for example, knives; bladders used to make containers.
an examination, he/she sacrifices watching television and Labour:
other forms of entertainment. The entertainment is sacrificed
in order to study and obtain a good grade.  Labour is provided by clan members in the group.
(ii) If a country chooses to use more money on buying weapons  Division of labour was done according to gender, for example,
then other services are neglected. men hunted while women gathered.
 The work was mostly devoted to production to basic needs. No
The importance of opportunity cost luxuries or surplus.
 It helps people to make the right choices or decisions as it helps Land:
them to focus on the real or true cost using resources.  The land is communally owned by the group.
 For example, production may mean loss of a clean environment if
it causes pollution like at Selibe-Phikwe. So the loss of a clean  They had specific hunting territories.
environment is part of the cost of production that may be ignored if
the opportunity cost of production is neglected.  All resources belonged to the group.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Capital: FACTORS OF PRODUCTION

 They owned little capital because they were unable to produce There are four factors of production namely, Land, Labour, Capital and
surplus. Entrepreneurship.

 Possessions consisted of weapons, clothes and containers.

 Shelter was temporary because of a nomadic lifestyle.

Entrepreneurship:

 They used knowledge handed down from generation to generation,

for example, hunting skills; poison from plants and animals;
animal behaviour and tracking.

 Low level of production because of simple technology and

dependence on basic need

THE CHANGES IN THE LIFESTYLE OF HUNTING AND GATHERING

SOCIETIES IN BOTSWANA –i.e The Basarwa

The Basarwa are now abandoning the nomadic and hunting and gathering
way of life for a more settled life because of a number of factors;

 Provision of water by government, for example, boreholes.

 Encroachment of pastoral farming into wildlife areas.
 Overgrazing that has depleted edible plants.
 Construction of cordon fences that has disrupted migratory routes
of wild animals.
 Increased population that has reduced the land available for a
nomadic life.
 Government resettlement programmes like Remote Areas Dwellers
(R.A.D)
 Increasing levels of education amongst the Basarwa.
 Anti-poaching laws that prevent Basarwa from hunting.

Fig.1

- Each of the factors has to be present if production is to take place.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 FACTORS OF PRODUCTION (DEFINED)
LAND OWNERSHIP
- Land: refers to the whole of the earth’s surface together with all
natural resources found on it  Land or natural resources are owned or controlled in some way.
 Ownership and control of land resources is paramount in
- Labour: refers to the human effort, both physical and mental, that is production because it determines who produces and become
directed towards the production of goods and provision of services or wealthy.
work done by people to produce goods and services  Land owners are usually rich while the landless are poor.

- Capital: refers to the things people use to produce goods and provide TYPES OF LAND OWNERSHIP/TENURE
services , for example, tools, machinery, factories and money saved
up and used to buy such things
- Enterprise: The organization or management of land, labour and
capital in the production process with the intention of making profit.

THE WAYS BY WHICH ONE OF THE FACTORS OF PRODUCTION CAN AFFECT

THE PRODUCTION PROCESS

Land:

- If land is unfertile crop production will be low or poor pasture for Fig.2
livestock (a)Public/State ownership is when the land belongs to the government.
- If there is shortage of water there will be poor harvest or poor pasture
for livestock  Private ownership and selling or buying of land is prohibited.
- There has to be land to start a production process  It can be leased out to individuals or companies for specific period
of time.
Capital:  In communist countries like China, the land used to be all owned
by the state, and individuals had the right to use it.
- Capital / money is needed to pay workers
- Capital is needed to buy machinery & tools Advantages Disadvantages
- We need capital goods to start a production process - Land can be used as a security to - Only the rich can own land.
obtain loans. - Landlessness and poverty
Labour: - Can be sold to raise capital. among the poor.
- Land carefully looked after by the - May lead to land speculation,
- There is need for workers to provide labour in the production owner. for example, people buying
process - Anybody can buy land as long as up large tracts of land in order
- The labour has to be trained & motivated to be efficient / productive he or she has the money. to sell it for a profit in future.
- The labour needs to be managed and/or coordinated for optimum  In other countries, parts of the land are owned by the government
production in countries like Botswana and South Africa, for example, National
Parks and Game Reserves, mining concessions.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

(b)Communal ownership is when land belongs to the whole community, (e) Leasehold land ownership is when land owners rent out their land
usually the tribe or ethnic group. out to tenants for a fee.

 Everyone in society has access to land. - Tenants use the land for commercial production.
 The chief has the power to share out the land to individuals. In - The landowners are referred to as absentee landlords.
Botswana it is the responsibility of the Land Board.
 Grazing lands are communally used. Advantages
- Land used productively because the tenant has to pay rentals.
The Advantages of communal The Disadvantages of communal land
land Disadvantages
- Everyone in society has - Land degradation may occur as no - Rent has to be paid whether there has been production or not.
access to land one takes responsibility for looking - The tenant is unable to use it to raise capital.
- The land is free after it, for example, deforestation, - The tenant can misuse land.
- Land is allocated fairly soil erosion.
because no one is - Having title deeds is prohibited. The people who rent land are often poor and do not have enough cash to
allowed to grab land. - The user is unable to use itpay as rent. So instead of paying with money they pay the landowner with a
collateral to obtain loans. share of their crops. We call this sharecropping.
- Women are denied ownership of land
in some traditional societies. THE LANDLESSNESS

(c) Collective Ownership is when land is owned and worked by the  People are said to be landless when they are unable to have access
community as a unit. to the land at all.

 They combine their capital and labour and share the profits  Landless people are unable to produce or fend for themselves
equally. leading to poverty.
 Found mostly in Socialist or Communist countries, for example,
Russia and Ujamaa villages in Tanzania in the 1970’s.  Landless is caused by:

(d)Private Ownership (Freehold) is when land is owned and controlled by

individuals or companies. (i) People being too poor to buy their own land.

 The land has title deeds or certificate of ownership. (ii) Inadequate or limited land for existing population.
 Land is a commodity that can be bought or sold, for example, land
has value attached to it.
 Land is productively used, for example, commercial farming, and (iii) Unfair distribution of land.
mining.
 Common in Capitalist economies.
(iv) Rapid population growth.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 CAPITAL The Ways of Raising Capital for production
Capital is a man-made resource.
Capital for investment can be raised in the following ways:
Capital is the money, machinery technology and buildings that is used to
produce goods. 1. Saving is abstaining from consumption and putting the money in
the bank to earn interest.
Capital is in two forms 2. Borrowing from the banks and financial institutions.
(i) Money capital 3. International loans from other countries, the World Bank and
International Monetary Fund.
(ii) Capital goods, for example, machinery or technology 4. Investment is putting money into a business with the hope of
earning profit.
5. Shares are putting money in the business to get a certain
Money Capital percentage of profit made. (Buying or selling of shares)
6. Selling personal assets
 Money capital is also known as finance. 7. Investing in insurance policies
8. Loans and overdrafts
 This is the money that is used to increase production, that is, it is 9. Leasing / rentals
used in ways that will help to earn more money. 10. Higher purchase
11. Commercial activities (formal and informal)

 Money capital can be used in the following ways: The importance of capital in production

- Money is used in infrastructural development

(a) Buying capital goods that will increase production hence earn
more money. - Money buy equipment

(b) Investment: saving it in a bank so that one can earn interest. - Money is used to buy raw materials

Capital Goods - Money is used to pay workers

Capital goods are tools, equipment or machinery that are used to make other - Money used to pay utilities such as water and electricity bills
goods, for example, factory machines, roads, building and vehicles.
- Equipment is used to transform or change raw materials into semi-
It is also known as fixed capital because they remain unchanged during
finished and finished goods
production.
- Buildings house the machines/products

- Cars are used for transportation

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS TECHNOLOGY

Section A Technology is the combination of tools, skills and machinery a society

1. Define production. employs to produce goods and services.
2. Describe any three factors of production
3. What are capital goods? Technology is dynamic, that is, it is always changing.For example:
4. Describe three ways of raising capital.
5. Describe the importance of capital in production.  Primitive societies such as hunter-gatherers used simple tools
6. Define private land ownership. made from bones and wood. Production was very low.
7. Give three advantage of private land ownership
Section B  Agriculture societies used better tools made from iron, for
example, hoes, axes and spears.
1. Study Fig. 1 which shows different types of land ownership.
 Modern societies use complex technology such as machines,
computers, motor vehicles. Production is very high.

TYPES OF TECHNOLOGY

There are three types: simple, intermediate and complex.

Fig.1

(a)(i) Describe each type of land ownership shown in Fig. 1.

(ii)Suggest problems that people might face when they own land Fig.3
communally. (a)Simple Technology is the use of hand tools to produce goods, for
example, hoes for weeding and knives for cutting.
(b)(i) Describe the use of any three factors of production in a hunting and
gathering society.  It demands a lot of manual labour.

(ii)Suggest reasons why hunting and gathering is practised by very few  It is mostly used by traditional societies, for example, subsistence
societies. farmers.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Advantages of Simple Technology Disadvantages of Simple It creates employment because it is It produces lower quantities of
Technology labour intensive. goods.
 Simple technology is cheap  Simple technology is very
to buy and use. slow method of production.
(c)Complex technology is the use of big and sophisticated machines for
 It uses unskilled labour.  Poor quality goods are production.
produced.
 The tools can be made at  Machines are power driven, for example, electricity and fuel.
home.  Simple technology leads to
low productivity.  Some machines are automatic.
 Simple technology creates a
lot of employment  Simple technology is  For example, Automatic Teller Machines, factory machines,
opportunities. strenuous, for example, computers and telephone.
tiresome and back-breaking
work.  It requires education and training.

Advantages of intermediate Disadvantages of intermediate

(b)Intermediate Technology is the use of simple machines to produce Technology Technology
goods and services. For example: - It creates employment - It expensive to buy and maintain.
- Sewing machines
in factories. - Have to import spares at great
- Animal drawn ploughs and carts - Complex technology costs.
produces high quality - Increases dependency on
- Windmill water pumps goods. Developed countries.
- Cement blocks machines - It is very fast and - It causes damage to the
efficient because of use environment, for example,
- It can be used both at home and in industry. of machinery. pollution.
- There is mass - It can lead to unemployment
- It can be used by both semi-skilled and unskilled labour. production of goods. because of the use of automatic
Advantages of intermediate Disadvantages of intermediate - It produces cheaper or machines
Technology Technology affordable goods.
It is relatively faster means of It is strenuous to use because it
production than simple technology. needs a lot of human effort.

It is cheaper. It leads to low productivity.

It is easy to use and maintain. Slows method of production as

compared to complex technology.
It produces good quality goods.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY THE ADVANTAGES OF APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY

Appropriate technology refers to tools, skills and machines that are best  Create employment
suited for particular conditions in society.
 Makes use of local resources
 It depends on the level of development of the society.
 Cheap to buy and maintain
 For example, a subsistence farmer will use ox-drawn ploughs, carts
and hoes because he can afford and maintain them than complex  Produces relevant goods and services
machinery.
 Promotes local development
 In developed countries a tractor is appropriate for the farmer
because they have the capital, big farms and the skills to make and DEVELOPMENT OF APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY IN
maintain them. BOTSWANA
THE FACTORS THAT DETERMINE APPROPRIATE Botswana is one of the developing countries that recognise and appreciate
TECHNOLOGY the importance of the use of appropriate technology for development this is
- Levels of development, developed societies tend to concentrate on indicated by efforts undertaken by the Botswana Technology Centre
complex technology while developing societies concentrate on (BOTEC), Rural Industries Promotion Company (RIPCO) and Rural
simple and intermediate technology. Industries Innovation Centre (RIIC).

- Education and skills, complex technology needs highly educated The primary aim of these organisations is to assist the people of Botswana
and skilled people to operate and maintain while simple to identify appropriate technology choices for development. They create and
technology and intermediate technology need less skills and promote technologies that are best suited or appropriate to conditions
particularly to rural areas in Botswana.
education.
The following are examples of the technologies invented and adapted by
- Capital/Cost/Affordability, complex technology is expensive to
BOTEC and RIIC in their effort to encourage appropriate technologies in
buy and maintain therefore only the rich countries can afford it. Botswana.
Developing countries are poor hence can only afford to use simple
and intermediate technology.  Solar Cooker/Bakers: The solar cookers are developed by RIIC
and they operate by converting the sun’s energy into electricity.
- Employment creation, developing countries like Botswana have The technology is appropriate for Botswana because Botswana has
high unemployment levels hence need simple and intermediate plentiful supply of the sun and therefore the technology is cheap,
technology that are labour intensive. Complex technology would easy to use and repair. It also assist Batswana to reduce
be inappropriate as it would lead to high rates of unemployment. dependence on the already disappearing firewood which leads to
deforestation and other environment impacts like soil erosion and
- Environmental risks, for example, simple technology causes less
land degradation.
pollution while complex technology causes pollution.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

  Rural electrification: Photovoltaic Power Station at THE MODES/METHODS OF PRODUCTION
Motshegaletau Power Station is another example of how the sun
can be used to generate electricity that is cheaper and affordable by
the rural people in Botswana. It uses solar panels to convert
sunshine into electricity.
 Solar Aid: BOTEC has converted a solar aid for the hearing
impaired people. It combines solar and hearing aid technologies to
make solar rechargeable hearing aid that never needs replacement
batteries.
 Water tanks: RIIC has also designed water tanks which are used
for rain harvesting. This is an appropriate technology for drought
prone Botswana with unreliable rainfall.
 Animal Drawn Ploughs: RIIC has designed animal drawn pumps
that do not require fuel in order to run. They suitable for rural areas
with a problem of water and are cheaper and easier to use.
Fig.4
 Farming implements; RIIC has developed farming implements
such as ploughs and planters that are simple, cheap and easy to use (a) Labour Intensive Production relies heavily on the use of simple
and are thus appropriate for local subsistence farmers who lack technology and manual labour.
capital and modern skills.
What is labour intensive production?
Other examples include technologies such as the Basic windmill developed
by RIIC to pump water and generate electricity. Sorghum grinding and - Labour intensive is a way/process of making goods and providing
threshing machines and the rim oven. The rim oven is another inventions by services which relies heavily on the use of human manual effort.
RIIC made from two trucks rims welded together. It stands on three legs
 Mainly uses unskilled labour.
and has a hinged steel door. It uses firewood and can bake a batch of nine
loaves in an hour. It is appropriate for rural dwellers.
 Example, cutting grass using slashers, transporting sand with
All the above appropriate technologies indicated to us that Botswana is
wheelbarrows, digging trenches with picks and shovels.
making efforts in trying to encourage Batswana to use appropriate
technology for development.

We should then commend the department such as RIIC and BOTEC for
these good efforts because Batswana have less money and skills to use the
expensive and complicated technologies.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Advantages of labour intensive disadvantages of labour intensive Advantages of capital intensive disadvantages of capital intensive
production production production production
- In Labour intensive production, little - Labour intensive may lead to poor - Greater opportunity to use machinery - Causes pollution to the
capital is needed because of the use quality work and products because / quick and efficient method of environment because of the use
of simple technology. of the use of simple technology and production of advanced technology.
unskilled labour.
- It creates employment to a large - Production of quality goods - Lead to high unemployment rate
number of people - It is the slow method of production
it relies heavily on human manual because the advanced
- It is cheap to run and maintain / little - Mass production makes goods technology requires only few
effort.
capital required since simple cheaper people to operate.
technology used - It leads to low level of production
because of the use of simple - Acquire skills of operating machines - Lead to loss of craftsmanship.
- It provides with an opportunity to technology. / helps with skills development /
train on the job creates a lot of skilled manpower - It is expensive to buy and
- It makes people tired because the maintain.
- It causes less pollution or destruction work is strenuous. - Work is made lighter and more
of the environment
enjoyable because of the use of - It requires skilled manpower.
- It requires little skills to enter or run machinery

- It promotes human interaction

- It encourages craftsmanship
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
- It uses local skills & knowledge
-Information technology is a way of disseminating data using computers

THE WAYS BY WHICH INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY CAN ENHANCE THE

(c) capital-intensive production is a process of making goods and DEVELOPMENT OF BOTSWANA:
providing services which relies heavily on the use of machinery - Stores a lot of data which otherwise could be lost by traditional
and money/finance record keeping / easier storage of complex information

 Capital-intensive production is the use of advanced or complex - It is easy to transfer information from one source to another
machines to speed up production.
- It can be used to project future development trends in Botswana
 For example, using a mechanical digger to dig a trench, vehicles to
transport goods. - It links Botswana with other countries & therefore good for
 It needs trained or skilled people to operate and maintain the marketing the country
technology.
- Global communications

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Fast trade arrangements / electronic payments - Lack of supportive infrastructure e.g. electricity

- Dissemination of information CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

- Increased productivity / mass production / saves time Section A

- Improvement of technology 1. What is technology?

- Development of infrastructure to suit the technology 2. Describe three major types of technology, giving examples to
illustrate your answers.
- Draw behaviour patterns / project future trends
3. What is appropriate technology?
THE DISADVANTAGES OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
4. Describe three factors determining appropriate technology.
- Very costly to acquire / costly to maintain

- Reduces craftsmanship 5. What is information technology?

- Enslaves the mind 6. Describe three ways by which information technology can
- Requires complex skills/training/reliance on foreign expertise enhance development of Botswana.

THE REASONS WHY IS IT DIFFICULT TO INTRODUCE INFORMATION 7. Suggest three disadvantages of information technology.
TECHNOLOGY IN BOTSWANA
- Few people are computer literate 8. Why it is difficult to introduce information technology in
Botswana.
- Computers are too expensive for the general public to afford
9. What is labour intensive production?
- Computer specialists who can maintain the IT systems are few and
very expensive to hire so sustaining the IT system is not guaranteed
10. Give three advantages of labour intensive production.
- Issues of security of information may discourage some people to
11. What is capita-intensive production?
acquire IT resources

- There is a tendency for people to fear introduction of machines such 12. Describe three advantages of capital-intensive production.
as computers so they may prefer to use old traditional ways of doing
things / conservative / rigidity / fear of the unknown

- Existing levels of production are too low to encourage use of

computers

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Section B 2. Fig. 2 shows some inputs required to make goods in a factory. Use it
to answer questions (a)(i) and (ii).
1. Fig. 1 below shows two different modes of production. Use it to
answer questions (a) and (b).

(a)(i) Identify one factor of production from Fig.2.

(ii) Name one item of capital shown in Fig.2.
(b) Give two disadvantages of capital intensive production to a developing
country.
(c) Describe three major types of technology, giving examples to illustrate

(a)(i) Which diagram, A or B, shows labour intensive production? your answers.

(d) Suggest three ways of raise capital for production.
(ii) Which mode of production, A or B, is suitable for large scale
production?
3. Study Fig. 3 which is an extract about Rural Industries Innovation
Centre (RIIC)
(b) Give two characteristics of the type of production shown by diagram B.
Located in Kanye, in the Southern District of Botswana, Rural Industries
(c) Give three advantages of a capital intensive mode of production. Innovation Centre (RIIC) is the national appropriate technology development and
dissemination centre in Botswana. It undertakes new and renewable energy
activities with projects in solar cooking and pumping, biogas, energy
management, and solar cold room.
Source: RIIC’s website http:// www.ripco.co.bw
Fig.3

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

(a)(i) Describe factors which might make solar energy appropriate for LABOUR
Botswana.
Labour is human effort that is directed at the production of goods and
(ii)Suggest problems that the Rural Industries Centre might face in their services, for example, both physical and mental.
effort to disseminate new developments.
Man is central to production because it is he who initiates production and is
also the consumer.
TYPES OF LABOUR
(b)(i) Describe the importance of Information Technology (IT) in the
development of Botswana. (a) Specialised Labour are people who are experts or highly skilled
people.
(ii)Suggest factors that might slow down the introduction of Information
Technology (IT) in Botswana schools. - They have high education levels.
- They have spent long time training.
- They are paid high wages and salaries.
4. Study an extract on availability of the internet in schools in - Also known as professionals, for example, engineers, doctors,
teachers, nurses and lawyers.
Botswana.
The World Economic Forum reports that on internet access in schools, Botswana (b) Skilled Labour are people who are highly trained in practical
is at position number 92 out of 144 countries. Internet access is an important part
work related to production, for example, artisans.
 They know how to design and make items.
of Information Technology (IT) and Computer Education.  They are highly trained and paid.
Fig.4  Examples, surveyors, electricians, auto mechanics, fitters and
turners.
(a)(i) Describe ways in which Information Technology (IT) is introduced in  They are given technical qualifications, for example, City Guilds
Botswana. and Crafts, Higher National Diplomas.
(ii)Suggest reasons why Botswana’s position in internet access in schools is © Semi-Skilled Labour are people who are trained on-the-job for specific
low. tasks.
- Mostly found in industry.
- They usually have no paper qualifications but gain enough
experience to perform the job proficiently.
- For example a spanner boy who eventually become a fully-fledged
mechanic.

(c) Unskilled Labour are workers who have no training at all.

 Mostly used as manual labourers, for example, farm workers,

cleaners and garden boys.
 They are paid low wages that is the minimum wages.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Advantages of Division and Disadvantages of Division and
SPECIALISATION OF LABOUR specialisation of labour specialisation of labour
 Work can be done faster and  Doing the same job repeatedly
Specialisation of labour is the concentration of people on one job that they perfectly because the worker leads to boredom.
are trained in, for example, teaching, engineering and nursing. perform only one task.  Workers lose the initiative to
 Little time is wasted moving exercise judgement and
It can be divided into three levels, for example, individual, regional and from one task to the other. responsibility.
national specialisation.  There is a chance of exploring  Increased risk of unemployment
people’s potential. because of the greater use of
(a) Individual Specialisation is when a person concentrates in one
 It is cheaper and time saving to machinery.
activity only, for example, a doctor may specialise on teeth train in one particular job.  Loss of craftsmanship because of
problems (dentist)
 Quality goods and services are the increased use of machinery.
produced because of use of  Increased dependency easily leads
(b) Regional Specialisation is whereby people in an area are engaged
advanced technology. to disruption of production, for
in the production of a particular commodity or service due to
geographical conditions, specific skills, or resource availability, for  There is higher productivity example, if one worker is absent.
example, copper nickel in Selibe-Phikwe, Basketry in the North because of the use of machinery.  Concentration on one task makes it
West.  Increases worker’s proficiency difficult for one to acquire other
because of constant repetition. skills.
(c) National Specialisation is whereby different countries specialise  Creates a lot of employment
in producing certain commodities which they have comparative opportunities, for example,
advantage, for example, Botswana specialises in Beef and teaching.
diamonds because of physical conditions, Lesotho specialises in
wool, Malawi-fishing, Zambia-copper. THE CONDITIONS THAT PROMOTE EFFICIENCY OF LABOUR/
LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY
Efficiency of labour is the ability of workers to be highly productive.
DIVISION OF LABOUR
THE FACTORS THAT PROMOTE EFFICIENCY OF LABOUR ARE:
What is division of labour?
 Education and training, the higher the level of training and
- Division of labour breaking down of work into small parts so that education the higher the level of productivity.
each worker takes a part.  Customs and attitudes of the people, some cultures encourage
hard work, for example, Japanese and Chinese culture.
- Division of labour is when work is shared out in different parts  Technology, if workers use simple technology then productivity
between different people will be lower. Workers who use advanced technology will be more
productive.
- Division of labour is the breaking down of the production process so  Working conditions, good working conditions ensure high
that it may be based on gender or age or training productivity, for example, good ventilation, lighting, safety and
working hours.
 Worker welfare, workers must have peace of mind for them to be
productive at work. This can be done by giving workers medical

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 aid, pension schemes, funeral assistance, social and entertainment  Poor or low level of technology, most of the work in Botswana is
facilities and housing. done manually and slowly, for example, agriculture and
 Motivation, workers can be encouraged to work harder by being construction.
offered incentives such as higher wages, bonuses, participation in  Poor working conditions such as low wages, long working hours,
decision making. poor safety, and unavailability of pension schemes for some
private sector employees.
HOW CONDITIONS IN BOTSWANA FACILITATE THE EFFIENCY OF LABOUR  Culture works against the efficiency of labour in the following
ways; the extended family that places a huge burden on the worker
 Education, there is free education for all to improve knowledge. making them less focused at work. Lack of assertiveness, for
 Training, at university and other tertiary institutions to improve example, going the extra mile.
the skills.
 Labour laws that protects the workers from exploitation, for CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
example, minimum wage and working hours.
 Pension schemes or social security, for both government and Section A
private sector workers.
 The acquisition of modern technology such as complex 1. Define labour
machines, computers that help to raise productivity.
 Improvement of infrastructure, to improve the movement of 2. Describe any three forms of specialization of labour.
goods and provision of services.
 Better housing for workers, for example, institutional housing, 3. What is division of labour?
like teachers houses, Botswana Housing Corporation houses and
SHAA Programme. 4. Explain any three types of labour
 Provision of health facilities such as clinics, health post, hospitals
and so on for a healthy and productive population. 5. What is specialisation of labour
 Access to resources such as energy sources.
6. Give three advantages of specialisation of labour
THE CONDITIONS THAT MILITATE AGAINST THE EFFICIENCY OF
LABOUR IN BOTSWANA 7. Describe three disadvantages of division of labour.
 Lacks of skills, most of the people are unskilled without formal
training. 8. Define labour efficiency
 Poor health mainly because of HIV/AIDS that makes workers
weak and unproductive. 9. Give three reasons for high labour efficiency in developed
 Poor infrastructure, for example, narrow roads that make traffic countries.
move slowly; single rail, poor telephone coverage.
 Poor education system produces people that are unprepared to 10. Describe three factors that promote labour efficiency in Botswana.
join the job market
 Poor work ethics such as late coming, lack of discipline, 11. Give three conditions that hinder labour efficiency in Botswana.
absenteeism and misuse of telephones.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Section B ENTREPRENEURSHIP

1.Study Fig. 1, which shows an assembly line in a car factory, and use it to Entrepreneurship refers to the art or skill of coordinating, managing,
answer questions (a)(i) and (ii). organising and running a business.

What is an entrepreneur?

An entrepreneur is a person who takes the risk of putting down money to

start a business with the main aim of making a profit.

Role played by an entrepreneur

 Organisation: of land, labour and capital to produce goods and

services.

 Decision-making: on what to produce, how to produce and where

to produce.

 Management/leadership: the day to day running of business or

enterprise.

 Risk bearer: the ability to take risks and steer the business to be a
success.

Enterprise is the process of bringing together the factors of production to

(a)(i) Describe the factors that increase the efficient of labour. come up with goods and services.
(ii) Describe the advantages of specialisation of labour. THE ECONOMIC SYSTEMS FOR ORGANISING
PRODUCTION IN SOCIETIES
(b) (i) Describe any three forms of specialisation in production
There are basically three economic systems, namely:

 Capitalism/Market economy

 Socialism /Planned economy/ Communism

 Mixed economy

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 CAPITALIST/MARKET ECONOMY

Market economy is an economic system whereby the means of production

are owned and controlled by individuals or the private sector.

The main emphasis is on private ownership of capital or property.

Examples:
 Africa: Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, Malawi etc

 Others: USA, Japan, Germany etc.

THE MAIN FEATURES/ CHARACTERISTICS OF MARKET

ECONOMY

Fig.6  Private property is when individuals have the right to own and
control the means of production, for example, labour, land and
An economic system determines the following in a society: capital.
 Who owns the means of production, for example, land, labour and  Freedom of choice is when people are free to choose what to
capital? produce, how to produce and where to produce.
 Who controls production, for example, what and how much to  Freedom of enterprise is when people are free to start businesses
produce? of their choice.
 Who benefits from production?  Self- interest is when people are motivated by the need to make
profits for themselves.

 Competition is when businesses compete against each other.

 Price mechanism is when the laws of supply and demand

determine the prices for goods and services.

 Government role isminimal which means there is little

government interference with the running of the economy.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Advantages of market economy Disadvantages of market economy SOCIALIST/PLANNED ECONOMY
 The economy responds  It is unable to meet the basic needs of
quickly to the people’s needs the people since the emphasis is only Planned economy is an economic system whereby the means of production
are owned and controlled by the state for the benefit of the whole society.
and wants. on profit.
Private ownership of property is prohibited.
 Entrepreneurs always try to  Businesses overcharge since there is
use the resources as little government control. The government controls all production, distribution and consumption.
efficiently as possible in Examples of planned economy:
order to get the most profit  Damage to the environment goes
out of them. unchecked in the pursuit of profit, for  Africa: Mozambique, Angola, Ethopia and Tanzania.
example, deforestation and pollution.
 High quality goods and  Others: China, Cuba, North Korea and Vietnam.
services because of fierce  Inequalities in society widen with the
rich becoming very rich and poor very THE MAIN FEATURES/ CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANNED
competition.
ECONOMY
poor.
 Entrepreneurs are always  State ownership is when all means of production belong to the
motivated to make a success  Workers are exploited by the
state.
of their businesses because employers, for example, long working
they want to make profit. hours, violation of labour rights.  State entrepreneurship is that the government is the only
entrepreneurship that is allowed to operate.
 Highly productive because of  Uncontrolled competition may lead to
the use of mass production overproduction and lowering of prices  Collective interest is when all people are expected to work for the
methods. thus leading to collapse economies, good of the society.
for example, the economic depression
 Capitalist countries have of 1929 in America that even affected  No competition: there is any competition since all businesses
achieved the highest levels of Europe and the rest of the world. belong to the state.
development in the world, for
example, japan and U.S.A.  Price control: All prices are set and controlled by the state.

 Anyone has the chance to

become rich provided he or  Central planning: Decisions on what and how to produce are
she has the business skills. made by the central government

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Advantages of planned economy Disadvantages of planned economy
 It satisfies all the people’s  It is difficult to plan for the whole country MIXED ECONOMY
basic needs, for example, and these results in a lot of mistakes.
Mixed economy is an economic system whereby there is both private and
food, shelter and clothes.
 It suppresses individual freedom to think state ownership of means of production.
 The benefits of and act.
It is a mixture of both capitalism and socialism.
production are distributed There is a state planning, control and businesses operating alongside a
equally among the whole  State appointed managers are inefficient private sector.
population. because they are appointees rather than Most of the countries of the world are now mixed economies, for example,
entrepreneurs. Botswana, Zimbabwe and Zambia.
 Everyone has the right to
work or employment.  There is technological inefficient because THE MAIN FEATURES/ CHARACTERISTICS OF MIXED
managers are prohibited coming up with ECONOMY
 The goods and services new ideas or make changes.  There is both private and state/public ownership of resources.
are made available at low
 Very luxury goods are produced hence the  There is freedom of enterprise.
prices.
people’s lives are uncomfortable.  The government also operates enterprises, for example. State
corporations/ parastatals.
 A very limited choice for consumers since
all goods and services are produced by the  The government plans for the economy, for example, National
state. Development Plans.

 There is a low productivity level because of  The government interfers in the running of the economy through
over-employment, inefficient management the following ways:
and low morale of the workers.  Taxation of businesses.
 NB: However most of the socialist are  Legislation, for example, company laws and labour laws.
moving towards the Capitalist mode of
production.  Quality control, for example, through the Botswana
Bureau of Standards.

 Price monitoring

 Provision of basic infrastructure, for example, roads,

power, railways and water.

 Government provides social services for the people such as

education, health, sanitation and social welfare.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Advantages of mixed economy Disadvantages of mixed economy THE FEATURES THAT SHOW THAT BOTSWANA FOLLOWS A MIXED
o It redistributes the benefits of o The government may discourage ECONOMIC PRODUCTION SYSTEM
production through the taxing investment through laws and heavy
of businesses. taxation. 1. The feature that show that Botswana follows a mixed economic
production system is that parastatals operating side by side with the
o Helps the poor through the o Government always ends up in debt private businesses. For example, Botswana Power Corporation and
welfare system. because of public expenditure. Choppies.
o The government provides the o The welfare system encourages people
2. The prices determined by market forces while the government
basic needs of the people. to be lazy and irresponsible.
controls prices for some goods and services, for example, petrol
o The government protects the o State enterprises are inefficient and a and maize meal.
workers from exploitation. drain to the economy.
3. The government schools and universities such as University of
o Consumers obtain quality Botswana and Botswana International University Of Research
goods and services.
Science and Technology operating alongside private schools and
o The environment is protected universities such as Botho College and Baisago University
from unnecessary damage by College.
laws.
4. The government hospitals and clinics operating alongside private
o People are free to establish hospitals and clinics. For example, Nyangagwe Hospital in
enterprise of their choice.
Francistown and Riverside Hospital in Francistown. The
government prepares National Development Plans while
individuals implement them.

5. The government set regulations for business operations such as

quality control, price monitoring while individuals are free to make
other decisions.

6. The government gives free food or basic needs to destitute while

other people must buy for themselves. The government exempts
the poor from paying school fees whilst other people pay.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE BENEFITS OF CHOOSING A MIXED ECONOMIC ENTERPRISE
PRODUCTION SYSTEM
Enterprise is an act of organizing factors of production in order to make
profit.
TYPES OF ENTERPRISE
1. The government social welfare programme ensures that everybody
has access to basic needs.  Sole proprietor/ sole trader
2. The government labour laws protects workers from exploitation
 Limited companies
through coming up with labour laws.
3. The benefit of choosing a mixed economic production system is  Partnership
having environmental laws that prevent damage to the  Parastatal
environment.
 Multi -National Companies
4. The presence of government businesses or parastatals ensures
availability of essential goods and services, for example, water and  Joint Venture
electricity.
 Cooperatives.
5. The government price control ensures that basic needs are sold at
affordable prices, for example, water, electricity, mealie meal and SOLE PROPERIETOR/SOLE TRADER

petrol. Sole proprietor is an enterprise owned and run by an individual.

The government laws and regulations prevent immorality, for
The person may be helped by a few people especially some family
example, banning of pornographic materials. The element of members.
freedom of enterprise allows high achievers to excel. Sole proprietor is also known as a sole trader.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLE PROPERIETOR

 It is owned and run by one person who provides all capital needed
to set it up and run it.

 The profit is enjoyed and the loss felt by the owner.

Advantages of sole proprietor

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

  This type of ownership is advantageous because the owner is  There are no economies of scale. This means the sole trader cannot
usually self- motivated and has every reason to make the business buy in bulk to experience discounts.
become as efficient as possible. The individual owner is in full
charge and can devote as much of his time and energy to the The division of labour may be difficult to organise because of the small size
business as he or she wishes. of the business, resulting in little sharing of the workload, hence the owner
is overworked. This may affect productivity and labour efficiency.
 The owner has no need to consult or involve anyone when making
a new policy for the business. This allows the owner to put PRIVATE COMPANIES
decisions into effect without having to convince others.
Private company refers to a type of enterprise owned by shareholders and
run by a board of directors and a manager.
 Sole trader or sole proprietors are usually small and this allows the
owner to have more closer and personal contact with both the Shareholders earn some of the profit but if the company goes bankrupt, they
employees and customers. only lose the amount they have invested.
 In most cases, it requires small amount of capital to start. Advantages of private companies

 Sole trader pays tax for development of the country.  They have a lot of potential in increasing public awareness of an
issue.
 Sole trader creates jobs.
 The private sector is profit and efficiency driven, and as such tends
Disadvantages of sole proprietor
to have a highly productive staff.
 Individuals usually have small amounts of capital and this might
 The private sector is demand and client driven and therefore very
hinder the expansion of the enterprise.
responsive to the people’s needs.
 The success of the business depends on the owner’s abilities, and
on his or her death or retirement, the business might be affected by  The sector is very flexible compared to others in that it has to
the person who inherits it. If the inheritor is not a good business amend its service to fit the public whenever a need arises.
person, the company will obviously collapse.
Disadvantages of private companies
 Since the individual owner bears all the risks, he or she is liable for
 The private sector tends to invest mostly where returns or profit is
all the debts and losses of the firm.
assured.
 Liability is limited; this means the owners assets are at risk.
 They tend to be owned mostly by expatriates and this contributes
 Sole trader is at times has difficulties to get money or loan to heavily to the country’s capital flight. This is a situation in which a
finance the business since banks need security. lot of money generated in the country is sent out to other countries
and this contributes very little to the development of the country.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 PARASTATALS Disadvantages of parastatals

Parastatals are state corporations owned by the government of the country  They tend to waste state funds if they are not run properly, which
in which they operate. is a great cost to taxpayers.

They are funded by the government and the profits they make are taken by  They often lead to monopolies whereby the government owns most
the state to be used for developmental purposes. of the profitable enterprises and competes with small companies
In Botswana we have parastatals such as Botswana Railways, Botswana
and this might lead to the collapse of the small companies.
Telecommunications, Air Botswana and many others.
The government usually advertises for and appoints a board to run the
 Parastatal mostly tends to provide goods and services of poor
parastatals.
quality due to monopolies.
Advantages of parastatals
 Most are too expensive to run and over stretch the taxpayer’s
 They employ many people and thus create employment in money.
countries with a few private companies such as Botswana.
 Lack of initiative amongst workers leads to inefficiency in
 Parastatals have an advantage of expansion because they are production.
funded by the government.
 Uniform products may not satisfy everyone’s taste
 The state has a chance to control the provision of essential services
and goods. For example, water and electricity.

 Parastatals enjoys economies of scale hence offer cheaper price.

 Parastatals are mostly not profit oriented.

 Parastatals provide secure employment to a large number of local

people.

 It reduces duplication of equipment and unnecessary wastage of

resources.

 Parastatal helps to implement government policies.

 It is a source of income of the government.

 The effort is made to train and employ local workers of all levels
of production.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 MULTI-NATIONAL COMPANIES/ CORPORATIONS Advantages of multi- national companies Disadvantages of multi- national
companies
Multi-National Companies are enterprises that have subsidiaries or  They pay tax to the host  At times they dominate
branches in more than one country. government. economies by monopolistic
practices.
Multi-National Companies are also known as Trans National Companies.  They increase employment
opportunities.  Sometimes they bring in their
own expert instead of training
 They bring new technology to the locals for managerial positions
host countries. within the host country.
 They bring in foreign currency  Attracts experts’ locals to work
when they export from the host for them at the expense of local
country. industries.
 They enjoy greater economies of  They encourage dependency and
scale. neo-colonialism through
Fig.7
dependence on foreign
 They give support, mostly
1. Technical knowhow- provides training to the locals and bring new technology.
financial to the local social clubs
technology and associations.  They may take all the profits
2. Money – export goods to other countries which helps in earning
back to the country of their
foreign currency
 They offer goods and services of origin.
3. Benefits to the people- creation of employment
4. Benefits to the government- pay tax which is used to develop the better quality and variety to  Sometimes they interfere with
country customers. the policies of the host country.
5. International trade- helps the country to have variety of goods
 They widen the country’s income  Some are too powerful for the
which are not produced locally
base increasing Gross National host country to control.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MULTI NATIONAL COMPANIES Products.

 MNCs is usually a public limited company.

 The decision making is controlled from the head office.

 They employ many people in different parts of the world.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 JOINT VENTURES PARTNERSHIP

Joint Venture is a form of partnership whereby two or more individuals or Partnership is a relationship that exists between two or more people who
companies agree to do business for a specific time under clear contract have come together to do a common business with the view to make profit.
conditions.
Business Partnership is a relationship that exist between two or more
We have a number of joint ventures in Botswana between retail outlets. people or 20 people who have come together with the view of making
For example, we have a joint venture between Metro supermarket and money.
Sefalana supermarkets which is called Metsef Hyper-market.
Business Partnership is a relationship between two or more people or
Profits under joint ventures are shared out according to the written contract. members who have put their resources together to make money.

Advantages of joint ventures Disadvantages of joint ventures THE CHARACTERISTICS

 They reduce unnecessary  They usually lead to the
competition between collapse of small  Partnership is owned by many people between 2 and 20 people.
companies selling the same businesses because they are
products which allow them big and monopolise the  Partnership is controlled by partners.
to share the profits and market.
 Partnership has unlimited liabilities.
losses.

 If the company collapses Advantages of partnership Disadvantages of partnership

 Joint ventures can expand
 Partnership allows for  The decision may be
easily and make more many people might lose
division of labour delayed by consultation.
profits because they have a their jobs because joint
lot of capital. ventures usually employ
 In partnership create  The withdrawal of one or
many people.
continuity is assured. some partners may cause
 Joint ventures can save
the partnership to dissolve.
money by buying products  It is easy to set up.
at low prices because they  Lack of capital may limit
buy in bulk.  There is shared decision expansion.
making.
 Unlimited liability.
 They create a lot of  Secrecy in business is
employment by hiring maintained.  It may be difficult to find a
many people because they suitable partner.
have capital  There is a greater chance of
security for loans.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 CO-OPERATIVES STAGESS/SECTORS OF PRODUCTION

Co-operatives are enterprises formed by people with a common goal who There are basically three stages of production:
bring together some of their resources such as money, tools, labour and
equipment in order to reduce production costs.

Co-operative members can either share the profit amongst the members or
they can reinvest it into other businesses.

The co-operatives can sometimes use their profit for the development of
their community or they can divert it to charitable events with the
agreement of all the members.

Examples of co-operatives in Botswana come in the form of co-operative

supermarkets that are spread throughout the country.

A bigger co-operative can be found in Mogobane village which runs a

poultry, diary and vegetable farm.

The Advantages of co-operatives

Fig.8
 It has more buying power than individuals because it is a large
organisation. (a)Primary Production is the extraction or removal of natural resources
 A co-operative can give its members access to cheaper raw directly from the earth’s surface without changing their form.
Examples:
materials because it buy in large quantities.
 Mining which is the extraction of minerals from the ground or
 Members sell their products through the co-operatives, thus saving
earth.
on the costs of marketing.
 Because larger amounts are sold, the co-operative can often  Fishing which is catching fish in water.
negotiate and get better prices for its members.
 Members can bring in expert advice to help them.  Forestry is the growing and cutting down of trees for timber.

 Agriculture is the production of crops and livestock.

The products of primary production are:

- They are raw, that is, they are in their natural state.

- Generally unusable directly by the people since they need some

processing.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

(b)Secondary Production involves the changing or transformation of raw (c)Tertiary Production involves the provision of services that help in the
materials into semi-finished and finished products. transfer of finished products from the factory to the consumer.

They are three types of secondary production: It is now the major employer in most of the modern economies.
They are two types of services involved:
(i) Processing is the transformation of raw materials into useable (i) Commercial services:
more goods. For example, cattle into beef, hides into leather, maize
into mealie meal and copper ore into copper metal.  Warehousing for storing of goods in bulk in large buildings.

(ii) Manufacturing involves the transformation of raw materials into  Wholesaling is the selling of goods in bulk to the shops and
supermarkets.
more specific and usable goods. These goods can be used directly
by consumers or public. For example, leather into shoes, belts,  Retailing is the selling of goods directly to the public through
jackets and hats, steel into door frames and tools, chocolates from shops and supermarkets.
milk, cocoa and sugar.
 Transportation is carrying of goods and people using vehicle, for
(iii) Construction is the building of houses, dams, roads and bridges. example, cars, trains etc.
Construction uses both the products of primary and manufacturing  Advertising
industries.
 Insurance services
For example, to come up with complete building the following items
are used:  Banking and finance

 Quarry stones, river sand, pit sand and cement from mining. (ii) Direct services: Mainly aims at serving the people directly.
For example:
 Timber for roofing from forestry.
o Health services
 Nails, window and door frames, plumbing materials, plate glass,
o Education and training
electrical components from manufacturing industries.
o Entertainment, for example, music, sports and cinema

o Lawyers or legal services

o Architects or Architecture

o Security, for example, police, security firms.

(d)Quaternary are the activities concerned with research, compilation,

processing and dissemination of the research information to improve human
resource and production.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPMENT Localisation is when the government replaces foreign workers with
nationals/citizens/locals.
The following are strategies for development: women and property
ownership, privatisation of parastatals, citizen empowerment and
localisation.
Localisation is when the government reserves some businesses for locals.

Privatisation of parastatals is when the government transfers ownership of

its businesses to individuals/companies usually through selling.

Women and property ownership is when the government allows women

to own big possessions, for example houses and forms.

Women and property ownership is when the government recognises the

rights of women to own big possessions such as businesses and houses.

WOMEN AND PROPERTY OWNERSHIP

 More women owned businesses will increase production in the

economy
Fig.9
 Increased production in women inclined industries, for example,
Citizen empowerment is when the government equips nationals with skills Fashion and Design, Interior design, Beauty Parlours, Knitting and
pottery
and other means so that they can participate in the economy of the
country/development of their country.  Inherited funds can be used as capital for investment

Citizen empowerment is creating social, political and economic  Government allows females or women to own big or large
possessions or assets/material/goods
opportunities so that nationals take part in the development/economy.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 PRIVATISATION OF PARASTATALS THE FORMS OF PRIVATIZATION

Privatisation is the transfer of public/state assets into the ownership of  Contracting out work to private sector firms.
individuals and companies usually through selling.
 Disposing of public sector shareholding in companies.
Privatisation refers to the process of transferring the ownership of public
enterprises to private buyers.  De-nationalizing major public sector concerns by transferring the
ownership of assets from state to the private sector.
That is, the corporations owned by the state are turned to private companies
and given to individuals to own.This is a very complex process involving THE ADVANTAGES OF PRIVATISATION /BENEFITS OF
the selling of shares to individuals and groups as well as ensuring that some PRIVATISATION
of the services provided by the government are stopped to allow private
companies to start businesses providing those services. - Privatisation improves efficiency because of competition and profit
PRIVATISATION CAN BE DONE FOR MANY REASONS WHICH INCLUDE THE
- Privatisation increases participation in ownership of national assets /
FOLLOWING:
citizen empowerment
 Privatisation can promote competition which may lead to
improving efficiency and increasing productivity of enterprises.
- Privatisation reduces public bureaucracy
 It can increase direct citizen participation in the ownership of
national assets. - Privatisation accelerates economic growth by stimulating
entrepreneurship
 It can stimulate entrepreneurship and investment in order to
accelerate economic growth. - Privatisation reduces prices and public sector budget deficit through
enhancing the quality of goods and services
AIMS OF PRIVATISATION
- Empowers citizens where such sales are restricted to them
 To reduce fiscal burden by state enterprise.
- Revenue/government gets tax from companies/revenue from sale of
 To accelerate the national development process. shares
 To reduce the role of the state in the economy in order to allow - Removes burden from govt.
the government to concentrate on the essential tasks of governing.
- Increases foreign direct investment
 To release limited state resources for financing of other demands.
- Private companies take social responsibilities
 To promote economic efficiency in fastening well -functioning
markets and competitions.

 To generate new investment.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE DISADVANTAGES OF PRIVATISATION CITIZEN EMPOWERMENT AS STRATEGY FOR DEVELOPMENT

- There is massive job losses due to redundancy Citizen empowerment is the process of helping citizens to become self-
reliant through the provision of help by the government or Non-
- Open to abuse by corrupt political bureaucrats Governmental Organisations.

- Widens the gap between the rich and the poo Citizen empowerment is the creation of opportunities and conducive
environment for nationals to participate fully in the socio-political and
- Expensive due to adverts and publicity economic development of the country.

- It is a transfer of monopoly from public to private hands/may lead to It involves a process of ensuring that there is an increased participation of
emergence of private monopolies citizen owned companies in the economy.

- Will lead to hyper-inflation to meet initial costs STEPS TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT OF BOTSWANA TO
PROMOTE CITIZEN EMPOWERMENT
THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN PRIVATISATION
The government has over the years empowered Batswana through a number
- Government sets up regulatory price mechanism of financial schemes such as the:

- The government makes laws that govern privatisation process (a) Financial Assistance Policy (FAP)

- Government sets up prices of assets to be privatised (b) Citizen Entrepreneurial Development Agency (CEDA) for
Batswana to get loans and entrepreneurial training.
- The government empower citizens
(c) Introduction of remote area dwellers program.
- The government provide loans or grants
(d) Reservation and price control for citizen owned contractors.

(e) Universal free education.

(f) Citizen Mortgage Assistance Equity Fund (CMAEF) to allow

citizens to buy shares in citizen owned property companies in order
to prevent property falling into hands of non-citizens.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE FACTORS HINDERING CITIZEN EMPOWERMENT Localisation policy is the process of giving jobs or businesses to citizens

 Fronting which means the foreigners use the locals to set up THE IMPORTANCE OF LOCALIZATION
businesses reserved for citizens by funding them and become silent
 It is part of restoring national pride and asserting a country’s
partners or controls them. independence.
 Lack of markets/Insufficient market for goods produced locally  It promotes the socio-economic development of locals.

 Poor business skills  It helps in making the citizens believe in themselves and not
always show much respect for foreigners.
 Lack of commitment from the bureaucrats, especially in
dissemination of information  Some key posts which are quite politically sensitive need to be
localised.
The ways by which the government of Botswana empowers citizens. THE ADVANTAGES / BENEFITS OF LOCALISATION OF LABOUR IN
BOTSWANA
- Training/educating citizens
- It promotes the socio-economic development of locals
- Provision of financial assistance to locals
- It is part of restoring national pride and asserting a country’s
- Providing opportunity for locals to vote in elections independence
- Provision of information through radio, television, newspapers on
- It helps in making Batswana believe in themselves and not always
various issues show too much respect for foreigners
- Provision of health services to fight/ cure/control/treat diseases
- Citizens would occupy politically sensitive positions
- Teaching locals their rights
- Creates employment for citizens
- Government providing a market to citizens or tenders
- Marketing of local goods and services to outside markets - Development is in accordance to culture
- localisation - There is possibility of making long term decisions as there is no fear of
end of contract
LOCALISATION
- Locals acquire necessary skills
Localisation of labour is the process of replacing expatriate public servants
- Workers are patriotic and have their national interest at heart
with citizen public servants
- Saves money wasted on foreigners
What is localization policy?

Localisation policy is the process of promoting citizen labour and

enterprise

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

The challenges that the government may face when trying to follow the - Increased production as citizens are trained or become
localisation policy skilled
 Localisation
- shortage of skilled locals
- Locals are likely to work harder for their country or
- Poor work ethics among citizens
national pride
- Shortage of funds to implement the policy
- Local businesses are given financial assistance
- Lengthy training programmes that may delay the process, for example,
- Locals are trained or given courses
medical doctors
 Privatisation of parastatals
- Brain drain where trained locals prefer to work in developed countries
rather than at home - Efficient use of resources will result in high production
- Lack of experience among locals slows down production, for example, - Possibility of increased foreign direct investment (FDI) to
when a fresh local graduate replaces an experienced expatriate fuel production through more capital or technology
graduate transfer
- The policy creates conflict between home government and other - Improved quality of goods and services
governments/ it strains foreign relations/ promotes xenophobia.

 Women and property ownership

WOMEN AND PROPERTY OWNERSHIP
Women and property ownership is when the government allows women - More women owned businesses will increase production
to own big possessions, for example houses and forms in the economy
Women and property ownership is when the government recognises the - Increased production in women inclined industries, for
rights of women to own big possessions such as businesses and houses. example, Fashion and Design, Interior design, Beauty
Parlours, Knitting and pottery
The ways by which each government policy/strategy may improve - Inherited funds can be used as capital for investment
production - Government allows females or women to own big or large
 Citizen Empowerment possessions or assets/material/goods

- Increase businesses as locals are given financial

assistance

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 24. Describe the advantages of specialisation of labour.
Section A
25. Describe the disadvantages of specialisation of labour.
1. Define planned economic system/ socialism
2. Describe three characteristics of planned economic system. 26. Describe characteristics of a private limited company

3. Give three disadvantages of socialism. 25. Describe the advantages of a private limited company.
4. Give three advantages of socialism.
26. Describe the characteristics of parastatals.
5. Define enterprise.
27. Describe the advantages of parastatals.
6. Give three advantages of partnership in business.
28. Explain reasons for owning parastatals by a government.
7. What is a sole proprietor?
8. State three characteristics of a sole proprietor. 29. Explain the negative impacts of localisation in Botswana.

9. Define joint venture. 30. How does the government of Botswana promote a culture of investment?
10. Give three advantages of a joint venture.
31. Describe the benefit of Multi-National Companies to the host countries. /
11. Define entrepreneurship. Describe the advantages of multi-national companies for developing countries.
12. Describe any three roles of an entrepreneur.
32. Describe the advantages of developing the secondary sector in Botswana.
13. Define Business Partnership. 33. How does the employment structure of a developing country differ from that of a
14. Describe three benefits of working in a business partnership developing country?

15. Define privatisation. 34. Describe problems faced by foreign investors in Botswana.

16. Describe advantages/ benefits of privatisation. 35. Describe ways in which the government of Botswana can encourage the
development of local entrepreneurship.
17. Describe the disadvantages of privatisation.
36. Describe the advantages of capitalism/ market economy.
18. Describe the role of the government in privatisation.
37. Describe the advantages of capitalism/market economy.
19. Define localisation of labour.
38. Describe the advantages of socialism/ planned economy.
20. What is localisation policy? 39. Describe the disadvantages of socialism/ planned economy.
21. Describe the benefits or advantages of localisation of labour in Botswana.
40. How does the government control the economy in mixed economic system?
22. What is citizen empowerment?
23. Explain ways through which your government empower citizens/ how does 41. Describe the advantages of mixed economy.
your government empower citizens.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Section B
3. Study Fig. 3, which the relationship between Multi-National Corporations
1. Study Fig. 1, which shows economic production systems.
(MNCs) and developing countries.

Fig. 3
Fig.1
(a)(i) Describe the characteristics of a planned economic production system. (a)(i) Explain how Multi-National Corporations benefit host countries.
(ii) Explain the disadvantages of a market economic production system.

(ii) Describe the problems that Multi-National Corporations cause to developing

(b)(i)Describe the features that show that Botswana follows a mixed economic countries.
production system.
(b) Localisation is the act of replacing foreign workers with nationals.
(ii) Explain the benefits of choosing a mixed economic production system.
2. Study the extract below and use it to answer question 2(a).
(i) Explain why localisation is necessary in Botswana.
Most of the large commercial farmers in Namibia belong to a co-operative such as
(ii) Suggest possible problems that the localisation process may cause in
Agra. Co-operatives can also be of great benefit to subsistence farmers and they
Botswana.
have been set up in a number of African countries.
Adapted from: Development Studies 1 by Mweti and Van Wyk
Fig.2
(a)(i) Describe the advantages of being a member of farming co-operative.
(ii) Describe ways in which the government helps local entrepreneurs.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 4. Study Fig.4, which shows some of the government policies in 5. Study Fig. 5 which is an extract on parastatals.
Botswana.

Fig.5
(a)(i)With the aid of Fig. 5, describe characteristics of parastatals

(ii)Suggest benefits of operating parastatals to a developing country.

Fig.4
(b)(i) Explain why some parastatals have been privatised.
(a)(i) Describe each policy shown in Fig.4.

(ii)Suggest problems that may be caused by privatisation.

(ii)For three of the policies shown in Fig. 2, suggest two ways by which each
policy may improve production.

(b)(i) Describe ways by which the government of Botswana empowers citizens.

(ii)Suggest challenges that the government may face when trying to follow the
localisation policy.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 CONSUMPTION AND INVESTMENT THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONSUMPTION, SAVINGS AND
INVESTMENT
THE EXPLANATION OF CONSUMPTION AND INVESTMENT
Consumption is when we buy things which do not last such as food, drinks,
(a) Consumption refers to buying goods or things which do not last clothes and crockery.
for a long period of time. For example, when people are paid their Savings on the other hand is all the money that you have saved especially in
monthly salaries, they buy groceries. However, these groceries do the bank, and investment is when individuals or companies save money and
invest it in ways that will bring a return in future.
not last for two months which means that they have to buy
groceries every month-end when they are paid. THE FACTORS INFLUENCING SAVINGS

There are a number of factors that can directly influence savings. These
(b) Investment refer to the use of purchasing power in the form of include:
money saved from previous income to purchase assets of the sort,
that can with reasonable assurance be expected to yield over the (a)Income: The most obvious requirement is the ability to save and this
future a total amount of purchasing power greater than that depends on the level of income. No one can save until the level of income is
represented by their cost. Investment is when individuals or sufficient to cover what are considered to be the necessities of life as
companies save money and invest it in many ways that will bring a income which is devoted to consumption spending tends to fall.
return in the future.
(b)Social attitude: The prevailing social attitude towards thrift, which is
old-fashioned, wise and careful use of money, has significant influence on
the level of saving.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
(c)The financial framework: In the developed countries, all kinds of
Production means any activity which serves to satisfy human needs and
institutions for the safe deposit of savings are available. In less developed
wants.
countries, there are few such institutions and they are neither widely known
nor easily accessible.
Consumption is the purchase and use of these goods and services made
through production.
THE BENEFITS AND RISKS OF INVESTMENT
In a community, all people are consumers and most are producers since they
By investment we mean engaging in an activity that will bring in more
contribute their labour to production through employment.
money or make profit. For example, as sole proprietor or trader operating a
company can get a lot of returns from the business.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUPPLY AND DEMAND
Taking risks in production is the function of the entrepreneur, and the
reward for risks is profit.
(a)Supply can be seen as the amount of commodity that is available to be
used.

(b)Demand refers to the quantity required at a particular price, for it is

impossible to conceive of demand not related to price.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 RISKS AND UNCERTAINTY THE DISADVANTAGES OF FOREIGN RESERVE
Foreign reserves also have their setbacks or disadvantages. For instance
Risks involve situations or events which may or may not occur but whose currency fluctuations.
probability of occurrence can be calculated statistically and the frequency of Botswana’s foreign reserves are saved in US dollars, and because of a
their occurrence predicted. It then follows that risks are insurable. Risks political situation such as the Iraq war, the dollar has been fluctuating and
include natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, hurricanes, fire and as a result, Botswana’s savings are affected. Currently, Botswana has lost
others. US$ 1 billion of its foreign reserves.

Uncertain events are those which property cannot be insured against. Their EVALUATION OF A CULTURE OF INVESTMENT IN
outcome cannot be predicated with sufficient statistical confidence. Sources BOTSWANA’S ECONOMY
of uncertainty may include: Traditionally, a culture of investment existed amongst Batswana. However,
this culture existed at a very minimal level.
(i)External sources: where the decision maker will only be able to have
limited view of how political and economic factors will affect the situation For example, most of Batswana relied, as they still do, much on subsistence
under review. External sources of uncertainty include the state of national farming or producing at a very small scale. This small scale method of
economies and world trade, potential legislation and political change. farming does not reflect a good culture of investment and has caused most
Batswana to rely on the government instead of being self-reliant.
(ii)Internal sources: The organisation may not be able to react to
challenges or crisis because it does not have the resources or the experience This dependence on the government has made leaders to embark on various
to do so. programmes aimed at encouraging Batswana to invest and become self-
reliant.
(iii)Finance: If the company is partly debt-financed, there is the problem of
ensuring that debt interest can be paid out of profits before interest and tax. For example, during the 1980s, the government introduced programme such
as Accelerated Rainfall Programme (ARAP) and Arable Land Development
THE FOREIGN RESERVES AS A FORM OF INVESTMENT Programme (ALDEP) in order to encourage a culture of investment
amongst Batswana
Foreign reserves refer to the saving of money in other countries. .
These two grants were meant to assist Batswana to start subsistence farming
This involves saving money for future use in foreign countries. For in order to raise money and more food for Batswana.
instance, Botswana Government has foreign reserves in the World Bank.
This money is saved for future investment and because it is a bank, it is In 1990s again, the Botswana government introduced another grant known
accumulating interest or profit. as the Financial Assistance Policy to encourage Batswana to start small
scale and large scale businesses for investment purposes.
THE ADVANTAGES OF FOREIGN RESERVES
(a) Money accumulates interest. Apart from the above investment systems, the three successive Head of
State travelled abroad to try to attract more foreign investors to come to
(b) The money is kept for future use in cash the country’s economy invest in Botswana. However, we have comparatively few large companies
drops. operating in Botswana. We have a few multi-national companies such as
Coca Cola, BP, Shell and others that pay taxes to the government for
(c) The money can be used to develop the country if need arises. operating in Botswana.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Investment is using money to make/generate more MODULE 3: RURAL DEVELOPMENT
income/revenue
- Investment is saving to make money/income/profit in the future TOPIC GENERAL SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
OBJECTIVES
Learners should be Learners should be able to:
The ways of promoting investment by citizens
able to:
- Explain rural development;
- Credit schemes/ facilities/ loans/grants/financial assistance, for Rural Develop an - Describe typesof traditional
example, Citizen Entrepreneurial Development Agency (CEDA) Development understanding and rural societies under the
- Training in business skills, for example, Local Enterprise appreciation of the
following headings: land use
Authority (LEA) nature of rural
development. and ownership, division of
- Providing infrastructure/serviced plots, for example, plots with labour, cultural activities,
tarred roads, water, telecommunication networks and electricity technology and dependence on
- Protectionism/protection of infant industries/localisation/citizen the environment;
empowerment - Explain the concept of
- Marketing of local products, for example, Botswana Export colonialism;
Development Investment Agency (BEDIA)/buy local products - Discuss the impact of
campaign colonialism on rural
- Reserving some businesses for locals/citizens only, for example, development with specific
transportation industry such as taxies and buses and saloons reference to Botswana;
- Tax holidays/rebates/tax lowering ( Tax holiday is when newly - Discuss changes in rural areas
established businesses are exempted from paying tax for a certain in Botswana since
period of time) independence;
- Government subsidy - Discuss positive and negative
- Encouraging import substitution industrialisation [ISI](it is aspects of rural development;
prohibiting/not allowing people to buy goods from other countries - Discuss strategies to solve
that are produced local/ available locally) and export oriented problems of rural
development;
industrialisation [EOI] (it is setting up of industries in a country
- Assess different rural schemes,
that produces goods for the outside market)
programmes and projects:
- Investigate the changing
- Lowering inflation [reducing prices of goods and services]
family roles in rural areas.

- Affordable utilities, for example, water and electricity

- Political stability

- Privatization [which is the transfer of public assets to individuals

and companies usually through selling]

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 TYPES OF TRADITIONAL SOCIETIES
What is meant by rural development?

- Rural development is the improvement in the living standards of

people living in the countryside or village. Hunter- Nomadic Agriculturalists
gatherers pastoralists
- Rural development is improving the standard of living or quality Land tenure Communal: Communal: Communal :Traditional
of life or status of people in villages or remote areas or the country Everyone had a Members of the tribal rights to land
side. right to use the tribe had
environment traditional rights
In the context of Botswana, rural areas are settlements where 75% of the but none to use the
population is employed in agricultural sector, for example, farming. owned it. environment.

TRADITIONAL RURAL SOCIETIES Division of The small Family .Men Family. Men looked after
labour family group. looked after livestock, smelted iron and
Traditional rural societies were mainly shaped by the natural environment Men hunted animals while women weaved. Men
and changing seasons. They made a living using the natural resources which wild animals women gathered cleared the land and
surrounded them and they used their simple skills to survive and earn a while women plants, made cultivated, built huts for
living. Farming was influenced by the natural environment and the level of gathered wild clothes and shelter, collected water and
production was small. As time went on, some communities learnt how to fruits, nuts, shelter. Women food from the bush or veld.
make iron, and the tools that they made out of iron enabled them to work roots and other made clothing and
the land more effectively. foodstuff from shelter from
the natural animal skins.
vegetation.
Technology Very simple, Simple Iron tools were used and fire
made from used to clear the fields.
stones, bones
and wood.
Cultural Collective Initiation Storytelling, ancestors and
Activities decision ceremonies held, idols worshipped, initiation
making, natural natural objects and ceremonies held.
objects and ancestors
ancestors worshipped,
worshipped marriage
storytelling. festivities held.
Fig.1

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 What is meant by agricultural communities? THE ADVANTAGES OF SUBSISTANCE FARMING
Agricultural communities are societies that depend on cultivating crops and - It is cheap.
rearing livestock. - It helps poor farmers sustain themselves and their families.
- It requires semi-skill, hence can be done by almost anyone.
Agricultural communities are groups of people or societies that depend on - There is less destruction to the environment.
arable and pastoral farming.
DISADVANTAGES OF SUBSISTANCE FARMING
State any three ways in which agricultural communities differ from
hunter-gatherer societies. - It is easily affected by natural disasters such as drought and floods.
- Production is seasonal, and people may starve during the dry season
- The way in which agricultural communities differ from hunter-
- Poor quality products are produced due to the use of poor methods.
gatherer societies is that agricultural communities get food from
domestic animals and plants while hunter-gatherers get food from
COMMERCIAL FARMING
wild animals, wild fruits and vegetables.
Commercial farming is the growing of crops and rearing of animals for
- Agricultural communities live in permanent settlement while hunter- sale.
gatherers are nomadic or built temporary structures as shelter.
CHARACTERISTICS
- Agricultural communities use sophisticated technology, for example, - It is practised on large scale.
iron tools while hunter-gatherers use simple technology. - Labour is provided by paid workers.
- Division of labour is practised.
- It uses capital intensive mode of production.
TYPES OF FARMING
- Owners are companies or rich individual farmers who run the farm for
SUBSISTANCE/ PEASANT FARMING profit.
- Finance often comes from foreign companies.
Subsistence agriculture is the growing of crops and rearing of livestock for
family consumption. THE ADVANTAGES OF COMMERCIAL FARMING

CHARACTERISTICS - It creates employment as labour is provided by paid workers.

- High quality goods are produced.
- It is practised on small scale. - It is a source of foreign exchange as products are usually for export.
- Labour is provided by the family members. - Productivity tends to be high due to use of machinery and division of
- Simple technology is used. labour.
- There is production of low yields. - It enhances self- sufficiency in food production.
- Sometimes it uses primitive methods for production. - It allows for production to take place throughout the year with the
help of better methods of farming like irrigation.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE DISADVANTAGES OF COMMERCIAL FARMING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A RURAL AREA

- There is too much damage to the environment, for example, the use of 1. There is an excessive dependence on agriculture.
chemicals and fertilisers may pollute the environment.
- Machinery replaces human labour leading to the increase in 2. There is a lot of small uneconomic land and livestock holding.
unemployment. 3. There is low capital-labour ratio.
- Keeping large numbers of livestock in one area may lead to easy
spread of parasites and diseases. 4. There is high incidence of poverty, underemployment, and
- It is expensive to run. unemployment.
- Labour may receive low wages as farmers are after maximising profit. 5. There is large number of illiterate, semi-skilled and unskilled
workforce.
THE PROBLEMS FACED BY ARABLE FARMERS
6. There is lack of basic infrastructure.
- Arable farmers are faced with the problem of poor storage facilities
with most of the harvest being lost to pests. THE ASPECTS OF RURAL LIFE
- There is shortage of labour due to rural-urban migration.
- Pests and diseases that destroy crops. (a) THE POSITIVE ASPECTS OF RURAL LIFE
- Drought and low and unreliable rainfall. - Life is cheap as people depend on agricultural products that they
- Communal ownership of land hinder farmers from effecting produced for themselves.
meaningful developments. - There is less pollution as there are few industries.
- Soil erosion.
- There is still the spirit of communal co-operation in rural areas.
- A young and more educated nation that shuns hard agricultural work.
- Poor and infertile soils. (b) THE NEGATIVE ASPECTS OF RURAL LIFE

THE PROBLEMS FACED BY PASTORAL FARMERS - The negative aspect of rural life is dependence on subsistence farming
or poor agricultural production due to overworked soils and poor
- Poor management strategies. farming methods.

- Overstocking and overgrazing. - Rural poverty is common

- High cost of goods

- Shortage of water.
- Fear of witchcraft/ cultural rigidity
- Outbreak of parasites and diseases, for example, foot and mouth.
- Less job opportunities/ lack of alternative sources of income
- Resistance to change, with some refusing to sell even during drought.
- Lack of recreational facilities/ poor infrastructure

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Shortage of market
THE IMPORTANCE OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
- Lack of variety of goods to choose from
1. It reduces rural-urban migration.
- Poor educational facilities
2. It increases agricultural production, thus helping the country to be
- Poor roads
more self-sufficient in food.
- Lack of access to health facilities
3. It creates employment in rural areas.
- Poor services
4. It reduces the gap between the rich and the poor, especially in rural
- Poor soil fertility areas.
- Deforestation because people use trees for firewood 5. It increases production of raw materials for industries.
- Poverty or inability to fend for oneself 6. It reduces the inequalities between the rural and urban areas.
THE AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
THE OBSTACLES OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
- To generate adequate reliable employment.
(a) There is shortage of land in rural areas.
- To eradicate poverty.
(b) Most of the people in rural areas are credit unworthiness.
- To accelerate the growth rate of the economy with stable prices and
services. (c) There is lack of markets in rural areas.

- To ensure food and nutritional security for all. (d) There is shortage of labour in rural areas.

- To provide minimum services of safe drinking water, health care (e) Poor managerial and market skills.
facilities, and universal education.
(f) Natural disasters.
- To promote self-reliance.
(g) Poverty.
- To empower women and socially disadvantaged groups.

- To increase agricultural productivity.

- To promote the participation of the people in the development

process.

- To contain the growth rate of the population

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 COLONIALISM THE REASONS WHY EUROPEAN NATIONS COLONISED AFRICA

Colonialism is a system which a powerful country controls a less powerful 1. The reason European nations colonised Africa was to get minerals
country. A colony is a country that is governed by a more powerful country. and other natural resources, for example, copper, gold and
A coloniser is a country that rules another country. diamonds.

Define colonialism. 2. The European nations colonised Africa to exploit cheap labour.
- Colonialism is when a country is ruled or controlled or dominated by
3. The European nations colonised Africa to set up plantations for
another or a foreign country. industries in Europe.
- Colonialism is a policy or system of rule or control in which a more 4. The European nations colonised Africa to give land to European
powerful country takes complete or full control over a less powerful settlers.
one.
5. The European nations colonised Africa to expand their markets.
THE MAP SHOWING THE ‘SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA’
6. The European nations colonised Africa to expand political
influence

IMPACT OF COLONIALISM ON RURAL DEVELOPMENT

NEGATIVE
- Africans lost their most fertile land to Europeans.
- Taxes were introduced such as hut tax.
- Rural communities lost able bodied men (productive population).
- Some people lost their lives.
- Culture was lost.
- The powers of the dikgosi were diminished.
- Establishment of unfair trade patterns between the rich and the
poor countries.
- African initiative or craftsmanship was lost.
- Raw materials were lost.
- There was exploitation of cheap labour.
- There was an emergence of migrant labour.
- The family structure changed.
- Native reserves were created.

Fig.2

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

POSITIVE IMPACT 8. The positive effect of colonialism on women is that of property
ownership, for example, land
- New and better methods of farming were introduced.
- Money as a trading item was introduced. THE WAYS IN WHICH A COUNTRY MAY BENEFIT ECONOMICALLY
- The colonisers brought infrastructural development. FROM BEING COLONISED
- Christianity was introduced, ending cruel traditional practices such
a) The way by which a country may benefit economically from being
as the killing of twins in the forests.
colonised is that of having organized markets.
- The introduction of the modern health care system led to the
eradication of some killer diseases. b) The way by which a country may benefit economically from being
- New and better technology was introduced. colonised is that of having large scale farming or plantation
- Cash crop production was introduced. agriculture or ranching.
- Modern education was introduced.
c) The way by which a country may benefit economically from being
THE POSITIVE EFFECTS OF COLONIALISM ON WOMEN
colonised is that of having commerce or trade or cash economy or
1. The positive effect of colonialism on women is that of income use of money or cash cropping.
generation because some women produced cash crops.
d) The way by which a country may benefit economically from being
2. The positive effect of colonialism on women is that of introduction colonised is that of having paid employment.
of literacy for women or modern education.
e) The way by which a country may benefit economically from being
3. The positive effect of colonialism on women is that of a platform colonised is that of having technological advancement or skills
for women to prove themselves that they were able to fend for development.
themselves.
f) The way by which a country may benefit economically from being
4. The way by which a country may benefit economically from being
colonised is that of having organized markets as capable as men, colonised is that of having resource development, for example,
for example, struggle for liberation. mining

5. The positive effect of colonialism on women is that of modern

health introduced women to family planning and immunisation.

6. The positive effect of colonialism on women is that of job

opportunities outside home, for example, cashiers, cleaners and
nurses.

7. The positive effect of colonialism on women is that of new religion

such as Christianity which removed some bad practices relating to
culture, for example, polygamy and killing of twins in the forest.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF COLONIALISM ON PEOPLE IN RURAL RURAL POVERTY
AREAS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Rural poverty is a situation whereby people in villages or countryside have
insufficient of their basic needs.
- The negative effect of colonialism on people in rural areas in FORMS OF RURAL POVERTY
developing countries is that of introduction of hut tax resulting in (a) ABSOLUTE POVERTY is when a person lacks access to
migration of labour. reasonably adequate amount or quantities of goods and services to
satisfy her or his material and non-material basic needs.
- Colonialism lead to decline in food production in rural areas in
developing countries due to introduction of cash crops, for example, - The income is so low that even a minimum standard of nutrition,
cotton. shelter and other basic needs cannot be maintained.

- The negative effect of colonialism on people in rural areas in (b) RELATIVE POVERTY is when a person’s access to the basic
developing countries is that of land dispossession or Africans lost needs of life is lower as compared to some group of people.
their land.
- It shows that while some people’s basic needs are met, they may still
- The negative effect of colonialism on people in rural areas in experience economic difficulties or disadvantages as compared to
developing countries is that of family breakdown due to labour other people.
migration or migrant labour.
THE CAUSES OF RURAL POVERTY
- Introduction of unhealthy diets, for example, alcoholic beverages. - Population pressure leading to resource not been enough for
everyone.
- Abolition of initiation schools
- Unemployment because of few industries
- Dikgosi lost their authority or their powers
- Lack of skills and technology.
- Loss of culture
- Lack of alternative sources of income to use it to invest in rural areas
or to start businesses
- Increased workload for women due labour migration as women were
not allowed to join their husbands who worked in South African - Unequal access to land.
mines
- Lack of money for investment because most of the people are credit
- Loss of property such as cattle. unworthiness

- Dependence on poor farming methods, for example, broadcasting

method instead of raw planting method.

- Conservatism because some people do not what to change how they

do things or are afraid of change.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Weak and inappropriate representation by the authorities. THE SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS OF RURAL POVERTY

1. Drilling more boreholes and construction of dams for better supply

THE EFFECTS OF RURAL POVERTY of water.
2. Advising farmers on better methods of farming, for example,
1. There are low yields as a result of poor soils due to overgrazing and through radio programmes in order to increase yields.
shortage of manure. 3. Providing loans (and other credit schemes) at low interest rates.
2. Erosion and flooding result from shortage of land which leads to slope 4. Practising family planning methods to reduce population pressure.
clearance. 5. Conserving plants and animals to prevent deforestation and
3. Deforestation increases as trees are cut and not replaced. extinction.
4. Water resources are over-used and polluted by sewage and animals. 6. Encouraging private investors to invest in rural areas so as to
5. Malnutrition and other diseases become more common. create employment for rural and dwellers.
6. Labour is lost as able bodied people migrate to urban areas looking for
jobs. THESE SOLUTIONS CAN BE IMPLEMENTED THROUGH
DIFFERENT STRATEGIES:
NB: These causes and effects of poverty lead to the vicious cycle of
poverty. Once people are trapped in this cycle, it is difficult to break out as 1. Bottom-Up Approach is a strategy in which local people participate
one factor leads to the other. fully in development decision making.

VICIOUS CYCLE OF POVERTY ADVANTAGES:

- It leads to development that has local support.

- People come up with relevant solutions to their problems.

- It promotes democracy.

DISADVANTAGES

- It takes a long time to implement some decisions.

Fig.3 - A lot of money is used during consultation.

INTERPRETATION OF THE VICIOUS CYCLE - It may be manipulated by local elites.

Since people are poor, they have little money to invest in improving their
farming methods or buy better seeds and animals. As a result, their land - A decision may be unsuccessful if disapproved by government
produces very little. Therefore they are short of food, and they suffer from officials.
malnutrition and ill health and they become even poorer.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

2. Top-Down Approach RURAL INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT ENTAILS THE
FOLLOWING:
Top-Down Approach is a strategy in which development decisions are
made and implemented by high ranking government officials who are
mostly based in rural areas.

ADVANTAGES
- Decisions are made with the best interest of the whole nation.

- Decision are made within a relatively short period of time

- It saves money.

- Decisions are made by experts.

DISADVATANGES
- It is remote from the local people.

- Decision may be irrelevant to local interests.

- It may be difficult to implement.

Fig.4
- It may be abused by politicians.
(a) LAND REFORMS is redistributing land so that everyone has
3. Integrated Rural Development is a strategy that aims to improve all equal access to it.
aspects of the lives of people living in villages.
- Helping the landless people.
THE AIMS OF INTERGRATED RURAL DEVELOPMENT
- Giving women the same land rights as men.
- Improving farming
(b) MODERNISING FARMING is providing extension services.
- Providing basic social services.
- Introducing credit schemes.
- Reducing dependence on urban economies.
- Raising cash crops for the market.
- Raising people’s standard of living in rural areas.
- Increasing self -sufficiency in food.

- Forming farmers’ co-operatives.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 (c) WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT is providing clean 1. LOAN AND CREDIT SCHEMES
water.

- Helping the villages to construct small dams. The government help farmers to borrow loans from banks and other
financial institutions at very low interest rates so that they can use the
(d) SOCIAL SERVICES deals with building of schools and clinics to money to improve farming.
improve the education and health of people in rural areas The government agencies are often set up to lend people money at very low
rates so that poor farmers can borrow.
- Construction of clinics.
When farmers take a loan, they usually use their land as security. This
- Construction of schools. means that if they fail to repay the loan, the bank will take the land and sell
- Improve telecommunications. off to recover its money.
- Construction of tarred roads. Sometimes it is difficult for farmers to get loans from the banks because
they are small scale farmers. For example, credit schemes such as FAP,
(e) STORAGE AND MARKETING SCHEMES helps with the ALDEP, ARAP, SMME, CEDA etc.
establishment of selling points for farm produce and buildings for
keeping farm produce, (a) ARABLE LAND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME(ALDEP)

- For example, grain silos and Botswana Agricultural Marketing ALDEP helped farmers with grants to enable them to produce more.
Board (BAMB). The grants covered the following:
- Providing markets.
- 85% of the total cost of purchasing drought animals, for example,
(f) RURAL INDUSTRIES are setting up factories in the countryside cattle and donkeys.
to create employment or jobs - Farm machines and implements, for example, tractors, ploughs,
planters.
- Setting up industries in rural areas. - Water catchment tanks.
- Establishing financial assistance programmes such as CEDA - Fencing materials.
- Farmer education on scientific methods of production.
- Agricultural inputs, for example, hybrid seeds, fertilizers etc.
RURAL DEVELOPMENT SCHEMES
(b) ACCELERATED RAINFED ARABLE PROGRAMME
There are many ways through which the governments in developing (ARAP)
countries try to develop rural areas. The government of Botswana has
adopted several of these: Farmers received grants in the form of money for the following:
- Loans and credit schemes - Ploughing their fields.
- Farmers co-operatives - Fencing their fields.
- Small rural projects - Practising row planting.
- Weeding the fields.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 EVALUATION OF ALDEP AND ARAP THE IMPORTANCE OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS IN BOTSWANA
- Road construction to improve transport
FAILURES - Borehole drilling to supply clean water
- Connection of water pipes or construction of water treatment
- These failed to receive agricultural production. They have thus plants to supply clean water
been suspended. They failed because of the following reasons: - Markets stalls to provide shelter for small scale businesses
- Severe and persistent drought.
operations
- Dependency syndrome among farmers who now expected the
- Dam construction to supply clean water
government to provide them with everything.
- Bus shelter erection to protect travellers from harsh weather
- Most of the grants were used for non-agricultural activities.
conditions
- They mostly benefited the rich and literate farmers.
- Construction of Kgotla buildings to protect people or attendants
- Most farmers did not co-operate.
from harsh weather
- Some farmers were resistant to change.
- Construction of community halls to provide venues for activities
ACHIEVEMENTS - Construction of educational facilities to increase literacy rate and
to assist learners to qualify for upper levels of education
- Great awareness of modern farming methods was created among - Construction of health facilities to treat the ill or injured people / to
farmers. improve people’s health
- Farming technology was improved. - Construction of houses by Village Development Committees to
- Some farmers ended up producing for the market. provide accommodation
- Most communal farmers had access to capital. - Rural electrification to provide power

2. FARMERS CO-OPERATIVES THE CONDITIONS IN RURAL BOTSWANA AT INDEPENDENCE

- Rural areas in Botswana were adversely affected by rural poverty
Farmers co-operatives is a group of farmers who join together in order to characterised by:
increase production. - Lack of infrastructure.
- High levels of illiteracy.
They are able to gain advantages as a group that they would not be able to - Low incomes.
make as individuals. - Simple and less productive technology.
- Low agricultural yields.
By buying in bulk, they are able to save on cost of transporting these inputs.
- Lack of capital for investment.
3. SMALL RURAL PROJECTS - High levels of unemployment or lack of paid employment
opportunities.
These try to help people in rural areas by giving them a chance to earn - Lack of access to safe and clean water.
money from something other than farming. For example, such projects are, - Few social services.
brick-making, tree-planting, weaving etc. - Food shortages and widespread malnutrition
In Botswana, these are usually done through the Drought Relief Programme
- Poor or standard shelter.
(Namola Leuba).

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL AREAS SINCE INDEPENDENCE Botswana Agricultural Marketing Board (BAMB), Cooperatives
and cattle ranches.
The government of Botswana has been engaged in an integrated rural - The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural areas
developmental program with the following objectives:
in Botswana is that of construction of dams such as Ntimbale dam,
(i) To increase sustainable production from land and wildlife.
Lotsane dam, Dikgatlong dam and drilling of boreholes.
(ii) To improve marketing and credit facilities in rural areas. - The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural areas
in Botswana is that of recreational or entertainment facilities, for
(iii) To create productive employment opportunities. example, stadia such as Masunga Sports Complex and Molepolole
(iv) To improve access to social services such as water, education and Sports Complex.
health care. - The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural areas
in Botswana is that of rural industries.
NB: Consequently the following improvements have taken place in the - The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural areas
rural areas. in Botswana is that of clinics and hospitals.
(a) IMPROVEMENT IN INFRASTRUCTURE
- The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural areas
- A network of tarred and gravel roads has been constructed. in Botswana is that modern houses.
- A network of telecommunications, especially in big villages, has - The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural areas
been set up, coupled with a mobile telephone network. in Botswana is that of airports and airstrips.
- Powerlines that bring electricity to the countryside have been put
(b) IMPROVEMENT OF WATER SUPPLY
up (rural electrification).
- Dams and boreholes have been constructed - Over 90% of rural Botswana has access to clean and safe water
through the Department of Water Affairs.
Describe three infrastructural changes that have taken place in many rural
- Clean water is supplied through boreholes, dams, and water
areas in Botswana.
- The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural areas reticulation systems.
in Botswana is that of rural electrification. - Water borne diseases have been eradicated by means of treating
- The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural areas water to make it safe for human consumption.
in Botswana is that of piped water. (c) IMPROVEMENT OF SOCIAL SERVICES
- The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural areas
in Botswana is that of tarred roads and bridges. - There has been massive expansion in the education sector with the
- The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural areas construction of primary and secondary schools.
in Botswana is that of telecommunications networks. - Education has been made free to cater, especially, for the rural
- The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural areas poor.
in Botswana is that of construction of schools. - Hospital, clinics and health posts have been constructed.
- The infrastructural change that has taken place in many rural areas - Health care services have been made affordable for everyone with
in Botswana is that of construction of market centres such as people paying only P5.00.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - There is supplementary feeding such as Tsabana, especially for Check your progress
malnourished children at almost all clinics and health posts.

(d) IMPROVEMENT OF AGRICULTURE 1. (a) What is meant by rural development?

- Loans are provided for farmers through National Development (b)Describe three negative aspects of rural life.
Bank and CEDA.
2. (a)Define colonialism.
- Farmers have been provided with grants through programmes such
as ALDEP and SLOCA- Services to Livestock Owners in (b) Describe three ways by which a country may benefit economically from
Communal Areas. being colonised.
- Farmers are taught new and better farming methods through
Agricultural Extension Services. 3. (a)What is meant by agricultural communities?
- Marketing facilities have been improved for farmers, for example,
BMC, BAMB. 4. (a) Define rural poverty?
- Artificial Insemination Centres have been established to improve
livestock breeds. (b) Describe any three causes of rural poverty.
- Diseases and pests are controlled by the Veterinary Services
5. (a)What is commercial farming?
Department of Animal Health and Production, and the Crop
Protection Unit. (b) State three advantages of commercial farming.
- Sebele Agricultural Research Station has been established to
developed new hybrid seeds and production methods. 6. What are hunter-gatherer societies?
- RIIC and BOTEC have been established to produce relevant
technology for rural areas. 7. Describe the division of labour in the hunter-gatherer societies
- Government services have been decentralised to rural centres and
8. Aims of rural development
Drought Relief Programme has helped create employment
opportunities in rural areas. 9. Explain the importance of rural development
- Land Boards have been established to control and regulate land use
and distribution in communal areas.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

10. The figure below shows some essentials for rural development 17. How can the foot & mouth (or cattle lung) disease affect the rural
economy in Botswana?
Rural Industries Schools
Transport
18. Study Fig.2 and use it to answer question 18(a)(i) and (ii) below

Land Reform
Loans & Essentials for Rural
Credit Development

Agric. Extension
Resettlement Services
Appropriate
Schemes Technology

Choose one of the labels from the figure above and explain why it is
Fig.2
essential for rural development
(a)(i) Describe the causes of rural poverty in developing countries.
11. Describe the problems involved in the implementation of rural
(ii) Describe the major impacts of poverty on people and the natural
development schemes & strategies such as those in the figure above
environment in rural areas.
Describe obstacles to rural development in Botswana
(b)(i) Explain how women contribute to rural development in Botswana.
12. How did colonialism benefit people in rural areas?
(ii) How is the government attempting to solve the problems of rural
Positive effects of colonialism on Africa
poverty in Botswana?
13. Describe the characteristics of subsistence farming

14. What are the problems faced by subsistence farmers?

15. Describe the characteristics of commercial farming

16.What are the problems faced by commercial farmers?

Explain how govt. schemes help solve problems faced by commercial

farmers in Botswana

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

19. Study Fig. 3, which shows element of integrated rural development. - Teach people to utilize local natural resources or veld products
- Promote environmental awareness
- Advocate for human rights
- Improve infrastructure, for example, roads.

20. Study Fig. 4, which is an extract on rural development.

Since Botswana’s independence in 1966, the major challenges facing the

country has been rural development, and the critical issue that needed
urgent attention has been, and still is, poverty alleviation. In an effort to
achieve rapid social and economic development, as well as promote social
justice, various policies, programmes and strategies have been formulated to
address development issues in the country.

Fig.3 Fig.4

(a)(i) Describe each element of integrated rural development shown in Fig. (a)(i) Describe how rural areas in Botswana have improved since
3 independence.

(ii) Explain the problems which are caused in rural areas of Botswana as - Wide tarred roads have been constructed
development occurs. - More schools have been built
- More health services have been provided/clinics/health
(b)(i) Explain the challenges that the government of Botswana faces when centres/hospitals built
trying to provide safe water in rural areas. - Increased agricultural extension service
- Increased livestock and crop production/ improved agricultural
(ii) Suggest ways by which Non-Governmental Organisations can help
infrastructure
people in rural areas to improve their standard of living.
- Provision of agricultural marketing centres, for example Botswana
- The way by which Non-Governmental Organisations can help Agricultural Marketing Board, Botswana Meat Commission
people in rural areas to improve their standard of living is through - Establishment of rural industries/shops in rural areas
fund income generating activities or provide capital for people to - Rural electrification, improved/modern housing
start businesses. - Improved telecommunications
- The Non-Governmental Organisations help people in rural areas to - Provision of piped water
improve their standard of living is by employing rural people in - Agricultural disease control
projects. - Sewage system connection and landfills
- Train people in practical skills - Establishment of service centres, for example, Omang,
- Buy rural products or crafts Registration of birth and deaths, water utilities, power and
- Provide basic needs to the needy, for example, food and shelter community hall.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

(ii)Explain the importance of any three rural development projects in (ii)Suggest ways by which duties of family members in rural areas have
Botswana. changed as a result of the development process.
- Road construction to improve transport
- Borehole drilling to supply clean water - Grandmothers/mothers/wives/daughters look after large livestock
- Connection of water pipes/ construction of water treatment plants - Grandmothers/mothers/wives/daughters do paid work/jobs
to supply clean water - Husbands/sons/grandfathers/fathers babysit/look after children
- Markets stalls to provide shelter for small scale businesses - Grandmothers/mothers/wives make decisions
operations - Children attend school
- Dam construction to supply clean water - Grandfathers/fathers/husbands grow food crops
- Bus shelter erection to protect travellers from harsh weather - Husbands do household chores
conditions - Mothers/grandmothers head families/ female headed households
- Construction of Kgotla buildings to protect people/attendants from - Child headed families
harsh weather
- Construction of community halls to provide venues for activities [RULE: Award even when men/women terms are used]
- Construction of educational facilities to increase literacy rate and
to assist learners to qualify for upper levels of education
- Construction of health facilities to treat the ill or injured people / to
improve people’s health
- Construction of houses by Village Development Committees to
provide accommodation
- Rural electrification to provide power

(b)(i) Describe challenges which result from development in rural

areas.
- Loss of culture, for example, changes in diet
- Increased population/ migration
- Overharvesting of natural resources
- Increased crime
- Commercialisation of life/ increased cost of living
- People living in heterogeneous groups instead of homogeneous
groups thereby decreasing unity/ understanding
- Deforestation due to infrastructural development/ industrialisation
process
- Complexity of life as opposed to the simple traditional life
- Pollution [allow example]
- Poor sanitation/hygiene

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 MODULE 4: INDUSTRIALISATION AND URBANISATION INDUSTRIALISATION

TOPIC GENERAL OBJECTIVES SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES AN INDUSTRY is the production of everything (goods & services) other
Learners should be able to: Learners should be able to: than those produced in agriculture.
Industrialisation Describe the process of - Explain the industrialisation;
industrialisation and its - Evaluate different strategies for
impact on development. industrialisation including import
- An industry is any activity which is aimed at economic gain but
substitution, export oriented particularly applied to manufacturing industry.
industries, small and large scale
enterprise, multi-national companies, INDUSTRIALISATION is the process of setting up organisations for the
local investment and joint venture; making of goods and provision of services, especially in the introduction of
- Describe the characteristics of modern manufacturing industry.
industries including mechanisation,
advanced technology, a wide range of
raw materials, synthetic products,
- Industrialisation is the process of growth of large-scale machine
division of labour, automation, production and the factory system.
robotics, feminisation of the labour Industrialisation is done through manufacturing, mining, construction,
force, sub-contraction, cottage and co- assembling, energy or power and service production.
ordination of specialised tasks;
- Discuss the effects of industrialisation; HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
- Discuss the successes and challenges
of newly industrialised countries;
Industrialisation started in Europe in the early 18th century. The main aim
- Investigate the impact of
industrialisation on their locality.
was to speed up the production of clothes from cotton and wool. Later on
Urbanisation Explain the dynamics of - Explain urbanisation, urban growth,
similar methods to those in the textile industry were employed in the
urbanisation and its impact on rural-urban, urban-urban migration production of other goods and services. By the end of 19th century many
development in Botswana and primates cities; countries of Western Europe, North America and Japan had started to
and the SADC region. - Discuss the effects of urbanisation; industrialise.
- Suggest possible solutions to problems
of urbanisation; In Botswana, industrialisation is still at infancy or primary stage. The
- Explain the formal and informal country only started to industrialise after attaining its independence. It is
sectors of the economy; therefore in the category of industrialising or developing countries.
- Account for the growth of the formal
and informal sectors;
- Discuss the problems of the informal
sector of the economy and suggest
possible solutions;
- Compare and contrast the process and
impact of urbanisation in Botswana to
that of other developing countries in
the SADC region.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 STRATEGIES FOR INDUSTRIALISATION - Import substitution is the strategy that the government can
encourage the setting up of factories to produce goods to replace
those bought outside the country.

- State enterprises are the strategy whereby the government can

establish parastatals to produce goods and provide services in the
country.

There are two broad strategies for industrialisation which have been used
successfully by many industrialised and Newly Industrialised Countries
(NICs).
These are Import Substitution Industrialisation (ISI) and Export
Oriented Industrialisation.

These could be implemented through Multi-National Corporations, Local

Fig.1 companies, Small scale and large scale, and joint venture.

- Small scale enterprise is the industrialisation strategy where IMPORT SUBSTITUTION INDUSTRIALISATION
government can organize and fund people to produce goods at
home (cottage industry) or craft industry, for example, weaving Import substitution industrialisation is whereby the country starts
and pottery. making goods itself instead of importing them from elsewhere.

- Small scale enterprise when the government fund people to A deliberate effort is usually done to local industries through:
produce few goods.
- Putting high tariffs (tax) on imported goods so that they become
- Multi-National Companies are companies that the government expensive.
can invite to establish industries that produce goods and services in
the country. - Providing loans and grants to local business people by the
government.
- Joint venturing is the industrialisation strategy whereby the
government works with other businesses to produce goods and - Encouraging students to specialise in science and technology, so as
services to provide the much needed skills.

- Joint venturing is when the government encourages businesses to - Starting national research centres to encourage technical
work together to produce goods and services. inventions.

- Export orientation is the strategy the government can encourage - Inviting Multi-National Corporations to invest in the country to
investors to set up factories to produce goods for sale outside the produce for the home market.
country.
- Controlling the workers so as to ensure stability at the work place.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Protecting individual property rights at all times, thus reducing fear EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRIES
from the private companies that their property may be nationalised.
Export oriented industrialisation is whereby a country develops
- Providing the necessary infrastructure such as telecommunications, industries directed towards exports, for example, products in high demand
water and power. in the outside world.
This done for many reasons:
- The government investing directly in heavy industries which are of - Export oriented industrialisation helps to generate the high
strategic importance or which cannot attract private investors. required foreign exchange.
Other Advantages of Import Substitution Industrialisation (ISI)
- Export oriented industrialisation helps to create job opportunities
Strategy
for the locals.
- There is creation of employment.
- Export oriented industrialisation helps to encourage research,
- Improved infrastructure. innovation and development skills.

- A country earns foreign exchange if it produced surplus goods - Export oriented industrialisation helps to encourage economies of
which could be exported. scale, for example, they can produce more for a bigger market and
- Workers acquire skills and knowledge. be able reduce the prices while still making profit.

- Local raw materials can be used. So the goods may be cheap. - Export oriented industrialisation helps to make more profit in using
cheap local labour and export goods which may not find market
- A country saves money which could be used for other economic locally.
activities.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF EXPORT ORIENTED INDUSTRIES
THE DISADVANTAGES OF IMPORT SUBSTITUTION
INDUSTRIALISATION
- The local people’s needs may not be met because a country is only
- Home market is too small and expansion is limited. concentrating in goods for export.
- The local raw materials may get depleted.
- A country still needs to import expensive machinery or technical - If products are not of good quality they may not compete well in
knowhow to produce goods. the world market.
- If the countries which buy the goods find an alternative goods or
- A country does not earn foreign exchange. substitute the market may decline.
- Depletion of local raw materials. NB: The two strategies can be achieved by various means, such as
Multi-National Corporations, Local investments, Joint Enterprises,
- There could be limited variety of goods. small scale and large scale industries.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 MULTINATIONAL CORPORATION/TRANS NATIONAL  They provide goods and services of better quality and variety to
CORPORATION the customers.

There are large companies or firms usually based in the industrialised  They export and earn foreign exchange for less developed
countries, with branches in some other parts of the world. These companies countries-export oriented industrialisation.
are so huge that their annual turnover is bigger than GDP of most countries
including developed countries.  They widen the country’s income base, increase GNP.

TNC COUNTRY OF PRODUCTS  Some local clubs, teams, individuals usually benefit from this
ORIGIN obligations, for example, scholarship and sponsorship.
Roche Switzerland Pharmaceuticals
THE ADVANTAGES OF MULTI-NATIONAL COMPANIES/CORPORATIONS
Honda Japan Motor cars and motor (MNCs)
De Beers Republic of South cycles  They often use local saving which could be used for the benefit of
Sony Africa Diamonds the locals.
Kodak Japan Electronic goods
Nestle USA Photographic equipment  They often pay locals little salaries and take most profits back
Bayer Switzerland Food stuffs
Exxon (Esso) Germany Chemicals and home.
Phillips USA medicines
General Motors Netherlands Oil products  Less Developed Countries (LDCs) often compete for MNCs, by
IBM USA Electrical goods providing them with incentives such as tax holidays, grants and
Volkswagen USA Motor cars loans. MNC’s move their products between countries so as to
Coca Cola Germany Computers avoid responsibilities and enjoy incentives from different
Unilever USA Motor cars countries.
Monsanto Netherlands Soft drinks
USA Foodstuffs and  Some MNC’s are too powerful for local governments to control.
household products
Agri-chemicals and  MNC’s sometimes take advantage of ignorance of the locals to use
biotech. goods methods which are not appropriate to the local environment and
THE ADVANTAGES OF MULTI-NATIONAL COMPANIES/CORPORATIONS conditions, for example, using capital intensive technology and
(MNCs) expertise.

 They bring with them capital, skills and technology.  At times goods are produced are irrelevant to the local community
or domestic market.
 They reduce reliance on imported goods, for example, they can be
part of import substitution industrialisation.  MNC’s encourage dependency and neo-colonialism through
 They pay taxes to the host countries, thus generating income. dependence on foreign technology, foreign markets, foreign
capital, foreign expertise etc.
 They create job opportunities.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

  They bribe and corrupt the host government or even interfere with o Utilisation of local resources, for example, raw materials and
in their politics. skills.

LOCAL COMPANIES o Reduction of rural-urban migration as they are usually rural based.
Local individuals or group of individuals can organise themselves and
start businesses.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF SMALL INDUSTRIALISATION
THE ADVANTAGES OF LOCAL COMPANIES
 Unreliable markets or poor marketing strategies.
 They are eager to make profit so they are prepared to work harder.
 Lack of managerial skills.
 They are flexible and respond well to local demands.
 Destruction of environment.
 They find out what people need and they try to meet their
demands.  Financial constraints or lack of capital.

THE DISADVANTAGES OF LOCAL COMPANIES LARGE SCALE INDUSTRIES

Large scale industries refer to huge production of goods, it involves
 They are profit oriented and they can exploit the locals. machinery as well as a lot of mechanical power.

 They face the problem of raising capital for technology. THE ADVANTAGES OF LARGE INDUSTRIES
 Encouraging mass production.
 Locals usually prefer foreign goods than locally made ones.
 Create linkages, for example, growth of interconnected industries.
 If they produce in small quantities the cost of production may be
high leading to high prices.  Economies of scale.

SMALL SCALE INDUSTRIALISATION  Quality production due to competition.

Small scale industrialisation refers to production done on small scale basis
and involves the production of crafts work, for example, sculpture, curving,  Training of labourers.
pottery, basketry etc.
 Development of infrastructure.
THE ADVANTAGES SMALL INDUSTRIALISATION
DISADVANTAGES OF LARGE INDUSTRIES
o They generate income as products are usually bought or purchased @REFER TO SMALL SCALE INDUSTRIES
by pursuits.

o Employment creation in rural areas.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 PARASTATAL - Bolux- Botswana and Luxembourg

Parastatals are state owned corporations which are set if the government - BCL-Botswana and Anglo-American
fails to attract private inventions or it wants to “decommercialise” the
essentials commodities and services. - Murray &Roberts

THE ADVANTAGES OF JOINT VENTURE

Examples in Botswana are: Botswana Telecommunications, Bank of
(a) Economies of scale
Botswana, Air Botswana, Water Utilities etc.
THE ADVANTAGES OF PARASTATALS
(b) Encourage mass production
1. Their aim is not to generate profit but to provide essential services.
(c) Quality production
2. If there is profit it is reinvented for the benefit of the whole
country. (d) Create job opportunities

3. Effort is made to train and employ local workers at all levels of FACTORS THAT A COUNTRY SHOULD CONSIDER IN ORDER TO SET
production. UP INDUSTRIES
- The factor that a country should consider in order to set up
4. The produce is made and sold at affordable prices. industries is the availability of raw materials or natural resources
used to produce goods.
5. There is job satisfaction and security.
- Availability of capital for investment/money/ start-up capital
THE DISADVANTAGES OF PARASTATALS
i. Single or uniform products do not satisfy everyone’s taste or - Availability of labour, for example, specialised labour, skilled
wants. labour, semi-skilled labour and unskilled labour.

ii. Goods produced are usually of poor quality. - Availability of a large market to sell goods and provide services.

- Availability of power/electricity to drive machines used in the

iii. Civil servants usually lack motivation as they work for salary
production process
rather than for prize.
- Availability of transport and telecommunication networks
JOINT ENTERPRISES
- Availability of water for cooling machines, cleaning and as an
A joint venture involves two or more business organisations or individuals ingredient
who combine their resources to form a new business operation.
- A stable political environment
That is when an individual, or the government join hands with foreign
individuals, companies, or government to form or start business, for - Availability of land
example,
- Debswana- Debeers and Botswana government - Availability of technical knowhow/skills/machinery

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN INDUSTRIES *Synthetic products: new technology has made it possible to replace
natural products with artificial ones, for example, synthetic fibre and
Modern industrial production is complex and highly mechanised. In order to synthetic rubber made from hydro carbons derived from petroleum.
industrialised, a country must have natural resources [land], human
resources [labour], financial resources and entrepreneur skills to help in the * Sub-contraction: Because of high specialisation in industries some
production of goods and services. Here are some of the characteristics of companies find it increasingly hard to complete some tasks alone. They hire
modern industries: some companies to do part of the job.

*Raw materials: Raw materials may determine the location of an industry, *Cottage industries: the manufacturing wholly or partly carried out at the
for example, industries using large quantities of bulky raw materials such as home of the worker. Here a big industry could supply raw materials to the
cement factory, brick work, iron making, will be influenced by the location cottage industry operator, to turn them into finished goods for a fee and then
of the raw materials, for example, fruit and vegetable canning. return it to the big industry for selling. This is done to minimise costs.

*Advanced technology: Modern industries require complex technology. *Coordination of specialised tasks: Large scale industries are made up of
The machinery is very complicated and expensive, it requires special skills large numbers of independent specialists, for example, in a mining industry,
to produce and repair it. there are people specialising in engineering, research, sales, accounting,
advertising, etc.
*Mechanisation: Modern industries require factory buildings, machinery
and various types of equipment. THE BENEFITS OF HAVING MANY INDUSTRIES IN A DEVELOPING
COUNTRY SUCH AS BOTSWANA
*Division of labour and specialisation: for the factory to be more efficient - The benefit of having many industries in a developing country
and to make products within a short time it needs to divide its workers into such as Botswana is job creation.
different tasks. In other words each worker has to specialise in small part of
the whole task. - Availability of a variety of goods and services locally/ reduced
imports
*Automation and robotics: In modern industries most of the machine
- Infrastructural development, for example, tarred roads
processes are controlled by computers. Such industries are called High Tech
industries. In such industries goods are not handled by people at all during - Increase of GNP/GDP/GNP per capita/ GDP per capita
the whole production process. Only a few highly skilled workers are
required to ensure that the machine does its work properly. - Locals learn skills
*Feminisation of labour force: In industries today women are increasingly - Technological advancement
doing the jobs hitherto regarded as men’s work, and consequently their
numbers are constantly increasing. This is because increased mechanisation - National pride
has done away with much heavy labour. Women excel in work requiring
precision and delicacy of touch, they tend also to tolerate long hours of - Taxation by the government
machine-minding than men.
- Foreign exchange from exports

- Utilisation of local resources

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Self -reliance - Traditional culture may be lost or changed.

- Diversification of the economy

THE EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT
THE EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIALISATION
Industrialisation and development are closely related. Development can be Large cities grow up around the industries often with problems of poor
either negative or positive and so do industrialisation. housing, overcrowding, bad sanitation, diseases.

THE ARGUMENT FOR INDUSTRIALISATION (POSITIVE EFFECTS) Industries pollute the land, air and water.
- Through industrialisation the country can produce more goods and
services, so the GDP will increase. THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIES ON THE ENVIRONMENT.

- More jobs can be created. There will be different jobs for the - The negative effect of industries on the environment is that of air
locals. pollution, land pollution, water pollution and noise pollution.
- The standard of living will increase since people will have more
- Deforestation or cutting down of trees/ soil erosion
choices.

- The government can collect more money to spend on welfare - Depletion of natural resources or natural resources getting finished
services.
- Poor sanitation due to growth of overcrowded cities
- When a country has its own industries it is more independent.
- Acid rain
- Industry can produce surplus for further investment.
- Disturbance of the ecosystem/ loss of habitat
THE ARGUMENT AGAINST INDUSTRIALISATION (NEGATIVE
EFFECTS ON PEOPLE) - Creation of heat island/ raised temperatures in towns
- People have to change their way of life, move into cities and often
lose touch with family and friends - Climate change
- Work has to match the pace of the machine. Some jobs are THE SUCCESSES AND CHALLENGES OF NEWLY INDUSTRIALISED
repetitive and boring. COUNTRIES
- People may become greedy for more and more goods. Wealth These are countries with new and fast growing industries. They are third
becomes more important than human relations. world countries which started industrialising after the Second World War.
- Industries tend to use up natural resources, like minerals and fossil
Examples of newly industrialised countries are South Korea, Brazil, Egypt,
fuels which are non- renewable.
India, Argentina, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, China etc
- They may forget the importance of agriculture and craft
production.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

SUCCESSES BENEFITS
 Jobs were created.
 There is creation of employment.
 New technology was brought into the country.
 Introduction of new technologies.
 Research and design were created for new inventions.
 More exports.
 Standard of living rose.
 More foreign exchange.
 Export market grew.
CHALLENGES
 Profit used to diversify production.
 Competition with developed countries.

 Local people do not have the buying capacities. PROBLEMS

 Gap between the haves and the have nots widened.
 Shortage of buyers in the international market because of low
quality and environmental pollution.  Workers worked for a long time but paid very little.

CASE STUDY-BRAZIL  Urban poverty increased.

Brazil is one of the examples of successful industrialised countries of the  Workers not allowed to strike.
South. She managed that through the help of her motor industry, through
which she managed to implement import substitution and export oriented  Working conditions crowded and unhealthy.
industrialisation strategies. Brazil invited Multi-National Corporations
such as Ford, Volkswagen, and General Motors to set up industries in its  Damaged caused to the equatorial forests and tribal cultures.
territory.
These industries were attracted through grants, loans, flexible rules allowing  The country not able to pay its loans due to high interests and low
companies to send profit home. production.
A 200% tariff was levied on all imported cars, making them three times
expensive in Brazil. The government gave loans to the Brazilian companies  Corruption grew or money stolen / misused by leaders.
to set up support companies such as battery companies, tyre companies and
wire companies. The government built heavy industries such as steel mills  Severe imported inflation, for example, due to rise in petrol prices
to supply car industries with locally made steel. The government also
developed infrastructure such as roads, railways, sea ports and imported oil.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Check Your Progress 12. Study Fig.1, which shows some of the strategies for industrialisation.

1. Describe modern industries

Characteristics of modern industries:

2. Describe five factors that should be considered when setting up industries

3. How does industrialisation negatively affect development?

4. Suggest possible solutions to the negative effects of industrialisation on

people

5. Why are most manufacturing industries found in the eastern part of

Botswana?

6. How can the Botswana govt. encourage industrialisation in other parts

of the country?
Fig.1
7. What problems are faced by developing countries in their attempt to
industrialise? (a)(i) Describe the industrialisation strategies shown in Fig. 2.
8. How does a developing country benefit if it adopts the import substitution (ii) Describe factors that a country should consider in order to set up
industrialisation strategy? industries.
Discuss the advantages of import substitution industrialisation
(b)(i) Describe the negative effects of industries on the environment.
9. Why did Newly Industrialised countries take a shorter period of time to
industrialise? (ii) Suggest the benefits of having many industries in a developing country
such as Botswana.
10. Give examples of Newly Industrialised Countries (NICs):

11. What challenges are Newly Industrialised countries facing in an attempt

to sustain their development levels?

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 URBANISATION What is a primate city?

EXPLANATION OF CONCEPTS: Primate city is the largest urban centre or areas whose population is at least
twice or double that of the second largest in a country.
 URBANISATION is an increase in the proportion of the people
living in towns and cities. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A PRIMATE CITY

- The characteristic of a primate city is that of an area where

 URBAN GROWTH is the increase in the physical size of urban government would normally Set up its administration, for example,
area. parliament

The difference between the two is that urbanisation means an increase in the - Primate city is an area where a national university and technical
percentage of the population, whereas urban growth may not necessarily training schools are located.
affect the percentage of the population, even though the physical size of the
urban area increases. - Primate city has the best infrastructure, for example,
communication networks and most of financial investment.
 TOWN is a small urban settlement.
- Primate city is an area where many private companies headquarters
 CITY is a large urban settlement. are found or is a centre of commerce

- More industries
NB: The criterion for classification of a settlement into either an urban or
rural one varies from one country to the other. For example, any settlement - More population
of 5000 or more people, with about 75% of its labour force involved in non-
agricultural employment is regarded as urban in Botswana. In contrast the THE CAUSES OF URBANISATION
United Nations regard a settlement with 20 000 or more people as urban. The main ones are:
 PRIMATE CITIES-originally these were ports which were set up 1. Natural Increase is when the population increase in this case is
by colonial governments as their administration centres. caused by birth rate being higher than death rate.
Over the years, these settlements attracted a lot of people from It is calculated by subtracting the rate of death from the rate of birth (BR-
rural areas, and most of the economic activities in these DR=NI).
settlements are more industrial than agrarian. The incidence of this can be attributed to improved health facilities, diets,
water and sanitation and the general standard of living.
Examples are Lagos, Accra, Freetown, Abijan, Dakar, Dar es
Salaam and Addis Ababa. 2. Migration is the process of moving from one area to the other with
the intention of staying at the area of destination for a reasonable
length of time.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Permanent migration is when one moves from one area to another without - Drought
the intention of moving elsewhere, or returning to their place of origin.
Temporary migration is when one moves from place to the other to stay - Witchcraft
for a short period of time.
Internal migration is when one moves within the same territory or - Traditional life
country.
External migration is when one moves across borders or territorials - Rural poverty
boundaries.
- Poor markets

- Expensive goods and services

THE FACTORS THAT ATTRACT PEOPLE TO URBAN AREAS

- The factor that attracts people to urban areas is employment

opportunities because there are many industries that provide goods
and services.

Fig.1 - Better health facilities, for example, clinics and hospital both
Migration may be a result of push factors (negative things that force people private and public owned.
to move) such as inadequate social amenities (education, health facilities,
etc), desire to break away from traditional way of life, poverty, poor - Better educational facilities, for example, public schools and
farming methods, lack of investment opportunities, lack of employment, private schools.
higher prices of goods in rural areas, wars, drought and poor harvest.
- Chances of better relationships
Pull factors such as improved social amenities in urban areas, high
opportunities of getting a job or investing or better-paying jobs, relatively - Better transport facilities
cheap prices of goods, security, high opportunities for modernity.
- Low prices of goods
THE FACTORS WHICH FORCE PEOPLE TO MOVE FROM
RURAL TO URBAN AREAS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES - Better entertainment and recreational facilities

- The factor that forces people to move from rural to urban areas in - Security offered in towns
developing countries is lack of employment opportunities.
- Modern lifestyle
- Lack of entertainment
- Better housing
- Shortage of social services, for example, schools and clinics
- Less beliefs in witchcraft

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

2.1 RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION is when people move from rural  Traditional way of life is in most cases not practised since a lot of
areas and settle in urban areas. people prefer the modern way of life. In some instances this comes
2.2 URBAN-URBAN MIGRATION is when people move from urban with the bad behaviour of urban life.
areas and settle in other urban areas.
THE EFFECTS OF MIGRATION ON URBAN AREAS (TOWNS
AND CITIES)
THE EFFECT OF MIGRATION ON RURAL AREAS
(a) POSITIVE
(a) POSITIVE
 Migrants send some money or remittance home. In some cases this
is the only source of income in rural areas. - Migrants provide the much needed labour in urban centres,
especially unskilled and semi-skilled, for example, in factories,
 Migrants who work outside the country sent remittance in the form homes, etc.
of foreign currency, thus earning their country of origin foreign
money. - Migrants increase employment opportunities in urban areas when
they use some of their earnings for investments, for example,
 Migrants bring in new and advanced technology back to their
communities. starting up their own businesses.

 Migrants can invest their income in rural areas, for example, by - Migrants bring in some new ideas or survival skills to urban areas,
building some residential houses, shops, etc, thereby creating for example, how to survive on very little means.
employment.
- Increase in population in urban areas may result in increase and
(b) NEGATIVE
improvement in the infrastructure in urban areas.
 Migration deprives rural areas the much needed labour in
agriculture since most of the migrants are the able-bodied men and - Migrants provide the markets for the goods and services in urban
women in the community. areas.

 Division of labour has changed in rural areas as a result of

migration. In the past, women were only responsible for the small
livestock like goats and chickens, but with the absence of men,
they now look after cattle.

 Disruption of family life due to the ill -discipline of children

especially boys left with their mothers in rural areas.

 There is an imbalance in the sex ratio. Most of those left in rural

areas are women.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 (b) NEGATIVE THE POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS OF RAPID
URBANISATION

Migration in most cases results in rapid urbanisation (tendency of having  Systematic and well planned towns and cities.
more people living in urban areas than in rural area at a rate that the national
economy cannot sustain). This brings a lot of problems:  Management of the growth and use of private vehicles in urban
areas.
- Pressure on social amenities, for example, schools and hospitals/
Over load of social amenities, for example, clinics, hospitals and  Improvement of public transport.
schools
 Establishment of a housing corporation that will build low cost
- Increased crime and social unrest/ Increase in crime rate houses so that everyone will have decent and affordable house to
live in.
- Shortage of clean water.
 Abolition of squatter locations.
- Poor sanitation services.
 Setting up of more industries to create more employment
- Shortage of housing/ Shortage of accommodation leading to
opportunities.
squatter camps

- Pollution, for example, land, water, air and noise  Establishment of public work schemes in rural area to provide
work for rural dwellers in order to reduce rural-urban migration.
- Increased unemployment rate/high unemployment
 Commercialisation of agriculture in rural areas.
- Traffic congestion.
 Encouraging rural-urban trade.
- Diseases are spread at very high rate.

- Increased poverty, or low standard of living

- Overcrowding due to shortage of land

- Loss of culture

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE FORMAL SECTOR OF THE ECONOMY THE REASONS FOR LOW NUMBERS OF WOMEN IN FORMAL SECTOR
OF THE ECONOMY
The formal sector is the part of the county’s economy that is organised by
the government and large firms. - The reason for low numbers of women in the formal sector of the
economy is due to lack of education and training or high illiteracy
It consists of modern activities such industries, business and commercial rate.
activities and government agencies.
- Women are less credit worthy
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FORMAL SECTOR THE ECONOMY
- Societal expectation on women, for example, taking care of
- The workplace is up-to-date and in most cases permanent. children

- Women’s low self- esteem or fear

- The private companies pay tax to the government and run
according to the state laws. - Women’s high workload at home especially in agriculture
- Workers get regular wages and are protected by the country’s laws. - Myths or stereotypes about low intelligence of women

- Workers have written contracts with their employees. - Early marriages

- Employees are free to belong to trade unions. - Lack of capital

THE REASONS FOR GROWTH OF THE FORMAL SECTOR IN

- The jobs often require skill and training. BOTSWANA
- Presence of the multi-national companies/foreign investors
- Production is usually done on a large scale basis.
- Financial assistance
- Employees receive regular wages or salaries. - Government take the initiative to register businesses
- In some cases registration is a requirement for operation
- Complex technology is often used. - Tendering process demands registration
- Business/ entrepreneurship taught in schools motivating students to
start formal businesses
ASSIGNMENT: Discuss the advantages and the disadvantages of the - The need to export goods and services demand registration of
formal sector
businesses

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE WAYS BY WHICH FORMAL BUSINESSES CONTRIBUTE TO THE CHARACTERISTICS
DEVELOPMENT OF A COUNTRY SUCH AS BOTSWANA
- The people are usually self-employed or provide service on small
- They pay tax to government basis for others.
- They improve infrastructure by building permanent structures - The wages are not guaranteed.
- They train workers
- The jobs and workers do not belong to trade unions.
- They increase GNP/GDP
- They operate on small scale
- They sponsor social activities, for example, sports - Work is done in temporary shelter
- They increases international trade helping the country to earn
- Payment of taxes is unnecessary
foreign exchange
- Hours of work are flexible
- Employment creation - People use traditional skills to do the work, for example, weaving
- Technological advancement and sewing

THE INFORMAL SECTOR OF THE ECONOMY ASSIGNMENT: Discuss the advantages and the disadvantages of the
informal sector.

THE POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS OF THE INFORMAL

SECTOR

- The registration of some jobs.

- They encourage skill acquisition training for all economic

activities.

- They encourage the use of appropriate technology and the local

resources.

- They provide environmental education in order to reduce pollution

of the environment.

Fig.2
This sector of the economy is organised by individuals, and not the
government nor registered companies.
It consists of small, locally owned workshops and home factories, fruits,
vegetable, clothes and jewellery markets, selling of firewood etc.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - In the informal sector, there is lack of trade unions but in the
formal sector trade union exist
- Wages in the informal sector are unguaranteed or irregular but in
the formal sector wages are regular/ guaranteed.

THE PROBLEMS FACED BY THE INFORMAL SECTOR

- Lack of capital/small gain/profit

- Lack of entrepreneurship skills
- Lack of proper shelter for operation so production is disturbed by
harsh weather
- Little market/competition for the formal sector/ competition among
themselves
- Lack of security so cases of theft are common
- Goods of poor quality due to poor technology
Fig.3 - Harassment by law officers
- Lack of credit worthiness
THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INFORMAL AND FORMAL - Lack of recognition by the government.
SECTORS OF THE ECONOMY
- Informal sector is unregistered whilst the formal sector is WOMEN CONTRIBUTION TO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN
registered or documented or the owners hold licence to do it. THE INFORMAL SECTOR IN BOTSWANA
- Informal sector is unprotected by the law whilst the formal sector
- Dominate specific important enterprises like catering,
is protected by the law.
dressmaking, child care/ provide services
- Informal sector has flexible working hours whilst the formal sector
has fixed working hours. - They utilise their natural skills like cleaning, cooking, weaving/
traditional skills/ use less business skills
- Informal sector uses simple technology whilst formal sector uses
- They create jobs for other people/self -employment
complex technology
- Informal sector is done on small scale whilst the formal sector is - They provide a market for producers of specific materials like
cotton, wool, reeds for weaving/ increases market
done on a large scale
- They can develop into cottage industry, for example, making cakes
- Informal sector is done in temporary shelters or in the open whilst
at home for supermarkets
formal sector has permanent buildings
- In informal sector, workers use natural talents while in the formal - They train themselves/ others/impart knowledge and skills to
others
sector people are trained for the work
- They form self- help groups
- In the informal sector, taxes to the government are unpaid or
ignored but in the formal sector tax is paid

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE REASONS WHY MANY WOMEN ARE INVOLVED IN THE THE DISADVANTAGES OF HAVING FEW WOMEN IN DECISION
INFORMAL SECTOR MAKING POSITIONS

- Women lack education or qualification to enter the formal sector - The disadvantage of having few women in decision making
- Women lack capital to establish formal businesses/ women can positions is that women issues are ignored
afford little capital in informal activities
- Birth rate will be high
- Women are burdened with household chores so they engage in
informal activities right at home, for example, selling of fruits on - Unequal participation in decision making
the front of their homes
- Women can cope with flexible working hours - Poor status on human rights
- Women lack the documents required for registration of formal - Domestic violence/ conflict between men and women
businesses, for example, bank accounts and tax registration
- Most women have responsibility to take care for children as single - Lack of role models for the girl child
parents so they are forced into informal production

THE REASONS FOR THE RAPID GROWTH OF INFORMAL

SECTOR IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

- The informal sector requires little capital to start

- They utilises natural skills/traditional skills/uses less business
skills
- There is less requirements for registration and licensing/ less paper
work
- There is high unemployment/ little expansion in the formal
sector/creation of employment for the unskilled
- The goods are attractive for their traditional value, for example,
arts and crafts.
- Their operations can be done anywhere.
- The goods are mostly affordable.
- They Use simple and intermediate technology

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Check Your Progress
1. Define urbanisation.

2. What is meant by rural-urban migration?

3. Define urban-urban migration

4. Describe five push factors of rural-urban migration in Botswana

5. Describe five pull factors of rural-urban migration in Botswana Fig.1

6. Describe the positive effects of rural-urban migration on rural areas Describe the factors that attract people to urban areas.
7. How is the formal sector different from the informal sector? Suggest reasons for the low numbers of women in the formal sector of the
economy.
8. How does the informal sector benefit the urban dwellers?
What are the disadvantages of having few women in decision making
9. Why is it easy to join the informal sector? positions?
10. Describe the problems posed by the informal sector to the national
economy 19. Study Fig.2 which is a picture showing some activities in the informal
sector.
11. Describe the problems faced by the informal sector

12. Describe any five problems caused by rapid urbanisation on towns &
cities

13. Describe problems of urbanisation on rural areas

14. What is a primate city?

15. Describe three characteristics of a primate city.

16. Describe the factors which force people to move from rural to urban
areas in developing countries.
17. Describe the negative effects of rural-urban migration in towns and
cities in developing countries.

18. Study Fig. 1, which shows push and pull factors of rural-urban
migration and answer the question (a) Fig.2

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Describe the characteristics of the informal sector
(b)(i) Describe ways by which women in the informal sector contribute to
Suggest reasons why many women are involved in the informal sector. the economic development of Botswana.

Suggest reasons for the growth of the formal sector in Botswana (ii)Explain why the informal sector of the economy is growing rapidly in
developing country.
Describe ways by which formal businesses contribute to the development of
a country such as Botswana

20. Study Figs 1A and 1B, which show the informal and formal sectors of
the economy, and answer questions (a)(i) and (ii).

(a)(i) Using Figs 1A and 1B and your own knowledge, state the differences
between the informal and formal sectors of the economy.

(ii)Suggest possible problems that are faced by people in the informal

sector, such as the person in Fig. 1A.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 MODULE 5: WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT organisations;

TOPIC GENERAL SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES -examine the role of women’s

OBJECTIVES organisations in the
Learners should be able Learners should be able to: prevention of HIV/AIDS and
to: other communicable diseases;
Women in Development Develop an understanding -discuss the role of women in
and appreciation of the traditional societies with -select one of the women’s
role of women in reference to labour, food organisations in Botswana
development. production, arable farming, and evaluate its role and
animal husbandry and family effectiveness;
welfare;
-explain the role of women in
-discuss the impact of the formal and informal
traditional values, customs sectors of the economy;
and practices, taboos and
myth on women’s position in -account for the disparity in
society; the wealth distribution
between women and men in
-assess the impact of Botswana;
colonialism on the position of
women in society in relation -discuss women’s problems
to education, land in Botswana and suggest
entitlement, wages, labour, possible solutions.
migratory labour and WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT
commercial farming;
EXPLANATION OF CONCEPTS
-discuss issues relating to
emerging roles of women Women-female adult person
such as equal access to jobs,
new policies, women oriented
schemes and female headed
Man –male adult person
households;
Sex –the state of being female or male
-assess the role played by
women in the politics of Gender –being feminine or masculine
Southern Africa with specific
reference to pre-independence Gender Equality-giving females the same treatment as males in the
and post-independence eras;
society.
-account for the emergence
and development of the Gender Discrimination-unfair treatment of someone based on sex.
lobbyist, educational, legal
and welfarist women’s

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN TRADITIONAL SOCIETIES The traditional belief shown on Fig. 1 may negatively affect the position
of women in Botswana in the following way:
 Childbearing, this was among the main role that a woman played.
 Family welfare, she cared for the children, the elderly and the - Eve was made out of Adam makes women inferior to men/ woman
sick. to be follower of man
 Domestic work, women had to fetch water and firewood, cook and
feed the family members. They were also expected to sweep the - Women having smaller heads-women denied a chance to go to
compound, wash clothes for every member of the family. school/ girls in school put into easy subjects/ women trained for
 Community work, they were involved in community projects low paying jobs.
such as ceremonies like funerals and weddings and religious
activities. - Women too busy being mothers- women denied high
 Agricultural production, women were involved in weeding, positions/women outside decision making or leadership/ few
harvesting and storing crops. They also raised small livestock like women in the formal sector/ women tied to the home/ women
chickens. dependent on men/women’s health at stake.

THE IMPACT OF TRADITIONAL BELIEFS ON WOMEN’S - Women lose energy in bearing children- women discouraged from
POSITION IN THE SOCIETY attaining high education/ few role models for the girl child.

Leadership, women are thought to be less intelligent than men, therefore,

leadership positions were reserved for men only.

Consequently, most laws oppressed women, for example, no women could

own property, unless through their husbands or the sons.

ASSIGNMENTS: Discuss at least three traditional practices, values,

taboos and myths that have reduced the status of women to that of
servitude in the society

- Myth is a story based on popular belief

- Myth is a tale with supernatural characters, usually of how the world

and mankind began.
Fig.1

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

The negative effects of traditional values, customs and practices, taboos THE IMPACT OF COLONIALISM ON WOMEN
and myths on women’s position in society today
 Education, Europeans believed that women’s place was in the
- The disassociation of women from leadership resulted in women’s pre- kitchen, and that they had weak brains, therefore educating them
determined destiny that they should be passive in politics and assume was not a priority.
lower position in the workplace Consequently, they remained ignorant about family planning and
reproductive health. Girls were only given specific training for
- Their subordination to men brought fear, respect and obedience that
domestic work, especially in the homes of the colonizers.
man is indeed the breadwinner in the family

- Today there are few women involved in decision making because they  Land Entitlement, land was a communal property in pre-colonial
had been made to believe they have smaller brains than men societies. The introduction of the right to individual ownership of
land by the colonizers was not extended to women.
- Their full involvement in domestic work or household chores has This impoverished many as they could not carry out any activity
indirectly convinced them that they specialise in domestic work, which on the land without permission from their male counterparts.
is unpaid for. This has also pre-determined the type of work women do
hence their involvement in the lowly paid jobs  Migratory labour, when men went to work outside in the mines
and farms in South Africa, their wives were not allowed to join
- Their pre-occupation with children and domestic work has also denied them.
women the chance to advance in public life Women thus remained at home and assumed the roles previously
done by men. In most cases, decisions and thus had to wait for
- Since land was the property of the husband, women have been denied
their husbands. Marriages also broke up.
the chance to enrich themselves by using this natural resource for
commercial purposes
 Commercial farming, generally there was low agricultural
- Women were denied the chance to go to school as they were thought productivity since the able bodied men were absent.
incapable of learning (smaller brain and therefore less intelligent than
men) and this has resulted in the low literacy rate among women However, women needed cash to purchase what they needed, and
today. sometimes pay for school fees. This forced some women to sell the
surplus from their fields for cash. Shortage of food resulted in
- Women were forbidden to pass through a herd of cattle when on malnutrition and people were prone to diseases.
monthly period. This was a way of discouraging women from owning
any cattle and this has resulted in lower standards of living
today/poverty among women

- A woman is oppressed/looked down upon as she is believed to be a

product of man (Eve was made from Adam’s rib)

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE POSITIVE EFFECTS OF COLONIALISM ON WOMEN IN - They also nursed the wounded soldiers
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. - Provided food and water for soliders

- Modern health care/family planning After independence, women participated fully in the development of their
- Paid employment new nations since they now had voting rights.
- Women became literate
- Improved technology Today women are decision makers in parliament, cabinet, government
- Commercial farming/cash crops institutions and Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs).
- Reduction of abusive traditional practices (due to Christianity)
- Property ownership, for example, land in urban areas. THE EMERGING ROLES OF WOMEN

THE ROLE PLAYED BY WOMEN IN POLITICS IN Women’s status has improved. Laws have been passed to ensure that
SOUTHERN AFRICA women are not oppressed or discriminated against.
During the struggles and negotiations for independence and liberation
women participated as leaders of women’s wing of their organisations.  Female-headed households
During the struggles and negotiations for independence and liberation  Equal access to jobs
women participated as leaders of women’s wing of their organisations.
 Training
- In Zimbabwe, women formed 25% of the cadres of the Zimbabwe
 Entrepreneur activities
African National Liberation Army (ZANLA)
 Agriculture
- Women also cooked, fed and provided medication to the male
freedom fighters. They also repair cars and ammunition.
ASSIGNMENTS: Discuss freedoms enjoyed by today’s women under the
- Women occasionally ruled as queens even though most rulers were
following: women oriented schemes, access to jobs, new policies and
men, for example, Queen Mantatisi of Batlokwa
female headed households.
- In some countries women took part in the struggle for
independence and often fought side by side with men, for example,
- Women oriented schemes are development[strategies, measures,
Kenya, Mozambique, Angola and Namibia
initiatives]/policies that are directed especially towards female to
- Some women leaders even fought against colonial conquest, for
give them opportunities to participate and benefit in the process
example, Queen Ndzinge of Angola against Portuguese
- During wars for independence women provided hide- - Women oriented schemes are official plans that are intended to
out/protection for guerrillas or freedom fighters/take care of help females participate and /or benefit from the development
refugees
process.
- In South Africa, women like Mrs. Winnie Mandela and Mrs. Rose
Sebukwe led other women against discriminatory apartheid laws/ - Female-headed household is a family where the mother is taking
they instigated other women to stage demonstrations/marches and care of the family alone
in the long run formed Women’s Movements

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

The causes of female-headed households THE ROLE OF WOMEN’S ORGANISATIONS

- Marital problems leading to / resulting in divorce / husband or father Women’s organisations are Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs)
leaving family for another woman or family
which were established by women to help liberate them.
- Death of the husband / father / male partner

- It might be a result of incest / adultery / illegitimate children

- The ease with which one can have a child out of wedlock or before
marriage

- The choice to have a child and remain single

- Economic independence by women / most of them can now work and

support their children

- Loss of interest in marriage by women

- Disappearance of male partners

- Education / emancipation of women from sexual bondage

The problems faced by female-headed families

- There is little time to spend with the children at home

- Indiscipline of the children especially the boy child leading to a high

incidence of juvenile delinquency

- Vulnerability to attack by criminals / abuse

- Low standard of living due to lower levels of education by women.

This results in poverty that may lead to engaging in illegal activities by
women, for example, prostitution, selling dagga
Fig.2
- Women’s low self esteem

- Unequal distribution of wealth/property

- Disrespect by society / tradition or culture militates against

emancipation / discrimination / stigma

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Welfarist Women’s Organisations- YWCA, BCW, WASBO, Kagisano LOBBYIST ORGANISATION
Women’s Shelter
EMANG BASADI
- Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA) provides day Emang Basadi is an organisation which was formed in 1986 and has its
care centres to allow women to go to work or school headquarters in Gaborone. It is a lobbyist organisation because it is
- Kagisano Women’s Shelter provides counselling and shelter for advocating for the rights of women in Botswana.
abused women
- Botswana Council of Women (BCW) provides training of Lobbyist simply means to try to persuade the government or someone with
women on practical skills/gives information to women/conducts political power that a law or a situation should be changed or amended.
beauty contents/runs day care centres
- Women And Sport Botswana (WASBO) promotes participation This organisation is, therefore, persuading the government of Botswana to
of women in sports change its laws or constitution to suit or favour both sexes especially
women.
Lobbyist Women’s Organisation-Emang Basadi THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF EMANG BASADI
Some of the major achievements of Emang Basadi include the following:
- Emang Basadi focuses on influencing the government to remove
or change policies or laws that are oppressive to women/
 Identifying women’s most urgent problems, increasing public
Advocates for women’s rights
awareness of women’s issues and removing all barriers that hinder
the advancement of women.
Legal Women’s Organisation- Women Against Rape (WAR)
That is, it identifies and removing laws that discriminate against
- Women Against Rape (WAR) focuses on teaching women about women.
the laws that protect themselves/how to defend themselves/ensure  In 1994 Emang Basadi launched a Polite Education Project. This
that perpetrators/rapists are charged. was contained in the women manifesto. Among other things the
women’s manifesto aims at;

i. Increasing the number of women in parliament and local

government to 25%.
ii. Reinsuring that political party platforms include women’s
commitments, issues and concerns.
iii. Educating women on the connection between voting and
improving their living conditions.
iv. Promoting awareness of women’s political stand under
representation in politics as well as informing them on the
neglect of their needs.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EMANG BASADI  To help women deal with the aftermath of rape, sexual abuse and
other forms of violence.
This organisation has proved its worth and effectiveness in a number of
ways, some of which are discussed below;  To develop a constituency of women at village level who will
 Emang Basadi has managed to hold Voter Education Seminars to work with the centre to lobby for the necessary legal reforms to
bring the issues outlined in the Manifesto to community level. improve the status of women in Botswana.
 Before the 1994 elections, workshops were held to assist women  To link up with other women’s group, both nationally and
candidates from all political parties. Women candidates were internationally, that are committed to improving the status of
trained on handling campaigns especially on public speaking, women for the purposes of sharing experiences and strategies, and
fundraising and identifying key national and local issues. providing support and information.
 Women’s issues have been included in the political manifesto of
Botswana’s political parties.  To promote a greater understanding of human rights, culture of
 Representation of women in parliament has gone up. human rights, which features women’s rights prominently.
 We now have women cabinet ministers.
 The number of women councillors has increased. THE EFFECTIVENESS OR ACHIEVEMENTS OF
 The number of women chiefs at House of Chiefs has increased. METLHAETSILE WOMEN’S INFORMATION CENTRE
 Women are increasingly assuming leadership positions in
Metlhaetsile had outstanding achievements in the past.
government and private sector.

It made a breakthrough in issues of failed marriages that had ultimately led

LEGAL ORGANISATION
to divorce as well as helping those women who were denied custody of their
children during divorce hearings as children were traditionally seen as
METLHAETSILE WOMEN’S INFORMATION CENTRE
belonging to the man and his family.
The Metlhaetsile Women’s Information Centre was founded in 1991 by
Women who had cases and could not afford attorneys were provided with
small group of Mochudi women.
the assistance they needed-hence justice was done as both parties were
presented whenever there was a need.
THE OBJECTIVES OF METLHAETSILE WOMEN’S
INFORMATION CENTRE
Today, Metlhaetsile is faced with a mammoth task of providing legal
 To provide women with education and training about their rights
representation to women who are in need of legal aid-yet cannot afford to
and status under Botswana law.
pay legal fees.
This can be in matters relating to divorce or child maintenance as
 To provide legal assistance to less privileged women.
mentioned earlier on.
 To provide education and training to women about family
planning, HIV/AIDS prevention, sexual abuse and violence issues.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 WELFARIST ORGANISATION THE EFFECTIVENESS OR ACHIEVEMENT OF BCW

BOTSWANA COUNCIL OF WOMEN (BCW) BCW has a number of outstanding achievements, among them are the
following:
The Botswana Council of Women is a national non-governmental
organisation that was formed in 1965.  The Botswana Council of Women has established over 33 nursery
schools all over Botswana. These schools provide Day Care and
THE OBJECTIVES OF BCW food for children while their mothers are at work.

The objectives of BCW include to:  It successfully established a Goat Rearing Project in Ditlharapeng.
This generates some income for women especially those in rural
 Provide affordable nursery school services to enable parents to areas.
freely go to work or be self- employed.  They offer six months courses on Dressmaking and fashion design.
At least 20 people trained every year in their headquarters in
 Provide women and youth with development skills, training for Gaborone.
income generating activities and self-sufficiency for the alleviation
of poverty.  At least 20 people are trained on linen making (curtains,
 Encourage responsible citizenship, power sharing and equal comforters, and cushion making) in one-month courses.
economic opportunities.
 Provide education on HIV/AIDS in order to empower women with
the ability to negotiate with their partners for safer sex.  BCW has trained people on hair dressing, for example, the correct
 Encourage women to participate in self-help-projects. use of chemicals, plaiting and styling over the years.

 Facilitate the establishment of skills development centres in the  They have been the organisers of Miss Botswana contests over the
villages. years.
 Advocate and lobby for the eradication of all forms of
discrimination against women and the girl child.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

THE ROLE OF WOMEN’S ORGANISATIONS IN THE PREVENTION OF
HIV/AIDS AND OTHER COMMUNICABLE DISEASES 5. Coping Centre for People with Aids (COCEPWA) has been
founded by a Motswana woman who has been living positively
Botswana is being crippled by the HIV/AIDS epidemic. If the war against with HIV/AIDS for a number of years.
HIV/AIDS is to be won, women should be involved all the way. It has been established mainly to support all those infected and
Gone are the days when women were viewed as just ‘transmitters’ of the affected by AIDS and to offer one another the much needed
HIV/AIDS message. support.
The entire nation must come together to fight against HIV/AIDS. The membership is open to all, irrespective of gender.
Women, through a number of organisations, try to teach people about this Members of COCEPWA hold workshops and seminars to talk
scourge. They also support those infected, stigmatised and abused. openly about living positively with HIV/AIDS, and best to avoid
1. The Botswana Council of Women trains women trainers through the infection if not part of the statistics already.
workshops to become peer educators on HIV/AIDS awareness and
prevention. THE CHALLENGES THAT WOMEN’S ORGANISATIONS FACE
AS THEY WORK TO HELP WOMEN IN BOTSWANA
2. The Young Vulnerable Women seeks to mitigate the spread of
HIV/AIDS and prevent teenage pregnancies. - Shortage of funds
It engages in basic training on skill development and on the
publication of Youth Magazines that contains information on - Ignorance of women about their rights
HIV/AIDS.
- Shortage of skilled people/ dependence on volunteers/ lack of
3. The Kagisano Society Women’s Shelter Project is voluntary volunteers, for example, bookkeepers
non-profit making organisation that believes in the equality of
mankind. It strives for a violent free society. - Lack of support from the public
It aims to assist women and children who are survivors of
domestic violence by providing temporary accommodation. - Lack of buildings for operations
It pioneers community responses to gender crisis, sexual violence
and HIV/AIDS. - Lack of public awareness about the NGO/confusion about their
4. The Botshabelo Rehabilitation Centre embarks on community objectives/stereotyping
mobilization education and information on HIV/AIDS and sexual
violence. - Selective locations (make them inaccessible)
It helps victims or survivors of sexual violence with user friendly
clinical intervention to reduce trauma. - Division among leaders/members/pull her down syndrome due
It also empowers men to be fully involved in the fight against political affiliation
HIV/AIDS.
The target groups are children, youth and women. - Lack of continuity (when the leader dies all programmes stop)

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE FORMAL AND INFORMAL This sector of the economy is not organised by individuals, and not the
SECTORS government nor registered companies.

It consists of small, locally owned workshops and home factories, fruits,

The formal and informal sector today forms pillars of the Botswana
vegetable, clothes and jewellery markets, selling of firewood etc.
economy.
Women in Botswana have greatly contributed to the development of the ASSIGNMENT: Discuss the advantages and the disadvantages of the
country’s economy through the formal and informal sectors. informal sector.

THE FORMAL SECTOR OF THE ECONOMY WOMEN CONTRIBUTION TO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN

THE INFORMAL SECTOR IN BOTSWANA
In the formal sector women work or do modern activities such as
accounting, teaching, nursing and other professions both in the private and - Dominate specific important enterprises like catering,
government departments. dressmaking, child care/ provide services
Most of the women are, however, found in low paying jobs.
In instances where both the men and the women do the same job they get - They utilise their natural skills like cleaning, cooking, weaving/
the same pay. traditional skills/ use less business skills
The only problem arising in most cases is that not many women occupy
senior positions. - They create jobs for other people/self-employment
The formal sector is the part of the county’s economy that is organised by
the government and large firms. - They provide a market for producers of specific materials like
It consists of modern activities such industries, business and commercial cotton, wool, reeds for weaving/ increases market
activities and government agencies.
- They can develop into cottage industry, for example, making cakes
ASSIGNMENT: Discuss the advantages and the disadvantages of the at home for supermarkets
formal sector.
- They train themselves/ others/impart knowledge and skills to
THE INFORMAL SECTOR OF THE ECONOMY others
The majority of women are found in the informal sector of the economy.
- They form self -help groups
Here they operate tuck-shops, brew and sell beer, mend clothes, design
clothes and do other things.
The jobs the women do here do not need any complicated skills, and as such
even those with no or very little education can do them.

The problem with the informal sector is that profits may take long to be
achieved, and therefore, requires somebody who has the patience to wait.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE REASONS FOR ECONOMIC DISPARITY BETWEEN immovable property and even to advance their career opportunities
WOMEN AND MEN IN BOTSWANA in the commercial sector.

Men in Botswana are wealthier than their women counterparts and occupy  Women’s social status is still relatively low because there are still
most high posts. This is because of many reasons which include the some cultural and traditional values which see women only as
following; child-bearers.

 Men have had technical skills for a long time. When colonialists  High teenage pregnancy causes great concern. In most cases these
introduced education, only boys were sent to school. pregnancies are unplanned and cause children to drop out of
school. Dropping out of school acts as a barrier to educational and
 With training and education, men learnt about ways of career advancement of women.
accumulating money which they later invested in other areas.
 Women’s health and survival is threatened by the spread of
 The men have always owned property, for example, land and cattle HIV/AIDS.
which they have inherited.
 Female enrolment in vocational and technical institution lags far
 Many years of leadership have made men to be better decision- behind that of men.
makers and has helped them use their money wisely.
 There are still gender gaps in employment opportunities that still
THE PROBLEMS FACED BY WOMEN IN BOTSWANA contribute to the disparity in income between men and women.

Although there are efforts to economically empower women and to remove  There is unequal access by gender to production resources. Access
all forms of discrimination against them and the girl-child, women and the to land may not be easy for some women even today.
girl-child still face multiple problems. These include the following:
 Violence against Women: Some men beat their partners as they  Female-headed families are on the increase. Women are sole
wish. Sometimes women are prevented from phoning or visiting breadwinners, so they have to engage in income generating
relatives and friends by their partners. activities for child survival and development. As a result there is
little time to spend with children at home. Where women did not
 Rape is on the increase. Studies by Women Against Rape (WAR) receive enough education and training their chances for
show that at least five females are forced into sexual intercourse employment are limited and may suffer from poverty.
every day.  The number of women in the upper echelons of power is very
limited.
 In rural areas, where the level of women literacy rate is low, men  Women’s involvement in business is limited to small scale
or husbands deny their women or wives rights to acquire land, activities in the informal sector mainly due to financial constraints.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Describe problems that women in modern Botswana face.  Education and skills development should be intensified. The
education system should be designed to create gender awareness
- Rape /sexual harassment from primary level.
- Domestic violence, for example, emotional abuse and financial
abuse  Research activities that will sensitise women on women on issues
- Lowly paid jobs that affect their status in society must be promoted.
- Lack of capital for investment
- HIV and AIDS infection  Formulate policies that protect women workers employed in rural
- Low level of education/illiteracy and urban informal sectors. Then there should be monitoring
- Cultural stereotypes procedures to ensure that such policies are followed
- Single parenting/female headed households Suggest solutions to each problem that women in modern Botswana
- Pull her down syndrome face.
- Teenage pregnancy
- Rape /sexual harassment
THE POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS FACED BY WOMEN  Law against victimising or blaming raped or sexually
harassed women/make laws that protect women
 There should be workshops to educate people on the importance of  Harsh sentences for rapists/sexual offenders
a life free gender violence. Those who sexually abuse women  Educate women to avoid situations where they can be
should spend their lives in prisons. raped/sexually harassed
 Educate women or girls to report incidents
 They should be Standing Sub-Committees that review laws and
 Educating men
assess their gender implications. Laws that discriminate against
 Counselling rape victims
women should be done away with.
- Domestic violence, for example, emotional abuse and financial
 The Private Sector, Government and Parastatal organisations
abuse
should all make deliberate efforts to appoint women to decision
 Adjust Botswana laws to punish men who beat women
making positions.
 Policies that support women’s participation in domestic and  Educating men
external trade should be developed and enforced.  Counselling rape victims and perpetrators
 Provide safe houses/shelters for physically abused women
 Women’s reproductive health and rights should be promoted.  Empower or train women to fight back, for example,
Pregnant women should be taken care of. Government should teach women defensive strategies
collaborate with NGOs to promote safe delivery by setting up good
ante and post-natal care services free of charge.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Check Your Progress

- Lowly paid jobs 1. What is a female-headed household?

 Train/educate women (so that they get qualifications for
better jobs) 2. Describe three causes of female-headed households
 Affirmative actions
3. Describe three problems faced by female-headed families
 Provide role models (of women in high posts) for girls)
- HIV and AIDS infection 4. What is the meaning of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome?
 Teach women to insist on the use of condoms during
sexual encounters 5. Describe three negative effects of HIV/AIDS on Botswana’s economic
 Educate/encourage women to use female condoms development
 Educate women to insist on HIV and AIDS testing before
6. Describe three positive effects of HIV/AIDS on Botswana’s economic
sexual encounters/marriages
development
- Low level of education/illiteracy
 Adult literacy programmes/distance education 7. What is a Women’s Organization?
- Cultural stereotypes
 Gender awareness workshops/ infusion of gender 8. Describe three problems / challenges that women’s organizations face in
education in the curriculum Botswana
- Single parenting/female headed households
9. State three roles played by women’s organizations in the fight against
 Women oriented schemes [allow examples]
HIV/AIDS in Botswana
- Pull her down syndrome
 Encourage change of mindset 10. Name one women’s organization in Botswana

11. Describe three activities that it performs to empower women

- Teenage pregnancy
 Avail contraceptives 12. What is a myth?
[Rule: Allow two examples of education]
13. Discuss three negative effects of traditional values, customs and
[Solution should be linked to the problem] practices, taboos and myths on women’s position in society today

14. What is gender equality?

What is meant by equal rights for women?

15. Suggest three ways by which gender equality can be achieved

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Suggest three ways by which equal rights for women can be achieved (a)(i) State one example of each type of women’s Non-Governmental
organisations shown in Fig.1 and describe its activities.
16. What is development for women?
(ii) Suggest challenges that women’s organisations such as the ones shown
17. Why are some development programmes directed especially towards in Fig.1 face as they work to help women in Botswana.
women?
18. Define colonialism. (b)(i) Describe problems that women in modern Botswana face.
19. Describe three positive effects of colonialism on women. (ii) Suggest solutions to each problem that women in modern Botswana
face
20. Define gender equality.
25. Fig.2 shows some ministries in the cabinet of Botswana and the genders
21. Describe three roles played by women in the pre-independence politics
of ministers and assistant ministers, between 2009 and 2014.
of Southern Africa.

Explain the importance of any three activities that women carried out to
fight for independence in Southern Africa (BGCSE paper 2-2019)
22. State three reasons why educating women in important for the
economic development of the country.

23. Suggest three ways by which governments of African countries can

increase school enrolment in girls.

24. Study Fig.1, which shows selected types of women’s Non-

Governmental Organisations in Botswana.

(a)(i) How many female ministers and assistant ministers were there in
Botswana in the period 2009-2014?

(ii) Calculate the percentage of male ministers and assistant ministers in

Botswana in the same period.

Fig.1 (b) Give two reasons why there are few women in politics in Botswana.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

(c) Give three examples of traditional practices which disadvantaged
women in the past.

(d) Suggest three problems faced by women in the formal sector in

Botswana.

26. Study Fig.3, which shows some traditional beliefs about women.

Fig.3

(a)(i) Describe the roles of women in a traditional society.

(ii) Suggest the positive effects of colonialism on women in developing

countries.

(b)(i) Suggest how each traditional belief shown on Fig.3 may negatively
affect the position of women in Botswana.

(ii) Describe other problems faced by women in modern Botswana.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 MODULE 6: POPULATION, HEALTH AND EDUCATION development. such as the provision of clean water,
sanitation, nutrition, entertainment,
TOPIC GENERAL SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES education, availability of personnel, stress
OBJECTIVES and poverty;
Learners should Learners should be able to: -discuss preventative and curative primary
be able to: and secondary health care, traditional and
Population Develop an -explain the concept of population; modern health systems;
understanding -discuss the impact of the health on
and appreciation -explain the stages of the Demographic Botswana’s development;
of the effects of Transition Model; -discuss the impact of HIV/AIDS on
population on -account for the different population Botswana’s economic development;
development. structures presented by different population -discuss how the health system is
pyramids; addressing the HIV/AIDS scourge in
Botswana;
-describe and interpret population pyramids -demonstrate the ability to analyse and
for developing and developed countries; interpret health statistics.
Education Appreciate the -explain the concept of education;
-discuss the main factors which influence role of education
population distribution and population in development -discuss modern and traditional formal,
density in the world; in Botswana non-formal and informal education;

-discuss prospects and challenges presented -describe the structure of the formal and
by rapid population growth in Botswana non-formal education in Botswana;
and suggest possible solutions;
-discuss alternative approaches to the
-explain the impact of the population provision of education in Botswana
growth on Botswana’s development; including vocational education and job
shadowing;
-demonstrate the ability to collect, analyse
and present population statistics; -discuss the impact of information
technology education on the development of
-discuss the impact of HIV/AIDS on the Botswana;
population structure of Botswana;
-discuss the role of environmental education
-explain the effects of overpopulation on the on development of Botswana;
environment. -explain the role of education in addressing
the problems of HIV/AIDS.

Health Explain the role -explain the concept of health;

of health in -discuss factors that influence good health

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 POPULATION
 Doubling Time is the number of years required for a population of
 Population refers to a group of people in an area at a given time. an area to increase two folds its present size, given the current rate
of population growth.
 Population Growth Rate is the percentage increase in the number
of people in a country.  Overpopulation is the state of available resources being
inadequate to support the number with a reasonable standard of
 Population explosion is the rapid increase in the number of living.
people.
 Demographic Transition Model is a diagram which shows how
 Depopulation is the decrease in the number of people. population changes over time.

 Demography is the study of population.  Population Pyramid is the structure which shows the age-sex
composition of a group of people.
 Dependency Ratio is the proportion of the unproductive aged
people (0-14 and 65+) to people of economically active ages (15-  Rapid Population Growth is the fast increase of the size of a
64) group of people.

 Old/Ageing population is a group of people with relatively high  Under Population is when people are too few in an area, or when
proportion of aged people. This kind of a population has low the available resources exceed the demand of a group of people.
growth potential.
 Optimum Population is when available resources give rise to
 Young population is a group of people with relatively high maximum output per head.
proportion of children, adolescents and young adults. This kind of
a population has high growth potential. THE SOURCES OF POPULATION DATA

 Sex Ratio is the number of males per 100 females in a population. CENSUS is an enumeration of people. It usually details such characteristics
as age, occupation, sex etc.
 Population Policy is the explicit or implicit measure institute by a
TYPES OF CENSUS
government to influence the size, growth, distribution and
composition of a group of people.  De-factor Census, which is the actual enumeration of people in a
given territory on the census day.
 Population Density is the number of people per unit of land.
 De-jure Census, which is the enumeration of people who belong
 Population distribution is how people are spread or settled over to a given area, whether or not they are present during the census
an area. day.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE FEATURES/CHARACTERISTICS OF A CENSUS POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND DENSITY

 Each individual is enumerated separately, and the characteristics of Population Density is the number of people per unit of land.
each person separately recorded.
 The census covers a clearly defined area, and every person within Population distribution is how people are spread or settled over an area.
the area. The patterns of distribution and density are influenced by:
 The population is enumerated with respect to a well-defined point
of time. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
 Census is carried out at regular intervals.
 Physical or Relief
 Climate
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF CENSUS  Vegetation
 Soil Fertility
 It helps in development planning, for fair distribution of resources.
 Disease and Pests
 It enables government to prioritise, for example, if a large portion  Availability or lack of natural resources such as water, minerals,
of the population is below 15years of age, government’s priority sources of energy, etc.
might be to build schools.
SOCIO-POLITICAL FACTORS
SAMPLE SURVEY is a method of data collection through using selected
 Slave Trade
groups of the population. The information will then be used to inter-trend
for larger segment or the entire population.  Colonialism
 Wars and conflicts
THE REGISTRATION OF VITAL EVENTS  Political instability
 Cultural or linguistic segregation
Vital events such as births, marriages, divorce and deaths are usually  Racial Discrimination
registered at the Ministry of Labour and Home Affairs, as they occur.  Peace and stability, etc
Poor quality data, which is available mostly in developing countries, may be
due to non-reporting, lack of trained staff, lack of money to carry out the ECONOMIC FACTORS
exercise, incomplete coverage, cultural and linguistic barriers, among other
factors.  Good infrastructure
 Job opportunities

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE PROSPECTS OF RAPID POPULATION GROWTH THE POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS OF RAPID
POPULATION GROWTH
These are the benefits of rapid population growth:
 Increased market base.  Improving agricultural production.

 Increased provision of labour.  Creating new settlements, for example, towns, villages, cities.

 Advanced technology.  Establishing agencies and schemes to help decrease the cost of
building houses, for example, BHC and SHHA.
 Increased military or security superiority
 Providing serviced land, for example, in urban areas through such
 Increased understanding of man’s behaviour and a positive programs as Accelerated Land Servicing Program.
development of humanism as human ideology.
 Establishing rainwater and runoff harvesting measures such as
THE CHALLENGES OF RAPID POPULATION GROWTH
building more dams.
These are the problems associated with rapid population growth:
 Improving schemes aimed at reducing poverty, especially in rural
 Depletion of natural resources. areas, such as the Drought Relief Programme.
 Food shortage and malnutrition or starvation.
 Shortage of houses and high rentals, high prices for land and  Train more doctors and nurses who might improve medical
building materials. technology.
 Shortage of water.
 Increased in illiteracy rate due to shortage of schools and lowered  Train more teachers and lecturers to improve local educational
educational standards. technology.
 Shortage of medical facilities.
 Pollution, for example, due to dysfunctional sewage systems.  Establishing more industries to create more job opportunities.
 Rapid spread of communicable diseases.
 Implementing population policies to control population growth.
 Increased unemployment rate or poverty or underemployment.
 Shrinking energy reserves.
 Increased crime rate.
 Scarcity-induced inflation.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 POPULATION POLICY THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL [DTM]

The Advantages include: Demographic Transition Model is a diagram which shows how population
changes over time
 Reduction in poverty since it allows development to keep pace
with population growth.

 It can lessen inflation.

The Disadvantages include:

 It restricts people’s freedom of choice [in regards to the family

size]

 Women may be forced to have abortion, which might endanger

their health.

 Strict policies can result in an unbalanced population in terms of

the sex composition. Fig.1
INTERPRETATION
THE IMPACT OF HIV AND AIDS ON THE POPULATION
STRUCTURE OF BOTSWANA STAGE 1: High fluctuating-Birth rate and death rate high and fluctuating,
resulting in a low population growth.
 Fewer children or reduced birth rates or narrow base.
 Reduced working-age group. STAGE 2: Early expanding -Birth rate remains high while death rate
rapidly declines, leading rapid population growth.
 Reduced life expectancy.
 High infant mortality rate. STAGE 3: Late expanding -Birth rate rapidly decline, but is still higher
 Increased orphan-hood. than death rate, which continues to decrease, further accelerating population
 High dependency ratio. growth.
 Increased death rates.
 Reduced population growth rate or population decrease. STAGE 4: Low fluctuating- Both birth and death rates are low and
fluctuating, resulting in a steady population growth [the population
increases at a comparatively slow pace]

STAGE 5-Birth rate remains low, while death rate steadily increases,
leading to a decline in population growth.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE REASONS FOR HIGH BIRTH RATE MAY INCLUDE: THE REASONS FOR DECLINING DEATH RATE MAY INCLUDE:

 Lack of knowledge and improper use of contraceptives and poor  The provision of clean water to reduce water borne diseases such
family planning methods. as cholera.
 A lot of children were needed for old age security, to provide
labour, as a sign of prestige, to replace those who are dying, to  The provision of good nutrition, for example, supplementary
continue the family name, for religious purpose, etc. feeding for babies in clinics such as Tsabana, cooking oil and
 Early marriages also led to high birth rates. beans.
 Low levels of literacy also led to high birth rates.
 The provision of improved hygiene and sanitation prevent the
THE REASONS FOR HIGH DEATH RATE MAY INCLUDE: spread of diseases.

 Lack of clean water or flood.  The provision of better health care, for example, training of more
 Poor nutrition doctors and nurses.
 Poor hygiene and sanitation
 Poverty  The improved literacy levels, for example, building of more
 Wars schools and training of teachers.
 Overcrowding

THE REASONS FOR DECLINING BIRTH RATE MAY INCLUDE:

 The couples preferring smaller families

 Improved knowledge and proper use of contraceptives and family

planning methods.

 Low infant mortality rate –no need to replace the dying children.

 Introduction of government schemes such as old-age pension fund,

secures old-age life, hence needless to have a lot of children as old-
age security.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 POPULATION PYRAMIDS - Botswana pyramid has a triangular shape
- Botswana pyramid has concave sides
Population Pyramid is the structure which shows the age-sex composition - High dependency ratio
of a group of people.
Ways by which rapid population growth may promote development

- Increased demand or market for goods and services

- Attraction of investors (Foreign Direct Investment)
- Enjoyment of the benefits of economies of scale or promotion of
large scale production which is more efficient
- Full utilisation of transport or communication networks
- Power, water and other services can be operated at a low cost so
the government will establish them
- Availability of cheap labour

Strategies which governments may use to reduce population growth.

- Law restricting number of children per couple
- Offer of incentives for families with few children
- Family planning programme or contraceptives
(a)(i) Description of population structure shown by the pyramid. - Promotion of general education
- Public education on population issues or sex education
- Many youth or high number of young people - Provision of old age pension
- Increasing marriageable age
- Few members of the work force or few economically active people - Women empowerment
- Fewer women than men among the workforce

- Few old people

- More old women than men

Why Botswana could be viewed as a developing country.

- Botswana pyramid has a wider base or high birth rate

- Botswana pyramid has a reducing middle section
- Botswana pyramid has very narrow top or apex or low life
expectancy

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Assignment 1: Draw a population pyramid for Peru. Assignments 2: Draw a population Pyramid for the UK

Fig.3
Fig.2 This is a population pyramid for typical developed country. It can also be
This is a population pyramid for a typical developing country. It can also referred to as a mature population.
be called an Early Expanding Population Pyramid.
INTERPRETATION-It has a narrow base, expanding column or middle, a
INTERPRETATION: It has a broad base, steep or contracting column or thick or broad apex or top.
middle, and a thin or narrow apex or top.
ANALYSIS-Low birth rate is indicated by a smaller number of children,
ANALYSIS: The population has a high birth rate, shown by a large number the middle aged group has a large number of people, indicating low death
of children; the death rate is also high, indicated by smaller number of those rate.
in the middle and old ages.
The elderly are also many, indicating high life expectancy.
Life expectancy is also low, shown by an even smaller number of the
elderly. The dependency ratio is low, hence the population is referred to as a
productive one.
This kind of a population is a dependent one, for example, the dependency
ratio is high

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Assignment 3-Draw a population pyramid for Singapore Check Your Progress

1 (a).Define population density.

(b) State three problems for the natural environment that may result from
overpopulation.

2(a) What is meant by ‘population distribution’?

(b) Describe three factors which influence population distribution.

3. Study Fig. 2 which shows a population pyramid for a country and use it
to answer Question 3(a) below.

Fig.4

This is a population pyramid for a typical New Industrialised Country. It

can also be referred to as Late Expanding.

INTERPRETATION- It has a narrow base, expanding column, and a thin

or narrow apex or top.

ANALYSIS- Low birth rate is shown by a small number of children, a

large number of people in the middle ages indicate low death rate, and a
smaller number of the elderly shows low life expectancy.
Fig.1
The pyramid is that of a productive population since the dependency ratio is
low. (a)(i) Describe the shape of the pyramid.

(ii) Suggest reasons for the shape of the pyramid you have described above.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

4. Study Fig. 2 which shows a demographic transition model and use it to 5. Study Fig.3, and use it to answer questions (a)(i) and (ii).
answer the questions that follow.

Fig.3
Fig.2
(a)(i) Give reasons for high birth rates in stage 1.
(a)What is a demographic transition model?
Ideas such as:
(b)Which stage has the lowest birth rate?  Lack of contraceptives
 IMR is high so there is need to have more babies
(c) Suggest reasons for the falling death rate at stage 2.
 Provision of labour/children used as source of labour in agriculture
(d) Describe three benefits for a country of having a large population.  Religious beliefs, for example, Children are a gift from God
 Low levels of literacy
(e) Suggest three ways by which governments can achieve low population  Traditional beliefs and customs/ children as a form of prestige
growth rates.  Old age security
 Early marriages
 Chasing for a boy/girl
 Poverty so children expected to work for their families/parents
expecting bride price

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

(ii) Describe the problems faced by a country in stage 2. (ii) Describe attempts made by the government of Botswana to reduce
the effects of HIV and AIDS in society.
Ideas such as:
 Unemployment/underemployment/poverty Ideas such as:
 Pressure on social services such as school , water and
hospitals/clinics  Education programmes, for example, Talk back
 Depletion of resources  Commemoration of World AIDS Day/ Month of youth against
 Overcrowding/shortage of land Aids
 Crime increases  Free Antiretroviral drugs
 Spread of diseases/ high morbidity  Food rations given
 Starvation/hunger  Prevention of Mother to child transmission (PMTCT) programme/
Provision of free milk for babies
(b)(i) How have HIV and AIDS affected the population of Botswana?  BOTUSA(Botswana United States of America)
 Research towards National Aids Co-ordination Agency (NACA)
Ideas such as:  Infusion of HIV and AIDS in the curriculum
 Fewer children/narrow base(0-5 years)/fewer children  Guidance and counselling in schools/ hospitals
born/reduced birth rate  Free distribution of condoms
 Fewer 15-49 age bracket because they are the most  Routine testing for HIV
affected/reduced working age group/ loss of breadwinners
 Reduction in life expectancy 6.Study Fig.4 which shows the Demographic Transition Model.
 Fewer women in the population composition especially in the
middle because they are the most affected
 High infant mortality rate
 Increased orphanhood
 High dependency ratio
 Reduction in population/increased death rate

Fig.4

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

(a)(i) Describe the relationship between the death rate and the birth (ii) Explain the negative effects of HIV and AIDS on economic
rate from Stage 1 to Stage 4. development in Botswana.
- In stage 1 they are both high.
- In stage 2 the death rate drops while the birth rate remains high. - Death of skilled manpower.
- In stage 3 the birth rate begins to drop while the death rate is low. - Loss of production time as people spend time in funerals and
- In stage 4 they are both low. caring for the sick.
- High government expenditure on health which means that funds
(ii) Suggest reasons for the high death rate in Stage 1 of the are diverted from development projects to support health care
Demographic Transition Model. - Less tourists visit the country for fear of HIV and AIDS.
- Low productivity at work because people are sick or stressed by
- Outbreak of killer diseases such as polio. HIV and AIDS
- Poor diets/famine/low calorie intake
- High expenditure by families on funerals
- Poor medical technology/ lack of health facilities/ poor health/ lack
of immunisation programme.
- Lack of safe water supplies 6. (a) (i)Describe the factors which contribute to rapid
- Low levels of formal education. population growth.
- Wars
- Poor sanitation/ hygiene  Lack of birth control/family planning method/lack of
(Allocation of marks: 5/5 6/4 4/6) contraceptives
 Need for children as labour in agriculture
(b)(i) Describe actions that hospitals and clinics take to fight HIV and
 Religious beliefs
AIDS.
- Health talks on HIV and AIDS at hospitals and clinics/ public  Balancing boys and girls/ desire for either boys or girls
education  Polygamy
- Display of HIV and AIDS posters in hospitals and clinics/  Early marriages/teenage pregnancy
surrounding areas.  Children viewed as security for the aged/ bride price
- Counselling of HIV and AIDS victims and the affected family  High infant mortality rate/ parents replacing dead children
members.  Immigration
- Testing people for HIV and AIDS  Lack of education/illiteracy
- Proper disposal of used hospital equipment e.g. needles  Traditional beliefs/prestige
- Provision of Anti Retro Viral Drugs (ARVs) to HIV and AIDS
patients
- Running the Prevention of Mother To Child Transmission
(PMTCT) programme to protect unborn children
- Distribution of free condoms
- Encourage/ conduct male circumcision

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

(ii) Explain the measures which can be adopted by a country to slow  Reduced population
down population growth.  More women die than men
 One child per couple policy  Low birth rates
 Legalizing abortion  Increase in orphans/ high dependency ratio
 Offering contraceptives freely/ family planning/ birth control/
sterilization Positive effects:
 Formal education/ Educating the society  Population growth rate is controlled
 Giving incentives to smaller families/ fining larger families  Fewer people for the resources available/ fewer mouths to feed
 Maternity leave policy which discourages having many children
 Making children items expensive 7.Study Fig. 5, which shows a population pyramid for Botswana in 2001.
 Laws against chid labour
 Encourage adoption
 Health education
 Empowering women
(b)(i) What are the problems faced by countries in controlling high
population growth?

 Low education levels in rural areas

 Unavailability of contraceptives in some areas
 Apathy/negative attitude towards family planning programmes
 Conservative culture/religions which encourage large families/
cultural rigidity
 Abuse of drugs/ alcohol
 Child labour
 Lack of funds to implement family planning programmes

(ii) Discuss the impacts of HIV and AIDS on the population of

Botswana. Fig.5

Negative effects:
(a)(i) Describe the population characteristics shown by the pyramid.
 Reduced life expectancy
 High infant mortality rate - High birth rate
 Loss of skilled manpower/ breadwinners/working class - Birth rate is beginning to reduce
 High death rate - High death rate
- Low life expectancy/ few old people

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Life expectancy for females is higher than that of males/ more old (ii) Suggest actions that the government of Botswana could take to solve
females than males problems resulting from its population structure.
- High dependency ratio.
- Introduce family planning/ birth control/ contraceptives/ few
- More females than males
children/ one child policy.
(ii) The 0-4 age group is similar than the 5-9 and 10-14 age groups. - Law restricting number of children.
Suggest reasons for this reduction. - Promote formal education to change the traditional mind set on
large family.
Ideas such as: - Improve health service to reduce death rate or increase life
expectancy.
- Increased use of contraceptives/family planning/provision of free - Improve agricultural methods to ensure high yields from small
contraceptives.
fields/ agricultural extension service.
- More women are educated so they are empowered/ are aware of
- Encourage reforestation/ afforestation
their reproductive health. - Introduce environmental laws
- More career women so they lack time to care for babies. - Train people for self-employment/employment creation/financial
- People are afraid of pregnancy because of HIV and AIDS
assistance
- High infant mortality rate due to HIV and AIDS/ Other diseases
- Recognition of the informal sector by the government.
- High cost of living discouraging birth rate/Highly ambitious people - Provide more social services to reduce overload(on social services)
control birth rate to maintain high living standards.
- Land redistribution/resettlement programmes.
- Laws against child labour/ improved technology
- Welfare programmes/food baskets for the destitute/ government
- Change of traditional mindsets on the size of the family. help the poor with basic needs.
- Reduced infant mortality rate/ improved health facilities - Women empowerment/ skilled manpower
- Government pension reduces the need for a large family

(b)(i) Describe the problems that Botswana is experiencing as a result

of its population structure.

- High taxation of workforce to cater for many youth/ too many

dependants/ government burdened on welfare programmes.
- Overload of social services e.g. schools and hospitals.
- Unemployment due to expanding population.
- Deforestation due to high demand for trees (from expanded
population)/ depletion of natural resources.
- Poor sanitation/ littering/pollution.
- Starvation/ hunger/ poverty
- Shortage of farm land /grazing land/ land

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 10. Fig. 7 Shows the Demographic Transition Model.
9.Study Fig. 6, which shows population characteristics in Botswana in
1981, 1991 and 2001.

Population Census 1981 Census Census 2001

Characteristcs 1991
Dependency Ratio (per 110 93 71.5
1000)
Crude Birth Rate (per 47.7 39.3 28.9
1000)
Crude Death Rate (per 13.9 11.5 12.4
1000)
Infant Mortality Rate 71 48 56
(per 1000)
Life expectancy (in 56.5 65.3 55.6
years)
General Fertility Rate 6.5 4.2 3.27
(per woman Aged 15-49)
Urban % 9 45.7 54.2

Source: National Development Plan 9

Fig.7
Fig.6
(a)(i) Name Stage 3 of the Demographic Transition Model.
(a)(i) Describe the changes in population characteristics between 1991 and
2001. (ii) At what stage does the total population start to rise?

(ii) Suggest reasons for the increase in life expectancy from 1981 to 1991. (b) Give two reasons for the high death rate in Stage 1.

(b)(i) Describe the factors that could have caused the high general fertility (c) Give three reasons for the high birth rates in developing countries.
rate in 1981.
(d) Suggest three measures that developing countries can use to reduce
(ii) Suggest actions that the government of Botswana can take to reduce the their birth rates.
dependency ratio.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

11. Study Fig. 1, which is an extract on population characteristics of - Shortage of health facilities/medication
Botswana in 2012. - Ignorance or lack of cooperation resulting in missing medical
check ups
The World Economic Forum (2012) reports that in 2012, Botswana’s life - Poor sanitation/hygiene
expectancy was 53.1 years and that the country was at position number 132
- Back-breaking jobs
out of 144 countries. Infant mortality rate was 36.1 per 1000 live births,
putting Botswana at position number 104 out of 144 countries. - High rate road accidents.

Fig.8 (b)(i) Describe how HIV and AIDS might affect the population structure of
(a)(i) Describe the actions that the government of Botswana is taking to Botswana.
address the problem of high infant
Mortality rate. - Reduced Birth Rate as people fear unprotected sex/ fewer
babies/reduced youth
- Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission (PMTCT) programme - Increased Death Rate/reduced population
to stop or curb mother to child HIV infection/ provision of milk - Few old people/ low life expectancy
formula/ART/HAART - Reduced workforce/bread winners/death of active members as they
- Monitoring of under 5 years growth, for example, provision of are at the highest risk
supplementary feeding such as Tsabana, vaccination of babies - Few women in the workforce group
against killer diseases such as polio and measles, weighing - More orphans
- Medical care for pregnant mothers/ antenatal care
- Education of mothers/parents/guardians on baby care (ii) Suggest challenges faced by hospital and clinics in the fight against HIV
- Public education, for example clean environment, delivering at and AIDS.
health facilities, boiling water before giving to child
- Lack of funds/high expenses of purchasing Anti -Retroviral
- Training/employing specialists/health personnel such as nurses and
(ARVs)
doctors
- Stigmatisation of HIV/AIDS
- Provision of health facilities
- Traditional practices that promotes HIV and AIDS such as a
brother inheriting a dead brother’s wife regardless of HIV status
(ii) Apart from HIV and AIDS, suggest other reasons why Botswana had a
low life expectancy in 2012. and polygamy
- Overcrowding in health facilities, for example, shortage of beds
- High incidents of alcohol consumption/smoking/drug abuse/life - Shortage of the health personnel or overworked health personnel
threatening habits - Ignorance/illiteracy, for example, people ignore the PMTCT
- Poor nutrition/people eating unbalanced programme or refuse to use condoms
diets/underfeeding/starvation - Culture/Religion which counter HIV/AIDS fight, for example,
- People drinking contaminated water which discourages open talk about sex especially children
- People living passive lives/lack of exercise - Poor disposal of clinical waste/health personnel at risk.
- People stressed by challenges of life

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 HEALTH
NB: Availability of these influence good health, and lack of these influence
EXPLANATION OF CONCEPTS poor health.

Good health is the absence of diseases, poverty, and stress.  Nutrition or diet
Poor health is the presence of diseases, poverty, and stress  Living conditions
Pandemic is a disease that spreads throughout the world.
 Stress
Endemic is a disease that is always present in a country.
Malnutrition is a medical condition that results from lack of the right type  Resources
of food.  Health personnel
Balanced diet is a meal containing all the nutrients needed by the body in  Entertainment
the right amount.  Education
Transfusion is when a patient is short of blood receives blood from another
person.  Poverty
Transplant is replacing a sick part of the body, for example, heart and  Sanitation
kidney.  Clean and safe water

THE FACTORS INFLUENCING HEALTH THE WAYS IN WHICHGOOD HEALTH PROMOTES THE
DEVELOPMENT OF BOTSWANA.

- Healthy/fit workers are more productive

- Healthy students do well at school

- A healthy nation cuts expenditure on health services(so more

money for development projects)

- Good health attracts tourists who bring foreign exchange

Fig.1
 Clean water prevents waterborne diseases such as cholera - Healthy people are happy people so they cooperate with the
 Sanitation controls breeding of germs in the environment government ( they spend less time complaining/relate well with
Prevents diseases others)
 Entertainment lowers stress/ lowers blood pressure as people are
happy - Healthy environment attracts investors
 Balanced diet protects the body from diseases/Provide energy
 Fitness programmes improves the immune system Increase
 Hospitals and clinics helps to control spread of infections, for
example, distribution of condoms to reduce HIV infections

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE WAYS BY WHICH PEOPLE IN BOTSWANA COULD BE TRADITIONAL HEALTH/MEDICINE
ENCOURAGED TO EAT BALANCED DIETS
- Supplementary feeding is provided in schools and clinics It is also referred to as traditional medicine.
- Posters to teach people the importance of eating balanced diet
Traditional medicine is a cultural approach to prevention, diagnosis and
- Media nutrition programmes, for example, television, radio and treatment of diseases.
print media
- Agriculture extension workers help people to grow various types The bones of dead animals are mostly used during diagnosis, and plants,
of food roots and leaves are usually used in their raw form to treat ailments.
- Community Based Organisations could teach or encourage people
to grow vegetables or raise chickens To prevent diseases and even accidents, traditional medicine relies on
taboos and prohibitions, for example, ‘Fa o tsamaya ka sa morago, mmago
- Destitute/orphans given food baskets
o tla wela mo nkgwaneng’ this is meant to discourage children from
engaging in dangerous activities like walking backwards, since accidents
can easily happen.
DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS ARE USED TO MEASURE
HEALTH THE CHARACTERISTICS OF TRADITIONAL HEALTH
- Morbidity – The higher the morbidity the lower the health
 Traditional health mostly operates at the healer’s home.
- Doctor-patient ration- The higher the ratio the lower the health
- Population per hospital bed- The higher the population per  In traditional health treatment is based on belief, hence
hospital the lower the health unscientific, and conservative.

 Simple technology is used.

- Infant Mortality Rate- The higher the IMR the lower the health
- Calorie intake- The higher the calorie intake the higher the health
 The healing materials is acquired from the environment, and
mostly used in their raw form.
- Life expectancy-The higher the life expectancy the higher the
health  It is usually hereditary, and within family or relatives, hence it is
- Maternal death- The higher the maternal death the lower the surrounded by mystery.
health
 The information is memorised.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 MODERN MEDICINE/HEALTH PRIMARY HEALTH CARE

Modern medicine is a scientific approach to prevention, diagnosis and Primary health care is the measure that helps to prevent diseases, and
treatment of diseases. provide basic assistance to the sick.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN MEDICINE
The programmes or elements of primary health care include:
 The diagnosis has set procedures.

 The drugs are used to kill germs to treat diseases.

 It usually operates in hospitals and clinics.

 The modern health personnel receive extensive training.

 The data is documented.

 The treatment is based on experiments and trials.

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A TRADITIONAL AND A

MODERN HEALTH SYSTEM Fig.2
- Water and sanitation deals with the provision of safe water
- In traditional medicine, healing/diagnosis is based on the beliefs of eliminates or reduces waterborne diseases whilst hygiene removes
the patient/people whilst in modern medicine it is based on breeding places for pests.
scientific causes of the diseases. - Health education deals with informing people about diseases and
- In traditional medicine, healers are people who have acquired skills their prevention maintains good health.
handed down by their forefathers whilst in modern medicine - Nutrition promotion encourages people to eat balanced diets
healers are nurses and doctors trained in colleges and universities. improves their health.
- In traditional medicine, herbs/roots/ other natural products are used - Basic education deals with the provision of literacy- literate
for treatment whilst in modern medicine drugs/ other medicines are people learns simple ways of avoiding diseases.
used. - Food security is ensuring that people have enough food to eat
- Traditional medicine is conducted in the homes/forestry/ any helps them to be healthy.
suitable place whilst modern medicine is conducted in clinics and - Immunisation is the provision of vaccines prevents diseases such
hospitals. as polio.
- Traditional medicine healing/consultation is oral whilst in modern
medicine there is documentation/ records kept.
- Traditional medicine uses simple skills/ technology to heal whilst
modern uses advanced skill/technology to heal.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE ELEMENTS/CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMARY HEALTH CARE (d) ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND SANITATION

(a) HEALTH EDUCATION which involves the dissemination or A clean environment can be achieved through:
passing of information concerning sanitary measures needed for
the preservation of good health. People are taught about:  Construction of public toilets

 Family planning and contraceptives  Enforcing health bye laws.

 Food and nutrition  Standardised housing.

 Child care and development  Digging rubbish pits to bury degradable waste.

 Hygiene and environmental sanitation. (e) IMMUNISATION is when babies and children of up to five or six
years of age are vaccinated against preventable diseases.
(b) SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDING- The following groups are provided  Universal child immunisation programme are designed to eradicate
with supplementary foods to improve their diet, in a bid to all the child killer diseases and reduce infant mortality rates.
eliminate malnutrition and help strengthens immune systems:
The challenges that developing countries might meet as they work to
 Primary school children provide primary health care

- Shortage of volunteers to work on primary health care

 Drought stricken people
programmes/health personnel
 Malnutrition and underweight children - Lack of funds to run primary health care programmes/people lack
of funds to support primary health care programmes
 Medically vulnerable people like the HIV/AIDS patients. - Illiteracy/ignorance of the people causing lack of support for
primary care programmes, for example, some parents refusing to
 Orphaned and needy children. take children for vaccinations/ people refusing to use condoms
- Strong beliefs in secondary health care/hospitals/injections and
(c) PROVISION OF CLEAN AND SAFE WATER is provided to pills
eradicate and prevent waterborne diseases. - Traditional medicine sometime works against primary health care,
for example, traditional doctors may advise people to stop bathing
This is done through: as a procedure
- Large population making programmes difficult to manage
 Sinking of boreholes deemed unsafe
- Political instability
 Construction of protected wells and springs
 Construction of dams
 Purifying water and providing piped water.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 SECONDARY HEALTH CARE THE WAYS OF ADDRESSING THE HIV/AIDS SCOURGE IN BOTSWANA

Secondary health care is a more specialised approach to treatment of  Providing students with information on HIV/AIDS issues.
diseases. Modern medical equipment and medicine are used to bring  The establishment of agencies aimed at addressing the scourge, for
patients back to good health. example , National AIDS Coordinating Agency (NACA)
 The establishment of Tebelopele Voluntary Counselling and
Health personnel are specialised.
Testing Centres.
THE EFFECTS OF POOR HEALTH  The introduction of Home Based Care Programme.
 The provision of free condoms.
 It produces a state of insecurity and hopelessness among people.  The provision of free food rations to the HIV/AIDS patients.
 It lowers productivity.  The Provision of free food ration to the orphans.
 It burdens the national budget.
 It leads to loss of skilled manpower. THE ROLE PLAYED BY EDUCATION IN ADDRESSING HIV/AIDS
 It may lead to loss of employment.
 HIV/AIDS is included in the school curriculum.
THE EFFECT OF HIV/AIDS  Essay competition with HIV/AIDS themes.
 Students from clubs dealing with HIV/AIDS issues.
(a) NEGATIVE  Guidance and Counselling department in schools educate students
on HIV/AIDS.
 It reduces productivity.  Establishment of HIV/AIDS Television or computer programmes,
 It leads to loss of skilled manpower. for example, Talk Back.
 It increases expenditure on health.  Media is also used to provide information on issues of HIV/AIDS
 It burdens welfare departments.
 It increases death rates. THE WAYS IN WHICH HIV AND AIDS NEGATIVELY AFFECT
 It reduces the market base. DEVELOPMENT IN BOTSWANA
 It reduces foreign investment. - Loss of foreign direct investment (FDI)
- Reduce productivity
(b) POSITIVE - Over expenditure on health, for example, money used on for Anti
 It encourages the development of research. Retro Viral drugs (ARVs)/ orphanage/ food baskets/ research
 It may lead to infrastructure development such as clinics and - Reduced workforce
hospitals. - Diversion of development funds into the health sector stall other
 It leads to creation of employment, for example, lay counsellors. vital developments
 It reduces the mouths to feed in the family. - Traumatised society due to AIDS deaths affecting money aspects
 It leads to change of perceptions. of development
 It encourages foreign aid. - Reduced domestic market due to loss of active people with
 It enhances training of personnel such as nurses and doctors. purchasing power

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Underutilisation of resources/ facilities due to decrease in THE CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED IN SETTING UP AND RUNNING
population size. HOSPITALS AND CLINICS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
- High dependency ratio/increased poverty rate due to loss of - Shortage of trained personnel, for example, doctors and nurses
breadwinners.
- Reduced earnings from tourism. - Very high population so facilities are overloaded

THE WAYS IN WHICH HEALTH CARE SERVICES AND WOMEN’S - Health personnel are overworked
ORGANISATIONS ARE HELPING IN THE PREVENTION OF HIV AND AIDS IN
BOTSWANA
- Dealing with high number of incurable diseases
- Dissemination or passing of information/teaching people about
HIV and AIDS. - Very expensive to build hospitals and clinics
- Preventing transmission from mother to child/ provision of milk
formula. - The training of personnel is lengthy and expensive
- Home based care activities promoting safe handling of patients.
- Counselling for prevention - Communicable diseases, for example, TB/put health personnel/
- Care for orphans to free them from abuse and infection. other patient at risk

- Researches, for example, TDF 2 programme, Botswana and - Traditions/some religions stop people from receiving medical
Harvard collaboration. treatment

- Provide routine testing - Very expensive to run

- Distribution of free condoms

- Promotion of female condoms

- Workshops on changing male perceptions/ attitudes towards

women.

- Women empowerment on resisting decisions imposed on them.

- Lobbying for harsh punishment on rapists.

- Commemoration of World Aids Day

- Safe male circumcision

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Check Your Progress
4.(a) Fig. 2 shows the Primary Health Care Umbrella. Use it to answer
1.Study Fig. 1 which shows factors that influence good health. question 3 (a)

Fig1 Fig.2
Using your own words, describe three different elements of a primary
(a)(i) Explain how each factor in Fig. 1 helps people to have good health. health care system

(ii) Suggest ways by which people in Botswana could be encouraged to eat Describe the differences between a traditional and a modern health system.
balanced diets. Explain how HIV and AIDS negatively affect development in Botswana.

(b)(i) Describe how any three development indicators are used to measure Describe ways in which health care services and women’s organisations are
health. helping in the prevention of HIV and AIDS in Botswana.

(ii) Explain challenges encountered in setting up and running hospitals and 5. Study Fig.3, which is an extract from Botswana’s 2015 budget speech.
clinics in developing countries.
The budget is intended to address key priority areas of human capital,
the fight against HIV and AIDS including elimination of mother to
2.(a) Define the term primary health care system. child transmission, poverty eradication, provision of water and power
supply, employment creation as well as maintenance of existing
(b) Describe any three features of Botswana’s primary health care system. infrastructure.

3(a) Define modern health care.

Fig.3
(b) State three reasons why investing in modern health care is difficult for
Botswana.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

(a)(i) Describe each key area mentioned in Fig.3 (b)(i) Describe how good health promotes the development of Botswana.

Ideas such as: (ii) Suggest challenges that developing countries might meet as they work
to provide primary health care.
- Human capital is when the government will train workers or
people to work in various production activities
- Fight against HIV and AIDS – the government will control or
prevent the spread of the HIV and AIDS diseases, for example, by
providing free condoms and PMTCT
- Poverty eradication is when the government improve people’s
standards of living or provision of people’s basic needs.
- Provision of water and power supplies which the government
carry out through connection of water pipes and electric lines/
drilling boreholes
- Employment creation which will be done by the government
through the establishment of activities that will provide jobs for
people
- Maintenance of existing infrastructure in which the government
will repair roads and bridges that are already there or existing
infrastructure

(ii) Suggest ways by which provision of water promotes development.

Ideas such as:

- Water use for irrigation in agriculture

- Control waterborne diseases, for example, diarrhoea and cholera
- Water used as raw material in industries/cleaning (for beverages)
- Water used for cooling purposes in thermal power production/ air
conditioning
- Water used for steaming the thermal power production
- Water used for domestic purposes/promotes good health
- Water used for swimming pools/ in tourists industry/hotels/holiday
resorts/water sports

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 EDUCATION i. Formal traditional education is the organised instruction which
takes place through initiation schooling for boys and girls.
Education means imparting and acquiring knowledge. Teenagers spend time away from their homes learning life skills. They are
thereafter treated as adults.
THE PURPOSE OF EDUCATION
 It keeps people informed. ii. Informal traditional education is generally family, and gender-
 It enhances political association. based.
 It encourages technical advancement.
 It provides economic training. Teaching is through storytelling, poetry, singing, dancing, ceremonies and
 It transmits culture. rituals.
 It improves people’s self- esteem.
THE ADVANTAGES OF TRADITIONAL EDUCATION
 It helps people to be more adaptable to change.
 It improve literacy rate.  Traditional education helps preserve cultural heritage of the
 It produces productive workers. society.
 It helps in the comprehension of the importance of conserving  It is cheap to run.
nature.  Traditional education helps the learner to have a sense of
 It increases people’s awareness of health issues. belonging in the community.
 It helps the learners to associate with the local environment, and
EDUCATION CAN BE MEASURED BY: hence conserve it.
 Traditional education enables learners to acquire survival skills
 Levels of literacy which shows the percentage of the population
since it is more practical.
that can read and write.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF TRADITIONAL EDUCATION
 School enrolment which shows the number of learners attending
school compared to those who could be in school. The number  Traditional education is conservative, it fails to accommodate
attending tertiary indicates the amount of tertiary education innovative ideas.
provided in the country
 Instruction in initiation schools sometimes involves harsh
TYPES OF EDUCATION treatment which leads to injury or even death.

TRADITIONAL EDUCATION is teaching and learning that is done  Knowledge can be distorted or even lost since it is imparted orally.
mainly through speech and demonstrating.

The society’s belief and customs are handed down from one generation to
another.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 MODERN EDUCATION Graduates automatically get employed or assisted to start their own
companies.
Modern education is the contemporary learning and teaching which
heavily relies on written word. 4. Informal Education is gained through life experience. Learning
takes place within the surrounding.
1. Formal education system takes place in an institution of learning,
for example, a school and college. For example, one can get information from public sources such as the
media and by imitation.
It has a set structure with specific curriculum and a syllabus, and clearly
defined period of learning. 5. Non-formal Education takes place outside the school set up. It is
less structured than the formal one.
It involves qualified teachers and certification.
It takes place at any convenient place such as the workplace or someone’s
2. Academic Education prepares learners mostly for clerical or home through correspondence and with the help of literacy assistants.
white collar jobs.
For example, include literacy classes, agricultural education, health
It is divided into three stages: primary, secondary and tertiary. education and learning circles.

3. Vocational Education and Job Shadowing (apprenticeship)

equips learners with skills that will help them perform specialised THE ADVANTAGES OF MODERN EDUCATION
tasks.
 It is innovative.
Job shadowing is a work based learning where learners visit the workplace  It widens the scope of thinking of an individual.
to observe and copy workers as they perform their tasks  It enhances productivity at work.
THE IMPORTANCE OF JOB SHADOWING  It equips learners with skills for their careers.
 It prepares learners for employment THE DISADVANTAGES OF MODERN EDUCATION
 It provides a link between school learning and the world of work.
 It stimulates career selection process.  It leads to inequalities since it creates a lot of competition.
 It generates skilled workforce.  Most of its curricula are Eurocentric, hence upholds that culture at
the expense of others.
In Botswana, secondary school students have an opportunity to learn  It is expensive to run.
practical and business subjects such as commerce, accounts, art, home  It emphasizes acquisition of certificates at the expense of
management, design and technology.
acquisition of practical skills.
Vocational training is also available after completion of secondary  Lack of basic resources may lower educational achievements in the
schooling (either at junior or senior level) at brigades and technical country.
colleges.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE IMPORTANCE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN Check Your Progress
BOTSWANA
1.Study Fig. 1, which is about traditional education in South Africa, and
Information technology is the computerized production, storage and answer questions (a)(i) and (ii).[2008]
dissemination of data.

 It equips learners with skills to use computers.

 It enhances fast dissemination of data.
 It accords the country an opportunity to compete on global
technological innovations.
 It produces technically skilled graduates to boost economic
growth.
 It enhances the country’s competitive participation in international
trade.
Fig.1
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
(a)(i) Describe the main features of traditional education.
Environmental education helps in raising awareness on issues related to the
natural surroundings. Ideas such as:

THE WAYS OF PROVIDING ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN - The main feature of traditional education is that it takes place in
BOTSWANA initiation schools, for example, bogwera and bojale.
- The main feature of traditional education is that it is oral, for
 Through kgotla meetings. example it uses stories, dance and songs.
 Through litter picking campaigns. - In traditional education teachers are all elderly people who are
 Through drama performance. experienced.
 In pamphlets. - The main feature of traditional education is that it prepares boys
and girls for adulthood.
Assignment: Evaluate educational systems of two countries in SADC - The traditional education is based on culture.
region. - The main feature of traditional society is that learning is by hands
on or practical.
- The main feature of traditional society is that learning is
continuous.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

(ii) What are the disadvantages of traditional education? - The governments of developing countries are faced with the
challenge of lack of qualified teachers in their efforts to provide
Ideas such as: formal education.
- The challenge faced by developing countries in their effort to
- The disadvantage of traditional education is that it focus on the
provide formal education is that of lack of educational resources,
past or lacks dynamism or promote rigidity.
for example, teaching equipment.
- The traditional education is restrictive due to its being gender
- Developing countries governments face the challenge of lack of
based or discriminating.
infrastructure such as buildings in their effort to provide formal
- The disadvantage of traditional education is that information gets
education.
distorted due to its being oral or lack of record keeping.
- The traditional education discourages industrial initiative or
(ii) Explain how schools can raise awareness of HIV/AIDS.
creativity and innovation.
- The disadvantages of traditional education are that emphasises on Ideas such as:
skills out of touch with the modern world or low literacy rate.
- The traditional educational uses unethical teaching methods. - The schools can raise awareness of HIV/AIDS through infusion in
Allocation of marks: 6/4, 5/5 the syllabus.
- In school HIV/AIDS awareness can be raised by clubs such as
(b)(i) What challenges do governments of developing countries face in PACT.
their efforts to provide formal education? - The schools can raise awareness of HIV/AIDS through provision
of counselling.
Ideas such as:
- In schools HIV/AIDS awareness can be raised by having essay
- The challenge government of developing countries face in their competition on HIV/AIDS themes.-Schools can raise HIV/AIDS
efforts to provide formal education is that of lack of funds/ it is awareness by encouraging voluntary testing.
expensive. - The schools can raise awareness of HIV/AIDS through posters,
- The governments of developing countries face the problem of billboards and pamphlet development.
increased numbers of enrolment in their efforts to provide formal - The schools can raise awareness of HIV/AIDS through drama,
education. songs, dance and beauty contests.
- In developing countries the governments are faced with the - In schools HIV/AIDS awareness can be raised by commemorating
challenge of resistance from some religious and tribal groups in World Aids Day, Month of Youth Against AIDS, and prayers for
their efforts to provide formal education. HIV and AIDS.
- The challenge government of developing countries face in their
efforts to provide formal education is that of high drop-out rate, for
example, teenage pregnancy.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

2. Study Fig.4, which is an extract on education and answer question 1 (a). (ii) What are the characteristics of non-formal education?
[2010]
- The characteristic of non-formal education is that learner’s
progress at their own pace.

- In non-formal education there is self-learning.

- The characteristic of non-formal education is that learners of all

ages are accepted.
Fig.2
- The non-formal education takes place at any convenient place or
(a)(i) Describe any three kinds of formal education provided in the anywhere.
Botswana system of education.
- The characteristic of non-formal education is that certification is
Ideas such as: optional or examinations are optional.
- The kind of formal education provided in the Botswana system of
- The non-formal education can take place through distance learning
education is that of education with production where learners
or there is distance learning in non-formal education.
carry out productive work as part of their lessons.
- The characteristic of non-formal education is that sometimes there
is emphasis on teaching practical skills for improving people’s
- The formal education provided in the Botswana system of
standard of living.
education is that of vocational training where learners are taught
practical skills so they can get jobs, for example, plumbing and
- The characteristic of non-formal education is that learners are
brick laying.
taught or tutored by experienced workers with some educational
- The technical training is where learners are given technical
training.
knowledge to work as technicians, for example, in agriculture,
Marks allocation: 6/4, 4/6, 5/5
industry and telecommunications.

- The kind of formal education provided by Botswana education

system is that of job shadowing or apprenticeship where learners
works with experienced workers in order to learn from them hands
on.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

(b)(i) Describe the importance of environmental education to the (ii) Suggest ways in which environmental education can be promoted in
development of Botswana. Botswana.

Ideas such as: - The way in which environmental education can be promoted in
Botswana is by including it in school curriculum.
- The importance of environmental education to the development of
Botswana is that it encourages use of appropriate technology. - In Botswana environmental education can be promoted through
- In Botswana environmental education improves health through billboards and posters.
prevention of diseases or primary health care.
- The importance of environmental education to the development of
Botswana is that it will promote the conservation of natural - The way in which environmental education can be promoted in
resources. Botswana is by publishing books on environment.
- The environmental education in Botswana will encourage tourism
which generates income for the government. - In Botswana environmental education can be promoted through
- The importance of environmental education in Botswana will television and radio programmes, newspapers and magazines.
promote awareness of global environmental agreements.
- The environmental education in Botswana will empower locals or - The way in which environmental education can be promoted in
leadership. Botswana is through clean up campaigns.
- The importance of environmental education to the development of
Botswana is that it enables community based organisations - In Botswana environmental education can be promoted through
(CBO’s) to generate income for locals. workshops, for example, kgotla meetings.
- The way in which environmental education can be promoted is by
having school environmental clubs and through community based
organisations (CBO’s).
- In Botswana environmental education can be promoted by
celebration of environmental days, for example, tree planting day.
Marks allocation: 6/4, 4/6, 5/5

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

3(a) What is meant by vocational education? Study an extract on availability of the internet in schools in Botswana.

(b) Describe three ways by which a country can benefit from vocational The World Economic Forum reports that on internet access in schools,
education. Botswana is at position number 92 out of 144 countries. Internet access is
an important part of Information Technology (IT) and Computer
Define information technology Education.

- Information technology is a computerised or storage or Fig.5

dissemination of data. (a)(i) Describe ways in which Information Technology (IT) is introduced in
- Information technology is a way of disseminating data using Botswana.
electronic gadgets, for example, computers.
- Information technology is accessing or sharing or distributing (ii)Suggest reasons why Botswana’s position in internet access in schools is
knowledge or skills using computers. low.
(b)(i) Describe other ways by which people can get education without going
Describe three benefits of information technology in development of
Botswana. to school.
(ii) Explain the importance of some school activities in fighting against HIV
- Stores/preserves/saves data
- Retrieves information across different disciplines and AIDS
- Easy analysis of complex information or makes teaching and
learning easier
- Development of infrastructure
- Global communication becomes easy
- Creation of IT job opportunities
- Promotes international trade/economic linkage/electronic payments
made possible
- Improvement of technology, for example, teaching using a
projector
- Convenience of usage
- Skills development
- Quality products are produced

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 MODULE 7: POLITICS AND DEVELOPMENT Non- Understand the dynamics -explain Non-Governmental
TOPIC GENERAL SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES Governmental of Non-Governmental Organisations;
OBJECTIVES Organisations Organisations and their -account for the existence of Non-
Learners should be able Learners should be able to: in Development impact on development Governmental Organisations in
to: in Botswana and in Botswana;
Government Explain different forms -explain the concept of politics, state Southern Africa. -discuss the work of lobbyist,
and of governments and their and government; welfarists, conservationists and
Development influence on developmental Non-Governmental
development. -discuss and evaluate types of Organisations;
governments; -examine and evaluate government
and Non-Governmental
-discuss ways in which social, Organisation strategies for
economic and political aspects development in Botswana.
interact to change society; Community Understand the nature of -identify and describe types of
Based Community Based Community Based Organisations;
-identify and explain decision Organisations Organisations and their
making processes with specific
impact on development -account for the existence of
reference to Botswana; in Botswana and in Community Based Organisations;
Southern Africa. -select and describe the work of one
-discuss the role of government in Community Based Organisation;
the economy with specific reference -discuss the impact of Community
to Botswana’s role in the provision Based Organisations in the
of social services and the development of Botswana.
mobilisation of resources;
The Private Understand the nature -identify types of private sector;
Sector and impact of the private
-discuss the social structures such as
sector on development in -account for the existence of the
class, ethnicity, status, and
Botswana and the private sector in Botswana;
profession/trade;
Southern African -discuss and assess the role and
Development impact of the private sector on the
-discuss challenges of nation
Community (SADC) development of Botswana and other
building on the basis of tension,
countries in the SADC region;
conflict resolution and consensus;
-compare government and private
sector strategies for development in
-evaluate any one of the following
Botswana.
Acts: Chieftainship Act, Citizenship
Act, Marriage and Property Act and
Tribal Land Act.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 GOVERNMENT AND DEVELOPMENT THE ADVANTAGES OF A MONARCHY

EXPLANATION OF CONCEPTS i. It maintains tradition-that is, in a monarchy culture is maintained,

kept and followed.
 Politics: It involves decision making and distributing resources, it ii. It creates an unchanging and stabilising influence.
is about dealing with conflict and disagreements. iii. It is not as easily corrupted as political Heads of States.
 State: An organised political community controlled by one
government. THE DISADVANTAGES OF A MONARCHY
It is an entity whereby an individual is intended to realise the
highest good through good governance. i. The people are not consulted on the choice of the monarch,
 Government: A system of controlling a country. therefore, the system is said to be undemocratic.
ii. Monarchies are hereditary, so there is no guarantee that the
TYPES OR SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT successor to the throne will be competent to rule.
iii. The monarch may become corrupt and accumulate great wealth at
MONARCH(Y) the expense of the people.
THE REPUBICAN/MULTI
Monarch is a system in which the country is ruled by a King, Queen or PARTY/REPRESENTATIVE/PARLIAMENTARY DEMOCRACY
Emperor.
The example of monarchies is Swaziland, Britain, Lesotho, Morocco, The term democracy is derived from the Greek word “demos”, which
Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. means the people and “kratos” which means authority or rule. Democracy,
therefore, means “rule by the people”.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A MONARCHY
The following are some of the prominent or common features of a Parliamentary democracy is a system of government in which political
constitutional monarchy; authority lies with people.
i. The monarch is a ceremonial figure.
ii. The positions of monarch are hereditary as it passes from King to THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PARLIAMENTARY DEMOCRACY
the eldest son or eldest daughter. i. People are free to form different political parties and identify
iii. In a constitutional monarchy, there is a Prime Minister who is the candidates of their choice for office.
head of the government. ii. There is freedom of speech and freedom to discuss political
iv. The leader is a king or queen. choices.
v. The King or Queen makes laws iii. There is freedom of the press.
vi. Leadership is hereditary or leaders inherit the position from their iv. There is freedom to campaign for different political parties.
parents v. All citizens who are 18 years or older have a right to vote. This is
vii. The new leader takes over upon the death of the King or Queen called universal adult suffrage.
viii. The ruler has absolute power.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 vi. There is a system of one person one vote. This means that vi. Some people may abuse freedom of speech into character
everyone has a right to vote once during the election time. assassination and mud slugging.
vii. Elections are held at regular intervals. For instance in Botswana vii. Consultation of people at grassroots level is a delay and a financial
elections are held every 5 years. waste.
viii. There is a secret ballot voting system so that no one is afraid that viii. Development projects become election baits than genuine people
other people will find out who they voted for. wants.
ix. There are independent bodies set up to oversee the smooth running ONE-PARTY STATE
of elections, for instance, to avoid rigging of elections or In some countries there is only one political party. This is usually the ruling
intimidation during election time. party.
x. There is free, fair and controlled election. Other parties are not allowed to stand for elections.
These countries are called one party states as they have only one political
THE ADVANTAGES OF A PARLIAMENTARY DEMOCRACY party to run the affairs of the state.
i. There is joint decision making as everyone has a say in making A number of African countries become one party state soon after gaining
decisions. their independence.
ii. People elect representatives to represent them in parliament. It was argued that if there were a large number of parties the country would
iii. There is transparency regarding decision making because everyone split into different conflicting groups.
is involved or consulted. Such countries are Zambia, Uganda and Malawi.
iv. Generally there is peace and stability which can lead to economic
prosperity. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A ONE-PARTY STATE
v. People can elect a different government into power if they are not  There is only one political party.
satisfied with the current one.  Elections are held at regular intervals and people vote for
vi. People are free to form different political parties. representatives from the ruling party.
vii. There is usually social justice and equity as everyone is treated  The leaders of one party state normally turn out to be dictators
equally. such as Malawi’s Kamuzu Banda and Uganda’s Idi Amin.
THE DISADVATAGES OF PARLIAMENTARY DEMOCRACY
i. There might be a problem of bureaucracy. THE ADVANTAGES OF ONE-PARTY STATE
ii. It is very expensive to implement, that is, they are time consuming  There is less argument in the country.
and financially waste.  There is usually a resemblance of unity in the country
iii. There can be tribal or religious conflicts as political parties may be  There is prevention of social class formation because parties are
formed along tribal or religious lines. believed to divide people into social classes.
iv. Some government officials are corrupt, they accept bribes to make  This prevents tribal conflict because in countries where there are
decisions that favours certain people. many different tribes parties are formed along tribal lines.
v. Sometimes government officials run unfair elections, and pretend
 It is cheap as costly elections are avoided.
they have won many votes when they actually lost the elections
 There is continuity as the ruling party can plan for longer period
and this may lead to political turmoil or crisis.
for it is guaranteed a continuous reign or rule.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE DISADVANTAGES OF ONE-PARTY STATE  Murders, asylums, exiles and mysterious disappearances are
common in such countries especially to people who pose as threats
 The ruling party may begin to abuse its power and rejects criticism, or who are seen as an ‘enemies of the state’.
thus turning into dictatorship.  Opposition is ruthlessly or brutally suppressed or forbidden.
 People may be denied their rights to basic freedom.  Elections are never held.
 There is little transparency and accountability.  Leaders can be imprisoned without trial.
 There is less participation in decision making because all decision
comes from above. THE DISADVANTAGES OF A DICTATORSHIP
DICTATORSHIPS
 People have no power over the government.
One other form of government which is even less democratic is
dictatorship.  The government simply dictates to people, telling them what to do
A dictatorship comes about when one person or small group of people and when to do it.
control the government.
Leaders that follow this political ideology have absolute power and  There is no freedom of neither speech nor press.
authority.
Such leaders include Hastings Kamuzu Banda of Malawi who dictated even The ways of changing a dictatorship into democracy
what clothes people should wear.
Others include Sani Abacha of Nigeria, Idi Amin of Uganda and others. - Increase political parties or offer money for new political parties to
Dictatorships are often set up by military leaders who seize control of the be formed or promote formation of political parties.
government by force or through what is called coup d’etats, which means
to overthrow or take over power by force and rule by an “iron fist”. - Consult people or get people’s opinions before decisions are made.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A DICTATORSHIP - Hold regular free and fair elections

 Dictatorships are normally set up by military leaders through a - Persuade people or negotiate with people to comply on issues
coup d’états rather than apply force.
 Power is in the hands of a few individuals.
 Political parties are not allowed. - Respect the rule of law
 Dictators make their own laws called decrees and have them
carried out as they wish. - Uphold human rights or give people their freedoms, for example,
 Dictators control courts of laws. freedom of speech

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 DECISION MAKING OR PLANNING PROCESSES Local government

- Implement government policies

- Planning of local services
- Provision of local/social services
- Collect local taxes/rates
- Carry out tasks allocated to them by the national/regional
government
- Support community-based organisations/projects
- Consult the people/Needs assessment
- Pass suggestions of the community to regional/national
government
- Develop and maintain infrastructure
Fig.1
In a political system, whether it is democracy or dictatorship, the way that
The functions of each of the three levels of government shown in Fig. 1. decisions are made is very important.

National government
1. CENTRALISED/ TOP DOWN DECISION MAKING is
- Plan/ implement development of the country/budgeting for the whereby the national government or central government makes all
country the decisions, here decisions are made at the top and passed down
- Formulate government policies to the people who are expected to carry them out.
- Make decisions in the national interest/make priorities to benefit
the country/nation building THE ADAVANTAGES OF TOP-DOWN DECISION-MAKING
- Makes laws PROCESS
- Promote social justice/ reduces inequalities between people
- Provide social welfare services 1) Decisions can be made in the best interest of the whole country.
- Develop the infrastructure. 2) Governments have access to large sums of money and to Multi-
national companies, hence can finance the decisions.
Provincial/Regional government 3) Developments are directed along the lines of the nationally agreed
policies.
- Implement government policies
- Carry out tasks allocated to them by the national government, for
example, run schools and hospitals
- Makes regional development plans
- Pass suggestions from local government to national government
- Develop and maintain infrastructure in the region/ public works

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE DISADVANTAGES OF TOP-DOWN DECISION-MAKING Both men and women meet at the kgotla to draw up development plans
PROCESS which are later included in the district development plans and finally in the
1) The majority of citizens may not play a part. national development plans.
Councillors and members of parliament take such decisions up.
2) It may be controlled in the interests of politicians and large
companies. THE ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT IN THE ECONOMY
3) It may be contrary to local interests as the people in most cases are
not involved in decision making processes that directly affect  Stimulate economic growth: The government can develop
them. infrastructure such as roads, railways and telecommunications, to
2. DECENTRALISATION OR BOTTOM-UP DECISION MAKING give producers access to markets and raw materials or industries.
PROCESS means planning which involves sharing and transfer of decision The government can also invest directly in industry, for example,
making power from the top to the middle and lowest levels. The middle and building and running state corporations.
lowest levels refers to the local authorities and communities respectively.  Provide social welfare services: Government can give people
access to health and education, building health centres such as
THE ADVANTAGES OF BOTTOM-UP DECISION MAKING hospitals, clinics, building schools, paying doctors, nurses, and
PROCESS teachers and providing the necessary equipment. Some government
 Most people participate in the decision making process. go to the extent of offering such services to citizens for free.
 It encourages self-reliance and commitment as everybody is  Keeping peace in the country: The government must avoid the
involved. use of force, it can only be used to act against those who break the
 The development of the country is usually supported by the law. The army must be used to defend the country or to help in
communities. emergencies.
 It targets all people including the poor and disadvantaged.  Planning development: Government must try to draw up national
development plans, usually for a period of 5 years.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF BOTTOM-UP DECISION-MAKING  Nation Building: Government must try to create a feeling of
PROCESS national unity and belonging among all citizens
 The local people’s plans are not always welcomed by government  Representing people abroad: The government makes agreements
officials. with other nations on behalf of the people. Government decide on
 The representation of people’s views at the parliament may be how to relate with other countries and to international
ineffective. organisations, for example, ambassadors, joining United Nations
 Projects may encounter shortage of money. and SADC.
 Caring for the environment through conservation.
In Botswana people participate effectively in decision making at the local  Social justice- magistrate courts and high court.
level through the kgotla and Village Development committees.
The role of government as seen above is to enhance social, economic and
political development.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

The interaction of social, ecological and political development can either (iv) Sales tax- A certain amount of money is added to the prices of
facilitate or speed up the realisation of the above or frustrate development all goods that are sold, and this is sent to the government.
thus leading to the following negative aspect of development: (v) Vehicle tax-Vehicles owners pay a certain amount of money
 Having ambitious projects. to the department of transport. This is also part of government
 Corruption revenue.
 Excessive government spending (b)Licensing
 Expanded government bureaucracy Another way of raising capital or income by the government is through
 Over development of state. licensing. Different kinds of licences are paid for and after a certain period
 Rent seeking of time. For example, business, hunting licences.
 Non- financial accountability and transparency
(c)Penalties
Wrong doers are often charged and their money put in the government
MOBILISATION OF RESOURCES
The government of Botswana raise money or generate revenue through revenue. Offenders here include careless drivers, those who fail to pay for
different ways and means. licences in time and many others.
The money is then used to provide social services and fund economic
activities, among others. The income raised is known as government (d)Borrowing money
revenue. The government borrows money from other countries both locally and
There are different ways that the government uses to mobilise resources or overseas. The international banks include the World Banks. This money is
then used as part of the government revenue.
to collect income, and these ways include the following:

(a)Taxes (e)Parastatals companies/ establishments

There are a number of taxes that the government uses to raise the revenue The government also raises money through state owned companies such as
that it needs. These taxes include: the railways, electricity and water supply networks.
(i) Import duty- This is in the form of percentage charged on all
goods entering the country from foreign countries. (f) Partnership
The Botswana government also gets a lot of income from jointly owned
(ii) Value Added Tax (VAT) – This is a new kind of tax which
has been introduced recently in Botswana. It is collected from companies such as De Beers and others.
consumers by all companies and individual enterprises who
make annual profit P250 000.00 and above. The tax is the (g)Foreign reserves
periodically reimbursed to government by those businesses. The Botswana government keeps part of its money overseas as foreign
(iii) Income tax-Employees pay a certain percentage of their reserves which generate a lot of interest. This income is used in times of
salary to the government. The amount of money paid depends emergencies such as famine, drought and other incidents.
on the salary a person earns. This, therefore, means that people
who earn higher salaries pay more than those who earn less.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE SOCIAL STRUCTURES

Fig.3
 Status is the position one holds in the society/level of respect
people within the society give to an individual
 Profession/Trade is the division or classification according to job
one is doing/ People who have been trained in the same field or
area grouped together according to their field
Fig.2  Class is the division of people according to their wealth or the
- Ethnicity is the situation where people of the same tribe or amount of property one has in his or her possession
customs or traditions are grouped together.  Ethnicity is the division or classification of people according to
the tribes/ethnic group they belong to
- Profession /Trade is the situation where people of the The following aspects of a person’s life may be related to his or her
qualification or training separate themselves, for example, lawyers, social class:
teachers, accountants and engineers.
 School attended is when children of people in high class attend
- Social status is the respect that people demand or are given based expensive private schools whilst people in low class can only
on their possessions /wealth, for example, people are divided into afford cheap public schools.
high status and low status.  Residential area is when people in high class stay in high
residential areas or suburbs whereas people in low class stay in low
- Social class is the grouping that society allocates people based on cost residential areas/ high density areas/ shanty towns.
their income or wealth.  Hospital attended is when high class people go to expensive
private hospitals whilst low class people go to government or
public hospitals when ill.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

  Holiday is when high class people go on expensive holidays, for The problems faced by developing countries in promoting nation
example, Sun City, Durban but low class people rarely go on building
holiday because they cannot afford/ they just visit the village or
cattle post.  Lack of tolerance/many different ethnic groups or tribes
 Food consumption is when high class people eat more food involved/multiplicity of languages/cultural diversity
because they have money to buy but low class people eat less food  Influx of migrants from other countries
because they produce less/are many/they lack money to buy food.  Past conflicts between tribes
 Means of transport is when high class people own private cars  Religious differences/internal conflicts/civil wars or strife
but low class people use public transport/ walk very long distances  Corruption/nepotism/misappropriation of funds for nation
building activities
NATION BUILDING  Unbalanced development between regions in the
The following are ways by which the government helps to promote country/people may be uncooperative
nation building in Botswana:  Increasing number of political parties/discrimination along
- The adoption of Setswana as an official or national language. The party lines
government emphasizing the importance of Setswana language or
 Failure to relinquish power by leaders
mother tongue
 Lack of funds for initiatives
- Introduction of the topic of Nation Building in the school’s
curriculum  Superior against inferior ethnic groups/ colonial legacy
- The promotion of the national flag, national colours and symbols./  Increasing population/high population involved- not easy to
Respect of national symbols manage large numbers
- The celebration of various cultures for understanding or cultural
festivals such as Domboshaba. The government encouragement of The steps involved in each of the following processes in nation building:
celebration of indigenous activities, for example, Dikhwaere
- The National Anthem is sung at important occasions. / Singing of  Conflict resolution
national anthem - There is tension between high class and low class/ the high class
- The use of one currency. promotes its interests creating unhappiness for the low class, for
- Celebration President’s Day example, religion and tribal
- Promotion of culture - The low class rebels against the high class through strikes/ other
- Involving the House of Chiefs/Ntlo ya Dikgosi in decision making social upheavals
- Affirmative action, for example, women, youth, people living with - A resolution takes place to bring some equality among the people.
disability and rural dwellers - The society is united
- Reserving certain percentage of seats for women/disadvantaged
 Consensus
groups in parliament/ gender equality
- Society develop a set of shared values.
- Government initiative to equalize tribes/respect for human rights
- In a traditional/primitive society, the group is more important than
- Sports competition, for example, Botswana games
the individual so the common set of values is respected.
- In a complex society, division of labour promotes interdependence.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - The society is united. The Marriage Act empowers the Registrar of Marriages to reject or accept
Or the marriage depending on the prevailing situation. If the marriage has been
- The ruling class imposes its rules on the rest of the society. accepted, Registrar of Marriages shall issue to the spouse a certificate of
- The low class and their children accept their position and the rules. registration bearing the prescribed particulars. There are different types of
- The society is united. marriages that exist in Botswana and below are some of them:

EVALUATION OF SOME OF THE EXISTING ACTS IN (a)Civil Marriages

BOTSWANA
One type of marriage we have in Botswana are civil marriages. These
An act is seen as a legal document usually written by the government and marriages done according to common or modern law. These marriages are
approved by the House of Parliament. An act is meant to give guidance on usually conducted by the Administration or District Officer who makes sure
certain subjects. that all the necessary steps are correctly followed. One of the first steps is to
THE MARRIAGE ACT announce or publicise the marriage notice in a public place like Church or at
The Marriage Act is applicable to all marriages conducted in Botswana the District Administration Offices for three successive weeks before the
including those done under customary law or any religious rite. The act marriage day.
gives guidance on how civil, customary and religious marriage should be
conducted in order for them to be considered legal in Botswana. (b)Customary Marriages

The marriage to be valid the Marriage Act emphasises that marriage should One of the most widely practised form of marriage in Botswana is the
be conducted by marriage officers who can either be Administration or Customary Marriage. This form of marriage involves the giving of bride
District Officers, any Minister of Religion or a person holding responsible price, or bogadi/lobola, usually in form of livestock given to the bride’s
position in any religious denomination family. It is important however, to note that there are some people amongst
some groups such as Bangwato who do not demand lobala especially when
It is important to note that in Botswana people choose who to marry. the two families are from the same area.
However, marriage between people who are closely related is not allowed.
For instance, marriage between parent and child, parent and grandchild and (c)Religious Marriages
so forth is forbidden.
We have many different religions in the world in which different people
As mentioned earlier on, Marriage Act also gives guidance on marriage believe.
done according to Setswana custom or any other traditional way. After the THE CHIEFTAINSHIP ACT
marriage has been conducted it should be registered within two months with
the Registrar of Marriages. It is evident, however, that Batswana do not Chieftainship Act, explains what a Chief or Dikgosi are and their general
register their marriages. This is not safe as one spouse can easily marry the functions. The act describes a kgosi as an individual who has been
second partner as their marriage to the other spouse would be missing from designated or appointed as one in accordance with customary law by his
the marriage register at the Ministry of Home Affairs.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Merafe assembled in the kgotla and has been recognised as a Kgosi by the Check Your Progress
Minister of Home Affairs.
1. Define government
The act also explains the duties of the kgosi which include the following:
2. Give three reasons why it is important to involve all the people in
governing a country
 To promote the welfare of the members of his morafe.
 To carry out any instruction given by the Minister of Home 3. Define the term politics
Affairs.
 To ensure that the morafe is informed of any development projects 4. Define state
in the area which affect them. 5. What is a monarchy?
 To call kgotla meetings to solicit advice on how to execute his
functions. 6. Describe three characteristics of a monarchy
 The kgosi is also responsible for ensuring that his morafe is safe
and secure from any harm and danger 7. State three advantages of a monarchy

8. Describe three disadvantages of a monarchy form of government.

9. What is ‘representative democracy’?

10. Define democracy

11. Give three characteristics of a democracy.

12. Describe three advantages of multi-party democracy

13. State three disadvantages of multi-party democracy

14. Describe the characteristics of multi-party democracy /

representative democracy
15. What are the disadvantages of multi-party democracy /
representative democracy?
16. What is meant by a dictatorship?

17. What is a coup d’état?

18. Give three characteristics of a dictatorship.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 19. Describe three advantages of dictatorship What are the characteristics of representative democracy?

20. Define top down approach decision making (Centralised) Describe the disadvantages of representative democracy.

21. State three advantages of top-down decision making process Describe the disadvantages of a dictatorship form of government.

27. Study Fig.2, and answer the question below.

22. Give three disadvantages of a top-down decision making process
In a dictatorship, the people have no power over the government. The
23. What is meant by bottom-up (Decentralisation) decision making government simply tells the people what to do. Hastings Banda in Malawi
process? was a dictator who even dictated what clothes people should wear.

Adapted from: Development Studies 1 by Mweti and Van Wyk

24. Give three advantages of bottom-up decision making process
Fig. 2
25. State three disadvantages of bottom-up decision making process
Describe the characteristics of a dictatorship.
26. Study Fig. 1, which shows a kgotla meeting in Botswana, and
use it to answer questions that follows Describe the ways of changing a dictatorship into democracy
28. Study Fig. 3, which shows levels of government and ways of
decision-making in a democratic country.

Fig.3

Describe two functions of each of the three levels of government shown in

Fig. 3.

National government

Provincial/Regional government

Fig.1 Local government

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Why is it important to involve people in decision making? 30. Study Fig.5 which shows social divisions among people in
Describe the role of the government in the economy Botswana.

Describe the role of government in the economy

Describe ways in which the government of Botswana raise capital/

Describe the ways by which the national government of Botswana generates
revenue.

29. Study Fig. 4 which is an extra on politics.

Politics is about making decisions and distributing resources. It is also about
dealing with conflict. We usually think that politics is the concern of only
the government and the political parties. In fact, small scale political
processes happen around us all the time in families, school, churches, clubs
and associations.

Source: Development in Context Book 2

Fig.4 Fig.5
Describe resources that the government of Botswana distributes among the
people in the country. Describe each social division shown in Fig.5.

Suggest two political activities that are done by members of the following Suggest how each of the following aspects of a person’s life may be related
institutions: to his or her social class.

The family  School attended

 Residential area
The school  Hospital attended
 Holiday
The church  Food consumption
 Means of transport
Describe actions that the government takes to promote economic
development in Botswana.
Describe the steps involved in each of the following processes in nation
Suggest ways by which income generating projects can help people to building:
achieve social development
 Conflict resolution
How can developing countries governments encourage self-reliance?  Consensus

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Suggest ways by which the government helps to promote nation building in BRIEF HISTORY
Botswana.
31. Study Fig. 6 which shows social structures among people of They came into being because government had failed to alleviate poverty
Botswana and the poor continue to suffer. It was believed NGOs could compliment
governments and reach rural areas where the majority of the poor were
found. It was also believed treats some development activities were
environmentally unfriendly, some NGOs came to promote sustainable use
of the environment. Natural disasters were frequent in Third World
countries and government was less prepared for them, so NGOs came in to
helping government deal with such emergencies, for example, floods and
drought.

THE REASONS WHY NGOs EXIST IN BOTSWANA

1. They deal with social problems such as drought relief and

HIV/AIDS.
Fig.6 2. They promote conservation of the environment, for example,
Describe each of the social structures shown in Fig.6 Kalahari Conservation Society and Somerelang Tikologo.
3. They promote disposal of obsolete pesticides and used oil, for
Suggest ways by which the government of Botswana can promote ethnic example, Somarelang Tikologo.
tolerance
4. They help market local products, for example, Thusano Lefatshe
State problems faced by developing countries in promoting nation building helps market Devil’s Claws granules.

Suggest ways of promoting nation building in Botswana 5. Thye promote development by funding developmental projects
Suggest problems that the government of Botswana might faces as it tries to such as construction of dams, roads and stadiums.
unite people in the country and build the nation.
6. They improve the status of women by:
NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS (NGOs)  Alleviating poverty and economically empowering them.
 Equality in power sharing and decision making.
Non-Governmental Organisations are independent and non-profit making  Protecting women’s rights and discouraging violence against them.
institutions that help improve the living standard of the people. (Metlhaetsile, WAR)
 Engaging in women’s education and training (BCW)

7. It help improve the living standards of the marginalized people, for

example, The First People of Botswana (Basarwa).

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF NGOs THE DISADVANTAGES/WEAKNESSES OF NGOs

 Privately set-up, structured and sufficiently autonomous. (a)Leadership problems

 NGOs staff resent and impedes strong leadership.
 Non –profit making organisations.
 Irreplaceability of charismatic guru-like leaders, which leads to a
 Support development. decay and death of NGO because of no replication.

THE ROLES OF NGO’s (b)Legitimacy: Criticism of one another rather than collaboration and this
foster isolation.
 Providing for the unprovided or serving the poor.
(c)Staff problems
 Shaping national policies.
 Advocate for just development.  Recruitment is one of staff who can follow orders and report to the
leader.
 Popular participation.  Inter staff rivalry between local and foreign staff.
 Empowerment
(d)Project design
 Poverty alleviation
 Projects do not benefit the poor
 Local elite domination of decision making
THE ADVANTAGES/STRENGTHS OF NGOs  No innovativeness, but extension of tried and tested services.
 Limited replicability.
 NGOs are effective in identification of community needs.  Limited technical ability from staff.
 The enjoy legitimacy from the communities there are found.  Learning disability.
 NGOs are effective in serving the poor because of their physical  Irregular documentation of experience and subjective if any.
base.  Problems of accountability
 They have a popular participation.  No challenge on the effectiveness of the project, but concentration
 They are innovative. on wrong aspects
 NGOs operate in small scale.  Inadequate planning, organisation and management.
 There is commitment of staff.  Inadequate staff training
 Small scale might mean insignificance, powerlessness and
disconnectedness.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE NGOs- GOVERNMENT RELATIONS iii. Public Service Contractors (PSCs) - Northern funded non-
governmental organisations that work closely with Southern
According to Thomas (1992), the relations come in threefold: governments and Aid agencies such as Foundation of Education
with Production.
(a)Complimenting the state is when NGOs participate in providing iv. Grassroots Development Organisation (GDOs)-Locally based
services which the state would otherwise not be able to produce. southern organisations whose members are poor and oppressed and
which attempt to develop them, for example, Thari Ya Banana of
 When NGOs requires only the freedom to get on with their chosen Molepolole.
tasks. v. Popular Development Agencies (PDOs) - They concentrate on
 Its actions are not hampered by those of the government. self-help, social development, and grassroots development, for
 Their actions does not influence areas of development planning example, YWCA.
and delivery.
 Government feels neither threatened nor challenged. vi. Advocacy Groups and Networks (A.G.Ns) - These NGOs
 NGOs actions are not incompatible with government. campaign for changes in laws, for example, Emang Basadi.

(b)Opposing the state- The opposition can be direct or through various SOME OF THE EXAMPLES OF NGOS
pressure groups.
 NGOs theory differs with that of the government.  Lobbyists- Emang Basadi refer to Women in Development-
 Common in military dictatorship, for example, Philippines under Module 5
Marcos and Chile under Pinochet.  Welfarist-YWCA, Red Cross
(c)Reforming the state-NGOs can represent interest groups and negotiate  Conservationist- Somerelang Tikologo, Kalahari Conservation
with the government to improve policies. Society (KCS)
 Developmentalist –Habitat for Humanity
TYPES OF NGOs
AN EXAMPLE OF A CONSERVATIONIST NGO- SOMARELANG
i. Relief and welfare agencies (RWFs) –These are non- TIKOLOGO
governmental organisations that provide the needy with a service Its work:
or a need, for example, missionary society, the Red Cross, and  It encourages environmental impact assessment before a project is
those that deal with orphans, and people with disabilities. started.
ii. Technical Innovation Organisations (T.I.Os)- Those NGOs that  It encourages wise use of energy, for example, 15 houses in phase
operate their own projects to pioneer new improved approaches to two have been retro fitted with energy saving bulbs. A result shows
solving problems and which tend to remain specializing in their that there has been tremendous reduction in monthly electricity
chosen field, for example, Child Line, Women Against Rape and bills.
Ditshwanelo.  It has come up with waste Management Act that promotes proper
disposal of plastic bags by retailers and customers.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

  It ensures that there is proper disposal of obsolete pesticides, which
are normally left over’s from international donations. - To access foreign funding
 It promotes proper disposal of used oil. Botswana faces a problem
of illegal dumping of oil.
- Negative attitude from the government, for example, Survival
 It promotes conservation by engaging in community activities such
International
as tree planting, litter picking and use of environmental dramas.
Describe three functions of Non-Governmental Organisations

Check Your Progress - Help in the management and utilisation of a country’s

What is a Non-Governmental Organization? resources/encourage environmental conservation

- Non-Governmental Organisation is an independent body of - Finance development/supplement/compliment government/private

people/institution helping in development without the aim of making sector[ Allow specific examples such as project development]
profit
- Help shape national policies
- Non-Governmental Organisation is an independent body of
people/ institution helping in development without the aim of making - Advocate for just development/popular participation
profit
- Provide for the marginalized/ serving the poor/they identify
- Non-Governmental Organisation is a non-profit making themselves with the disadvantaged/local communities/poverty
independent institution alleviation/ to help poor
Account for the existence of Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) - For the transfer of skills/development of skills/ train
in Botswana
farmers/introduce/ offer extension services/technology
- Complement government./private sector transfer/empowerment

- Humanitarian assistance
- Help the poor
- Create employment especially for the marginalized/ disadvantaged/
- Target micro level/small projects empowerment

- Target micro level/small projects

- Awareness campaigns
- Awareness campaigns
- Popularise themselves

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Give three benefits of NGOs to Botswana - Create dependency syndrome/they do not teach people to be
independent but to depend on them
Describe three ways by which Non-Governmental Organisations assist
people in rural areas to solve their problems - Interference in internal affairs
- They create employment
- Lack of originality (bring ideas from outside)
- Help in the management and utilisation of a country’s resources /
encourage environmental conservation - No impact assessment done

- Finance development/supplement/complement govt. (Allow specific

examples such as projects development) What is the importance of Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) in
the development of Botswana?
- They identify themselves with the disadvantaged/local communities
Ideas such as:
- Emphasise efficiency and proficiency/development of skills - Deal with social problems such as drought relief, HIV and AIDS
/poverty
- Offer training to farmers - Promote environmental conservation, for example, Kalahari
Conservation Society
- Introduce/offer extension services - Promote proper disposal of obsolete pesticides/ used oils, for
example, Somarelang Tikologo
- Buy veld products from rural people / promote commercialisation of - Help market local products, for example, Thusano Lefatsheng
veld products market devil’s claw
- Fund development projects, for example, construction of dams/
- Humanitarian infrastructural development
- Promote good governance
- Emphasis efficiency and proficiency/ development of skills - Encourage the use of appropriate technology
- Improve the status of women by economically empowering them
What are the Disadvantages/weaknesses of NGOs?
Ideas such as; - Protecting women’s rights and discouraging violence against them/
equality in power sharing and decision making, for example,
- Rigidity /conservatism – does not want to change how they do things Emang Basadi
- Engaging women in education and training , for example,
- Duplication of roles/repetition of some services offered by the Botswana Council of Women
government - Help improve living standards of marginalised people, for
example, The First People of Kalahari and disabled people
- Leaders enrich themselves/ leaders use the funds for their own - Capacity building in communities/ leadership development
benefit instead of helping those in need - Provide employment

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

Describe the problems faced by NGOs in Botswana. COMMUNITY BASED ORGANISATIONS (CBOs)

Ideas such as: Community Based Organisations is all grassroots based organisations
- Leadership problems whereby NGO staff usually resent strong
involved in development.
leadership
- Irreplaceability of charismatic guru-like leaders which leads to
Community Based Organisations are rural oriented institutions that are
NGO collapse/ personalized
- NGOs often criticize each other which foster isolationism/ lack of engaged in income generating activities, aimed at poverty alleviation and
coordination sustainable rural livelihoods.
- Sometimes there is inter staff rivalry between local and foreigners
- Sometimes projects benefit the easiest to reach rather than the most Community Based Organisation is a group of people that helps to
deserving people improve living standards of people in their locality.
- Usually the local elite dominate decision making
- Limited innovativeness/ resistant to change or new ideas Community Based Organisation is a local or grassroots institution that
- Limited funds to cover activities helps people in a particular locality or area coming up with ways of
- Duplication of activities improving their lives.
- High staff turnover leading to poor continuity/ retaining workers
very difficult They aim at bringing self- reliant development.

They are real grassroots institutions that reach the poorest of the poor, for
example, burial societies.

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNITY-BASED ORGANISATIONS/ WHY

DO THEY EXIST

The following are some of the many functions of CBOs:

 They act as a way of achieving community participation.

 They provide technical skills such as weaving, knitting, farming
and so on to members.
 They provide administrative skills such as proper record keeping,
conducting meetings, and time management to members.
 They provide members with skills of solving conflicts and
problems together.
 The members participate in different tasks as may be needed in the
society.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE CHALLENGES THAT COMMUNITY BASED ORGANISATION IN - Provides employment
BOTSWANA FACE IN PROMOTING DEVELOPMENT - Trains people in various skills
Neighbourhood watch
- Rigidity or unwillingness to assimilate change/people’s lack of interest on
community mobilisation
- Controls crime/improves security
- It ends up creating dependency syndrome
- Conducts needs assessment
- Lack of funds or financial assistance
- Community leaders enrich themselves/ corruption/economic
- Gives feedback to government on development matters
crime/nepotism - Makes important announcements
- Negative attitude from the society/lack of support from the - Represents people in official meetings or speak on behalf of the
community/government people
- Lack of training in coordinating and managing - Provides employment
organisations/illiteracy/lack of skills - Trains people in various skills
- Poor/lack of infrastructure/ lack of transport Home Based Care
- Dominance by certain group who feel threatened by young and idealistic
minds - Provide medicines for the terminally ill
- Some are aligned to political parties, thereby bringing conflict/politicized - Cleans up the terminally ill patients
- Counsels patients and family members
- Provides health education
- Provides food baskets for patients
- Provides protective materials to care givers, for example, gloves
Community Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM)

- Conservation of natural resources

- Harvesting of natural resources
- Environmental education
- Domestication of veld products
- Setting up crafts projects
(a)(i) Activities of named CBOs - Sourcing funds for community projects on natural resources
Village Development Committee (VDC) - Provide employment
- Fund raising activities - Provision of scholarship for people in the community
- Carry out minor development works in the community Burial Society
- Conducts needs assessment
- Provides transportation during funerals
- Gives feedback to government on development matters
- Provides food during funerals
- Makes important announcements
- Provides airtime during funerals
- Represents people in official meetings or speak on behalf of the
- Provides labour during funerals
people

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 - Provides equipment during funerals, for example, pots, chairs different areas around Botswana teaching people on issues related
- Provides coffins during funerals to conservation of environment.

(ii) Describe the challenges facing Community Based Organisations THE IMPACT OF COMMUNITY BASED ORGANISATION ON
(CBOs) as they work to improve people’s lives in the community THE DEVELOMENT OF BOTSWANA

- Lack of buildings for operations 1) It promotes bottom-up decision making. People come up with
- Shortage of funds for activities sustainable projects.
- Shortage of skills for smooth or effective running or poor
management skills 2) Promotes wise use of natural resources.
- CBOs are easily politicised
- They are domoniated by some groups, for example, old and elite 3) It creates employment opportunities mainly for the disadvantaged
people such as women and tribal people.
- Misuse of funds by leadership
- They looked down upon by people/ lack of support 4) It improves country’s Gross National Products.
- Dependence on volunteers or unreliable labour
5) It diversifies rural economies.
COMMUNITY-BASED ORGANISATIONS IN BOTSWANA
6) It improves country infrastructure.
 Gabane Home Based Care (GHBC): The organisation was
formed to assist people infected with HIV/AIDS and other What is meant by a Community Based Organisation?
terminally ill patients. It provides the HIV/AIDS and terminally ill
patient with home care. - Community Based Organisation is a group of people that help to
improve the living standards of people in their area.
 Save Our Souls (SOS): SOS is an organisation that cares for
orphans and abandoned children by providing them with shelter, Describe three types of community based organisations.
education and other social amenities until they reach 18 years. Ideas such as:
 Total Community Mobilisation (TCM): TCM is an organisation
that is funded by the Ministry of Health whose members move  Developmental community based organisations are those
around Botswana from village to village to raise awareness on that focus on improving the infrastructure of the community/
issues relating to the spread and prevention of HIV/AIDS. promote the use of appropriate technology.

 Environmental Conservation Community Based Organisation  Conservationist/Environmental are those that focus on
caring for the environment, for example, clean up campaigns
(ECCBO): ECCBO refers to a number of organisations found in
or protecting nature resources.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

  Welfarist /charities are those that focus on improving living - Crime prevention/ neighbourhood watch
conditions of people such as giving food, shelter to the - Infrastructure development
destitute/ orphans/ disaster victims - Utilization of local resources
- Skills development
 Economic are those that focus on income generating activities - Creation of employment
for profit making. Describe common disadvantages/weaknesses of community based
organisations in Botswana.
 Educational are those that focus on disseminating information
 The common weakness of community based organisations in
on various societal issues.
Botswana is shortage of funds
Describe three functions of Community Based Organisations.
 Lack of support from people
Ideas such as:
- Vehicles through which community participation takes  Lack of skills
place/promotes community involvement/participation through
cultural preservation, environmental education, waste management  Sometimes CBOs are politicised
- Technical skill provision, for example, bee keeping and brick
 CBOs are usually personalised by leaders or founders
laying
- Administrative skill dispensation, for example, keeping proper  Misuse of funds by leadership
records, conducting meetings and time management
- Teaching and learning to resolve conflicts and solve problems  Lack of shelter for operation
together  Labour provided by volunteers who may quit anytime
- Provision of primary action in community
- Improvement of standard of living  Poor technology/lack of tool/ equipment

Suggest ways by which the challenges faced by CBOs can be addressed.

Describe the activities carried out by Community Based Organisations
Ideas such as:
(CBOs) within the community.
- Limited funds to cover all projects/needs/ financial support from
Ideas such as:
- Encourage local communities to come up with their needs and government and other others/ private sector
wants (Bottom-up)/ identification of community needs - People lack of interest on community mobilization- community to
- Locals given chance to plan and monitor their development be mobilized through training, workshops and kgotla meetings
projects/capacity building - Lack of training- skills development should be carried out on
- Engage in income generating activities to alleviate poverty, for COBs staff by stakeholders
example, Growing of vegetables, keeping poultry, oil processing to - Lack of co-ordination of CBOs- CBOs should have a mother body
ensure food security and work together etc
- Carry out activities to enhance awareness in HIV/Aids/health - Dominance by the elderly should be discouraged by quota systems
issues which creates room for youth
- Information dissemination/ announcements - Alignment to political parties should be discouraged by the
- Open up market centers for local produce government or stakeholders. For example, through workshops.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE PRIVATE SECTOR  The owner uses his or her labour, assisted perhaps by one or two
workers or the family members.
Private sector refers to businesses that are privately owned by individuals or  The business tends to be small in size although this is not always
by a group of individuals. the case.
 This type of enterprise is not confined to the retail trade.
TYPES OF PRIVATE SECTOR IN BOTSWANA
The Advantages of the Sole Proprietor

 It is easy to set up, control and manage.

 It requires a small amount of capital to set up.
 The owner makes independent and quick decisions on how the
business is to be run.
 The owner has personal contacts with his or her workers and
customers.
 This enables him or her to try and provide them with personal
Fig.2 services, which is lacking in larger shops.
 Satisfaction and interest is gained by being self-employed.
The main forms of business ownership in the Private Sector are:
The Disadvantages of the Sole Proprietor
a) The Sole Proprietor
b) Partnerships  The owner’s personal assets are at risk because the business has
c) Co-operatives unlimited liability. This means that if the sole trader borrows
d) Multi-national Companies money from any institution, he or she must pay back the whole of
it, whether the business succeeds or fails.
THE SOLE PROPRIETOR  The business cannot do without the owner, in fact it might end or
stop functioning when the owner dies.
As the name implies ownership of such a business is in the hands of just one  Shortage of capital prevents the sole trader to modernise and
person. provide services such as credit, delivery and other amenities to his
Features of the Sole Proprietor or her customers.

 It is a business owned by only one person who provides all the

capital needed to set it up and run it, and takes all profit as his or
her reward.
 It is the simplest and most common type of enterprise.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 PARTNERSHIP  Decisions may be delayed by disagreement among partners.
 The partners have unlimited liability and are, therefore, personally
A partnership is a relationship that exist between two or more people who liable for the debts of the business. This puts their personal assets
have come together to do a common business with the view to making at risk.
profit.  Lack of capital may limit expansion.
 If one partner leaves or dies a new partnership agreement is
The Features of a Partnership required.
 It is usually not easy to find a suitable partner.
 It can be formed by between two and twenty people.
 The capital of a Partnership is raised by the contribution of each CO-OPERATIVES
partner. This contribution does not necessarily have to be equal for
each partner. Co-operatives came as a result of people putting their resources together to
 In a Partnership ownership and control is not separated. It is owned cut the high costs of production per person. Profits from this enterprise are
and controlled by Partners themselves. either re-invested or shared out between the members of the co-operatives.
 Partnership has no separate legal entity. This means that the
liabilities of the partners, just like for the sole proprietors or The Advantages of co-operatives
traders, are unlimited.
 Each and every partner is entitled to be involved in the running of  It has more buying power than individuals because it is a large
the business. organisation.
 A co-operative can give its members access to cheaper raw
The Advantages of Partnership materials because it buy in large quantities.
 Members sell their products through the co-operatives, thus saving
 It is easy to set up or establish. It does not involve long, costly and on the costs of marketing.
time consuming procedures.  Because larger amounts are sold, the co-operative can often
 More people are involved in the business so more capital can be negotiate and get better prices for its members.
raised than in the case of the sole trader who is alone.  Members can bring in expert advice to help them.
 Division of labour is possible as there are many people involved.
 Expenses and management of the business are shared. TRANS-NATIONAL COMPANIES OR MULTI-NATIONAL
 Decision making is consultative. As a result the quality of CORPORATIONS (TNCs/MNCs)
decisions tends to be better than that of a sole trader.
 A partnership is not required to publish its account annually, so A Multi-national Company or Corporation is an enterprise that has
there is privacy in the business. subsidiaries or branches in more than one country.

The Disadvantages of Partnership It is usually a public limited company. For example, Toyota, Coca Cola,
Phillips and Colgate.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 The Advantages of multi-national companies THE REASONS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF PRIVATE SECTOR IN
BOTSWANA
 Paying taxes which boost the host government’s income. Some of the reasons for the existence of the Private Sectors in Botswana are
 Providing jobs around the world. as follows:
 Bringing business knowledge, skills and technology with them to  It reduces prices and increases quality of goods and services.
other countries.  It improves efficiency because of competition and the profit
 Bringing foreign exchange by selling their goods abroad motive.
 Providing vital goods and services to private households as well as  It removes political interference in business operations.
to other countries.  It helps empower citizens where such sales are restricted to
 In addition they usually have world-wide contacts which the host citizens.
country can use to boost its export sales.  It leads to creation of more jobs because many companies will be
built.
The Disadvantages of multi-national companies  It leads to self-sufficiency.
 It leads to diversification of the economy and mass production.
 They tend to exploit under-developed economies through  It gives the community a chance to contribute to the development
monopolistic practices. of the country, thus leading to economic development.
 They usually bring their own experts instead of training the locals
to participate in important decision making in MNCs that operate THE IMPACT OF THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN BOTSWANA AND
in their own countries. OTHER SADC COUNTRIES
 They can prevent the transfer of technology to the host country by
ensuring that research facilities remain based in their home or There are both positive and negative impacts as regards the Private Sector.
parent country. Positive impacts include the following;
 They are able to pay high salaries and offer better conditions. As a i. It provides jobs, income and livelihood to many people in
result, they usually attracted most of skilled locals at the expense Botswana.
of local industries. ii. The tax paid by the company is a source of revenue for the
 These companies take back with them all profits made in the host country.
countries. This drains away the host country’s foreign exchange iii. Export of goods made by companies earns the country foreign
reserves. exchange.
iv. Quality goods and services are provided to the people.
v. Developments are made in rural areas and this contributes to rural
development especially by sole proprietor.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Negative impacts include the following; Check Your Progress
i. Poor working conditions for the people, for example, low wages
and very long working hours. What are the benefits of the private sector in Botswana?
ii. Damage to the environment, for example, air pollution, water
Ideas such as:
pollution and land pollution.
iii. Depletion of land.  Employment creation
iv. Corruption, for instance in Botswana there are schemes that are
meant to assist Batswana to start their own businesses, in some  Acquisition of skills
cases corruption is involved as undeserving people may end up
using such schemes.  Technological development
v. In some cases leads to massive job losses, because of use of
automation and high technology.  Infrastructural development
vi. Profits go to private individuals and not to the whole nation.
 Empowerment of local entrepreneur
vii. It leads to rich individuals getting richer and the poor getting
poorer.  Forex/ Foreign direct investment (FDI)

 Government revenue from taxes

 Ensuring quality production

 Sponsorship of community activities, for example, sport / social

responsibility

 Relieves government burdens of running the economy

 Fast decision making

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

(ii) Why would the government take over some businesses?  Sole trader is owned by one person whilst a private limited
company is owned by many individuals/ shareholders
Ideas such as:
 In a sole trader funding is provided by one person(owner) whilst in
 For strategic reasons/ to provide essential services, for example, a private limited company funding is provided by shareholders
water and power.
 A sole trader operates on a small scale whilst a private limited
 To sustain non-profit making businesses company operates on large scale
 Provision of affordable goods and services/ price control  In a sole trader the owner manages the business whereas in a
private limited company shareholders choose a board of governors
 For political reasons, for example, improvement of distribution of
to manage the business
activities for balanced development
 In a sole trader, all profit belongs to the owner whereas in a private
 To generate income
limited business, profit is shared by shareholders.
 To increase job security
 The sole trader has limited liability whist private limited company
 To increase employment/job creation/create employment has unlimited liability

 To protect the environment/ depletion of resource (ii) Describe the importance of the private sector in the development of
Botswana.
Study Fig. 1, which shows types of enterprises in the private sector.
Ideas such as:

 Employment creation

 Skills development

 Technological advancement

Fig.1  Infrastructural development

(a)(i) State the differences between a sole trader and a private limited  Ensuring quality production
company.
 Sponsorship of community activities, for example, sports and
Ideas such as: social responsibility

 Relieves government of burdens of running the economy

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

  Fast decision making

 Empowerment of the local entrepreneur

 Boosts foreign exchange/ foreign direct investment

 Pay tax/ improve government revenue

 Quick response to the demands of the market

 Availability of goods and services

 Diversification of the economy

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 MODULE 8: REGIONAL CO-OPERATION, INTERNATIONAL International Trade Develop an -explain international
TRADE & FOREIG AID understanding and trade;
appreciation of the -account for international
TOPIC GENERAL SPECIFIC dynamics of trade;
OBJECTIVES OBJECTIVES international trade. - describe global trade
Learners should be Learners should be able patterns (a) developed
able to: to: countries, (b) developing
countries and (c) between
Regional Co- Develop an -explain regional co-
developed and developing
operation understanding of the operation/integration;
countries ;
nature of regional co- -identify and classify
-discuss free trade and
operation and its regional co-operation as
protectionism.
impact on the political, social and
-discuss the challenges of
development of economic;
international trade.
Botswana and other -discuss and assess the
Foreign Aid Understand the -explain the concept of
Southern Africa. role played by regional
concept of foreign aid foreign aid;
co-operation or
and its impact on -describe the types and
communities in the
development. forms of foreign aid;
development of the
-account for foreign aid;
Southern African region;
-evaluate the implications
-evaluate the successes
of foreign aid on
and challenges faced by
developing countries.
such regional
-discuss the roles of the
communities as Southern
specialised agencies of the
African Customs Union
United Nations
(SACU), Southern
African Development
Community (SADC).
-Suggest ways of
strengthening regional co-
operation in the Southern
African region.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 REGIONAL COOPERATION/ INTEGRATION - Economic regional co-operations focus on improving trade
between members, for example, Southern African Customs Union
Regional cooperation is the coming together of countries with main aim of (SACU) and European Union (EU) focus on wealth creation.
addressing common needs.
- Social regional co-operation focus on promotion of culture in the
Regional co-operation is when countries in the same region come together region, for example, Sothern African Development Community
for several reasons such as, to promote prosperity, to maximise economic (SADC)
growth, to establish financial stability in the region and expand regional
- Political regional co-operation focus on getting independence for
trade and development.
members or maintenance of peace and security, for example,
Regional cooperation is when countries of the same area come together to
Economic Community Of West African State (ECOWAS)
address common needs

Study Fig. 1 which is about types (forms) of regional co-operations ECONOMIC, POLITICAL AND SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF
REGIONAL CO-OPERATION

(a)ECONOMIC: The general aim of regional co-operation is to promote

more trade between its members, to generate a great amount and share of
external trade and raise the standards of living of the population of the
member state.

Some of the forms of economic integration are:

1. Free trade area: No tariffs or quotas between member states,
Each member countries unilaterally impose tariffs on non-member
states.
2. Customs Union: There should be free trade between member
states, but all members must operate a common external tariff on
imports from non-member states. Sometime money accumulated is
shared among member states
3. Common market: In addition to free trade in goods and services,
Fig.1 free movement of factors of production (labour and capital)
between member states is allowed.
The types (forms) of regional co-operation shown in Fig. 1 and an
example for each. 4. Economic union: This organisation includes all features of a
common market, and also requires members to adopt common
economic policies in such matters as agricultural, transport and
taxation.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

(b)POLITICAL: Regional co-operation also serves as a mutual political THE ADVANTAGES OF REGIONAL CO-OPERATION
forum to articulate the voice of the regional grouping.
It has been common for regional groupings to promote such explicitly 1. Countries often speak with one voice in international affairs.
political stance such as peace, democracy, good governance and other 2. Greater efficiency is ensured in administering or planning for
pertinent issues as they arise. larger rather than small units.
(c)SOCIAL: Regional co-operation is also social in the sense that the 3. There is easy movement of people and goods from member
interaction of the people within a regional grouping takes place at social countries across borders.
level. 4. Countries establish a common market therefore benefit from
specialisation. Each country produces according to its comparative
It is imperative to harmonise the economic pursuits and ideals with social advantage, for example, producing what they can do best.
ramifications within a region. 5. Several small countries come together to form a common market
so as to enable large industries to operate without any losses.
Thus the issue of cultural similarities and differences, language, and other 6. They are able to attract new investors such as larger multi-national
factors have to be taken on board and complement the economic goals. companies therefore prices could be brought down through
competition.
The main motive for regional co-operation is economic, political support 7. Regional co-operation enables countries to run common services
and security. together, for example, railways, same central bank and currency
such as EURO.
Finding themselves in economic and military weak positions and also 8. Countries are also able to solve conflicts or wars together and offer
politically insecure state, nations of the world have moved closer together assistance to member states which are impoverished by wars.
by forming collective bodies throughout the rest of the world.
FORMS OF REGIONAL CO-OPERATION
Examples of such bodies or regional organisations are:
 The African Union (AU) EXAMPLES OF REGIONAL CO-OPERATION
 Southern African Development Community (SADC)
 Southern African Customs Union (SACU) 1. SOUTHERN AFRICAN CUSTOMS UNION (SACU)
 European Union (EU) SACU was found in 1910. Its member countries are Botswana, Swaziland,
Lesotho and South Africa.
Regional co-operation can thus be defined as coming together or grouping It was formed to encourage free trade between member states.
of countries in the same geographical location to work unanimously to Free trade means that little customs duty is charged on products imported
promote economic development, give each other political support and into member countries.
ensure security Goods imported from outside these countries are charged custom duties and
the revenue is shared among the member countries.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

South Africa dominates SACU as it has control over the economy of other 5. Build infrastructure together across borders.
members, and it seems to prevent manufacturing industries from being able 6. Get foreign Aid to pay for development.
to develop in the other three members. 7. Encourage trade among member countries.
8. Achieve sustainable utilization of natural resources and effective
SACU’s STRENGTHS INCLUDE: protection of the environment.
9. Evolve common political values, systems and institutions.
1. Free flow of goods.
2. Cheaper goods due to reduced tariffs or custom duties. THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF SADC
3. Easy movements of people, for example, skilled people move
between the countries A lot has been achieved in SADC since its inception in April 1980 in
4. Expanded or large market area. Lusaka, Zambia. Some of the achievements are:
5. Easy flow of capital or money for investment in member countries.
 It has demonstrated that regional cooperation is possible.
2. SOUTHERN AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY  It has inculcated a sense of regional belonging as well as a tradition
(SADC) of consultation among the people and governments of Southern
Africa.
It was established in April 1980 as Southern African Development Co-  A number of infrastructural projects have been undertaken such as
ordination Conference (SADCC). rehabilitating roads, railway lines and harbours.
In August 1992 it was transformed for SADCC to SADC (Southern African  A variety of seeds have been discovered through research to carter
Development Community). for various climatic conditions of the SADC region.
SADC has fourteen member states which are: Angola, Botswana, DRC,  A number of civil wars within the SADC have been ceased
Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Madagascar, Mozambique, Namibia, South through SADC.
Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.  Collective bargaining.
Seychelles has been member of SADC until 2004 when she failed to pay  Membership security.
her annual subscription and was thus dropped.
 Improved energy supplies.
Some African countries like Rwanda who are outside the Southern African
 It aims at achieving at least 30% target of women in political and
region are interested in joining SADC. Rwanda has since submitted her
decision making structures and countries are thriving to achieve
application for membership.
this in their political circles.
The objectives of SADC are to:
 SADC capital cities and major towns are linked by tarred roads.
 Since the region is prone to drought, member countries have
1. Achieve regional development and economic growth.
agreed to share water course systems.
2. Alleviate poverty and enhance the standard and quality of life of
people of Southern Africa.  The member states share information on low cost energy
3. Promote and defend peace and security. technologies.
4. Allow the exchange of trained workers and technology.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

THE PROBLEMS /CHALLENGES FACED BY SADC COUNTRIES Check Your Progress
1. What is regional cooperation?
1. Lack of common currency.
2. Lack of a common development strategy Study Fig. 1 which is about types of regional co-operations
3. Diverse political paths.
4. Republic of South Africa dominance.
5. Political instability.
6. Completion and overlap of production of goods and services, for
example, Beef produced by Botswana and Namibia, Diamonds
produced by Botswana and DRC.
7. HIV/AIDS- SADC members have the highest infection percentage
world-wide. This is impacting negatively on the market and skilled
labour force within the region.
8. Debts: SADC members have large debts especially external debts,
some members are repaying International Monetary Fund (IMF)
and World Bank loans and are unable to settle such debts.
Fig.1
9. Insufficient funds to carry out some projects.
10. An attempt to protect home industries has slowed down regional
2. Describe each type of regional co-operation shown in Fig. 1 and give an
trade.
example for each.
11. Persistent drought or recurrence of drought. This has threatened
food security and heightened the poverty level of some countries. 3. What are the aims of the Southern African Development Community
12. Rapidly growing population thus making it difficult to provide for (SADC)?
or even solve problems of unemployment or poverty.
13. Falling terms of trade. 4. Suggest ways by which membership of a regional community may help a
14. Loss of human resources: SADC countries are faced with the country to develop economically.
movement of skills and brain drain that leaves member states
vulnerable in essential sectors such as engineering and health. 5. Describe the economic, social and political activities of Southern African
Development Community (SADC)

6. What are the advantages of regional cooperation?

7. Describe the achievements of SADC

Describe the success of the Southern African Development Community
(SADC)

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

8. Suggest ways by which regional co-operation could operate in bringing 16. Describe ways by which regional cooperation can be strengthened in
development to its region. Southern Africa

9. Give three challenges faced by Southern African Development 17. Suggest ways in which the formation of Southern African Development
Community (SADC) in achieving its objectives Community (SADC) has contributed to the development of the Southern
African region.
10. Explain how any three actions can improve regional co-operation in
Southern Africa.

11. Suggest challenges that countries such as Botswana, Lesotho and

Swaziland may face as members of the Southern African Customs Union
(SACU).

12. Study Fig. 2, which is an extract on regional cooperation.

Fig.2

13. Suggest ways in which regional trade associations such as SADC help
in the development of their member countries.

14. Describe factors that make it difficult for the Southern African
Community to achieve its aims.

15. Describe ways by which regional communities such as Southern Africa

Development Community (SADC) and Southern African Customs Union
(SACU) can be strengthened.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 INTERNATIONAL TRADE
 Invisible trade is the buying or selling of services which are
International trade is the exchange of goods and services between intangible and unseen, for example, tourism and education
countries.
International trade involves the physical movement of goods and services  Visible is the buying or selling of tangible goods or goods that can
from one country to another. be seen/touched.

THE ASPECTS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE THE IMPORTANCE OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE (REASONS

FOR TRADE OR EXCHANGE)

1. A country can get goods and services that it is unable to produce.

This means that a country gets access to goods and services it has
limitations of acquiring by its own human and physical resources.
2. This creates good international relationship between countries.
3. It helps developing countries to gain access to international
markets for their primary products like cocoa, rubber, coffee,
cotton, diamonds, gold, oil etc.
4. It creates employment in industries where goods are produced,
since more people will be employed in order to produce more.
5. It generates income for countries involved in trade.
6. It is a source of foreign exchange which is used by countries to
import goods from other countries and to finance development
projects like the building of roads, schools, hospitals within the
countries.
7. There is international specialisation which speeds up production
thus leading to mass production which is bound to lead to lower
Fig.1
prices.
Countries concentrate their efforts in the production of particular
 Imports are goods or services a country buys from other countries commodities therefore countries and individuals can develop
 Exports are goods or services a country sells to other countries expertise in specific areas, train workers and find new methods of
 Inflows are sums of money or money that comes into the country, production.
for example, payments of exports and foreign aid. 8. It provides countries with a wider variety of goods from which to
 Outflows are sums of money or money that leaves the country, for choose to meet their basic needs and wants.
example, payments of imports and tourists expenditure out of the
country.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 9. It enables goods to be obtained at different seasons, as various (b)Trade between developing countries
parts of the world experience different climatic conditions at
different times of the year. The main trade between developing countries is food.
10. It helps some countries to get rid of surplus by exporting it, for
example, if a country produces more than it can consume it then The amount of trade between developing countries is generally much lower
export. than trade between developing and developed countries.
11. A country may acquire technology and skills through international
trade. There is less trade because developing countries usually produce the same
12. It enables developing countries to get technical assistance and kind of raw materials as one another.
knowledge from developed countries.
Since they do not export many manufactured goods they have very little to
THE DISADVANTAGES/ LIMITATIONS OF INTERNATIONAL trade with one another.
TRADE
1. It benefits the richer countries than the poor. (c)Trade between developed and developing nations
2. It often makes it difficult for poorer countries to change their
pattern of trade, for example, they are constant consumers of cheap The developed world largely exports manufactured products whereas the
raw materials and buyers of expensive finished goods. developing world largely exports raw materials, resulting in the dominance
3. It may also lead to over production of goods which might lead to of the world trade by developed nations.
economic depression.
TRADE POLICIES
4. It leads to interdependence therefore in times of war, when supply
sources of essential goods halt or stop, the standard of living will (a) FREE TRADE
be low.
5. It brings competition, international jealousy and mistrust. Free trade is the principle or practice of exchange of goods and services
between countries in which controls or restrictions to trade have been
THE PATTERNS OF GLOBAL/ INTERNATIONAL TRADE removed.
Free trade is a system whereby firms and people may trade anywhere
International trade takes place at different levels and various patterns have worldwide without being charged custom duties.
emerged.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF FREE TRADE
(a)Trade between developed countries  Prices are determined by supply and demand.
 Trade may occur anywhere in the world without restrictions.
The generally these countries trade products that both of them manufacture  The economy has to be privatized.
but which one of the countries produces at a lower price or higher quality.  There is free competition.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE ADVANTAGES OF FREE TRADE This is the opposite of free trade.

 World production is increased because countries are enabled to use The policies also restrict the free flow of goods and services across
their resources in the best possible way. international borders.
 Each country can enjoy a wider variety of goods and services
leading to higher standards of living.
 It promotes international competition which helps in keeping
prices down.
 Nations allow exports and imports free of custom duties (tax).
 The world is like one big market with prices determined by supply
and demand.
 Investment in resources can take place anywhere unrestricted.
 People buy where they find the best deal.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF FREE TRADE

 Free trade may increase world production but this often helps some
countries than others, that is those with a lot of resources will
benefit more.

Fig.2
 Easy access to resources will lead to exploitation of more
resources.
TYPES OF PROTECTION
 TARRIFS (Import duty) are taxes put on imports to increase
 Greater mobility of labour from area to area will leave other
their prices so that imports are more expensive to buy. This is done
countries with few skilled human resources.
to discourage buyers from buying foreign goods and at the same
time protect local industries by promoting their products.
(b) TRADE PROTECTIONISM

 QUOTAS is a measure that limits the quantity of imports that can

Trade protectionism is also known as restricted trade
be brought into a country by importers’ every year. This would
limit the consumers’ choice of goods hence forcing them to buy
Trade protectionism is a principle or practice of taking care of a country’s
locally produced goods and services.
own industry by subsidizing them or imposing barriers against imports.

Protectionism is a system whereby trade policies are imposed to safeguard  EXCHANGE CONTROLS is when the government therefore
limits the amount needed to pay for exports
local industries from foreign competition by raising import duties or tariffs.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 International trade involves foreign currency exchange as exports are paid 7. It keeps incomes and employment high. The more goods and
in the local currency. services a country produces the higher the incomes and
employment level.
This means there is a certain foreign currency in the country that flows due 8. It makes a country to be self-reliant; enables a country to provide
to payments of exports. for its basic needs.

In the process free-flow of goods and services is reduced. 9. It prevents dumping of foreign goods which are usually of low
quality but at the same time their prices are below the local goods.
 ECONOMIC NATIONALISM/ QUARANTINE SYSTEM is 10. It corrects an unfavourable balance of payment as strict exchange
when the government can decide to use health and safety controls and high tariffs reduce imports.
regulations to limit the type and quantity of imports.
11. It also helps reduce imported inflation. That if there is rise of
For example, the government refuse to allow cattle from Zimbabwe into goods in a country and another country buy such goods they have
Botswana because of the Foot and Mouth disease that is prevalent there. imported that inflation or increase of prices.

This leads to discrimination in favour of home products.

 POLITICAL BOUNDARIES generally regulate the easy flow of

THE DISADVANTAGES OF TRADE PROTECTIONISM
goods and services into a country. Traders cross at certain points in
order to declare their goods at the border
1. Lack of competition may lead to expensive products in the home
market.
THE ADVANTAGES OF TRADE PROTECTIONISM
2. Sometimes local industries develop slowly because there is no
1. It protects infant industries or new industries from competition.
foreign competition.
2. The local industries are protected from competing with foreign
goods or industries.
3. It boosts the number of exports. This leads to waste of economic resources because money has been
invested into these industries in order to achieve economic
4. The countries charge tariffs or quotas to limit imports and at the development.
same time raise revenue.
5. The government encourage exports by giving subsidies, Export- 3. Protectionism narrows the market since trade with other countries
Oriented Strategy. becomes difficult due to restrictions imposed as trade is only with
6. Investment in other countries may be restricted or banned. those countries with few restrictions.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 BALANCE OF TRADE

The balance of trade refers to the difference between the amount of money
leaving a country to pay for imports and the amount of money coming into
the country from other countries to pay for exports in a year.

It is calculated by subtracting imports from exports to see if there is a trade

surplus (a positive balance) or a trade deficit (a negative balance).
(a) Positive or Favourable balance of trade is when a country
exports more goods than importing them in money terms.
For example:
Exports -P5 billion
Imports-P4 billion

The surplus is P 1 billion

Positive balance of trade is also called trade surplus.

It is favourable because it means that the country is building up a surplus of Fig.3

foreign currency that it can use in the future.
SOLUTIONS TO NEGATIVE BALANCE OF TRADE
(b) Negative Balance of trade is when the country is spending more
on its imports than it earns for its exports. How can the government solve the problem of deficit?

Negative balance of trade is also known as trade deficit. 1. Try by every possible means to increase exports through:
 Building more factories.
Government try to avoid going into a negative balance of trade by  Encouraging farmers to grow export crops.
restricting imports and encouraging exports.  Search for new sources of minerals.
 Limit imports.

2. The government may also devalue the currency, for example, reduce the
value of the local currency so that exports become cheaper for other
countries to buy. This will also make imports more expensive and people
will reduce buying from outside so much.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

3. The government can also adopt the Export Oriented and Import BALANCE OF PAYMENT
Substitution Industrialisation strategies.
Balance of trade is an account or financial records of all transactions of a
4. The other solution is to borrow money from international organisation country and the rest of the world per annum.
and from private banks, for example, World Bank, IMF etc. but this
solution should be treated as a temporary measure as it simply postpones Balance of payment is made up of the following:
the problem. (a) Balance of payment on current account – The current account
shows the present income and expenditure of a country with the
*Devaluation of currency is the most common solution especially in rest of the world.
developing countries as this helps a country to sell more exports and buy (b) Balance of payment on capital account- Capital movements that
fewer imports. may be made by private individuals or firms or government
Devaluation is often the hardest on the poorest people in the country who agencies also effect the balance of payment.
suddenly find their wages can no longer buy very much for them. There are four reasons for capital movement from one country to another:
 For investment abroad
If a country spends more on buying imports than it earns form selling  As loans
exports then it has a negative balance of trade and this can lead a country  For safety
into debts with serious consequences.  As a gift from one country to another.
(c) Balance of payment on the monetary movement account: This
Most developing countries experience a negative balance of trade and part of balance of payments tells us how the balance on both
therefore have to borrow money from the World Bank to pay for imports. current account and capital account taken together is settled.
A deficit on combined currency and capital account can be paid in
TERMS OF TRADE several ways:
 By selling foreign investment
Terms of trade refers to the rate at which exports buy imports.  By exporting minerals
 By receiving a gift from another country.
If the terms of trade decline or fall the terms of trade is unfavourable but if Deflationary policy – This can involve the following:
they rise they are favourable.
 Reducing bank lending
 Raising interest rates
In developing countries the terms of trade have declined simply because
 Increasing taxes
they export primary products which are less profitable than manufactured
 Cutting government expenditure.
goods.

The aim of this method is to cut down domestic demand and reduce
imports. When demand is low, prices tend to go down and exports are more
attractive to foreign buyers.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Check Your Progress
THE CHALLENGES OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE
1. Define international trade
1. Economic conditions in developing countries
2. Describe three reasons for international trade
2. Access to world trade- Although world trade has increased 3. Study Fig. 1 which shows an example of international trade
dramatically, the share of poor countries remains 5% in global
trade.

The majority of people in developing countries are poor and

developing countries have the majority of people in the world.

3. The legacy of neo-colonialism- Whereas some countries have freed

or liberated themselves from neo-economic bondage through
industrialisation, the rest of the developing countries is still
dependent on the developed countries.

4. Globalisation

5. Political instability
Fig.1

Describe each aspect of international trade shown in Fig. 1.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

4. Study Fig. 2 which shows trade patterns between countries 11. Describe the challenges faced by developing countries in international
trade.

12. Study Fig. 3, which shows a trade situation for country X and answer
the question that follows

Fig. 2

- Describe the trade patterns shown in Fig. 2.

- Suggest reasons why Botswana buys goods from other countries

- Describe difficulties experienced by developing countries when

they try to take part in international trade

- Suggest ways by which developing countries can increase trade

Fig.3
amongst themselves
Suggest ways by which country X could correct its negative balance of
trade.
5. State three features of the trade pattern of developing countries

6. Describe three challenges faced by developing countries that rely on a Ideas such as:
single export commodity
7. Suggest three ways by which developing countries can solve their  They limit quantity of goods from poor countries through quota
problems associated with trade system
 They charge high tariffs on goods from poor countries to
8. Describe the typical trade pattern of a developed country discourage entrance
 They subsidise their own goods to make them cheaper than
9. Describe three way used to control trade
imported goods to discourage imported goods
10. Describe three ways by which a country can protect its trade

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

  They demand high technological requirements so that poor Describe the ways through which rich countries protect their industry
countries fail to attain the high standard from cheap imports.
 They put exchange control measures to limit foreign exchange
 They impose high health standards on foreign goods and services
(forex) for import
13. Define protectionism  They form cartels which restrict imports from outside the cartel
 They demand import licences/ permits/ legal agreements
14. Describe the advantages [benefits] of international trade.
Suggest actions which poor countries could take, so they benefit more
15. What are imports? from international trade.
 Less Developed Countries(LDCs) should turn raw materials into
16. Describe three ways in which a country can correct a negative balance finished products/ add value to raw materials
of payment  LDCs should form regional co-operations to create a market for
themselves
17. Study Fig. 4, which is a cartoon about trade between developing  LDCs should improve their technology to ensure high quality
countries and developed countries. goods/ invite Multi- National Companies to improve technology/
quality goods and services
 LDCs should form producer cartels to control prices and avoid low
fluctuating prices
 LDCs should appeal to World Trade Organisation to make
developed countries to relax trade barriers
 LDCs should promote research on their products
 LDCs should devalue their currencies to attract customers
 LDCs should diversify their economies/ should avoid dependence
on few commodities
18. What is meant by a positive balance of trade/favourable balance of
trade?
19. Give three different ways by which money can come into a country

20. Describe barriers in international trade

21. Why do countries come up with trade barriers?

22. Suggest benefits that people of Botswana may enjoy for international
trade
23. Suggest benefits that people in Botswana may enjoy from international
Fig.4 trade.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 FOREIGN AID Generally it is the government to government and this is often tied, that is
there are strings attached.
Foreign aid is the assistance or help given to some countries from other For example, the USA might donate money directly to the Botswana
countries and other donor agencies. government help with development.
ii. Multi-lateral aid is the assistance given to a country by
international organisation.
For example, the United Nations, European Union, International Monetary
Fund, World Bank and other individual richer countries give money and
other resources to those organisations with the understanding that it will be
given out to deserving countries when the need arises.

EXPLANATION OF TERMS Emergency aid is basically food, medical supplies or other materials that
are given in times of natural disasters such as droughts and earth quakes.
 Recipient country- a state which receives aid.
 Donor country- a state which gives out aid. THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF FOREIGN AID DONORS
 Donor agency- an organisation which gives out aid.
 Tied aid- is the help or assistance that comes with “strings - Rich individuals, for example, Bill Gates who help developing
attached”. This means that the aid is given with certain instructions countries to fight diseases such as HIV/AIDS through his
about how it may be used. foundation called Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
- Charities , for example, the Red Cross/ Red Crescent which
TYPES OF AID sometimes help people affected by natural disasters such as flood
Basically there are two main types of aid: by providing them with shelter and food.
- Developed countries or rich countries, for example, giving out
a) Official Aid is paid by taxpayers in donor countries and assistance in the form of funds to developing countries to carry out
administered by governments in those countries. development projects.
- International Non –Governmental Organisations (NGOs)
b) Voluntary Aid is the money or assistance raised by independent working in specific areas or helping people and countries in those
organisations and private donations, for example, Oxfam and Red areas, for example, Survival International advocating for minority
Cross. ethnic groups.
- Less Developed Countries (LDCs) which are well off offering to
Types of Official Aid help other countries, for example, Botswana giving fuel to
Zimbabwe.
i. Bilateral aid is the assistance given directly from one country to - Agencies of the United Nations
another.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 FORMS OF FOREIGN AID For example, Botswana gets food resources from USA during
emergencies.
1. Financial assistance: Foreign aid in the form of financial Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) offers food resources to
assistance can be divided in two forms: developing countries which are faced with drought and poverty.

a) Soft loans are money to developing countries by developed 5. Foreign direct investment refers to the establishment of factories,
countries to help in development. hotels and industries in some countries especially developing
This money is given on condition that developing countries should pay back countries by firms and corporations that originate from developed
within a given period of time. The time is usually very reasonable, that is countries.
why money is called soft loan. In some cases foreign direct investment takes the form of a joint
venture with the government of the developing country and the
b) Grants are the money given to developing countries by developed donor country.
countries to help in development. For example, in Botswana diamond mining industry is a joint venture
between the government of Botswana and De Beers Company hence
Unlike soft loans, the money is given free of charge and is not refunded. Debswana.
MOTIVATION FOR AID
2. Technical assistance or specialist services refers to the services
offered to developing countries by experts, skilled staff from other This has been categorized into two broad areas:
countries or developed countries and international organisations
like IMF, World Bank and United Nations.  Donor oriented
This form of assistance is commonly known as technical and
advisory services.  Development oriented
Usually the salaries of the foreign specialist are paid by the
developed countries or international organisation that sent them. THE REASONS FOR GIVING FOREIGN AID

3. Education and training is a form of foreign aid whereby  Humanitarian reasons

developed countries and donor agencies offer scholarships and  For development of skills and technology
sponsorship to students of developing countries to attend  Trade links
universities abroad.  Economic gains
They also avail their teachers and instructors to come and teach in  Creation of political satellites or strategic reasons
developing countries, for example, the Peace Corps from the USA.  Creation of employment
 For infrastructure development
4. Gift of consumer goods is the form of foreign aid in which food
 For peace keeping
and other consumer goods are given as free gifts to developing
countries by developed countries and other donor agencies.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE ADVANTAGES/ ARGUMENTS FOR AID
THE DISADVANTAGES/ ARGUMENT AGAINST FOREIGN AID
a) The aid can help developing countries in need or emergency i. The aid does create dependency syndrome making weaker
assistance and help for long term development. countries depend more on stronger ones.
b) Foreign aid helps governments in developing countries to provide ii. The aid on bilateral basis is often used by richer and powerful
needed infrastructure, for example, roads, schools, water and countries to consolidate their mighty or strength.
bridges.
c) Where finance is lacking aid can assist in removing delays to iii. The aid often makes countries to divert their attention from trade to
development. aid.
d) Foreign aid is a means of expressing care and concern for the
fellow humans especially from the rich to the poor and can iv. Foreign aid reinforces master-servant relations in international
improve human rights. affairs and promotes superiority-inferiority attitudes.
e) Foreign aid plays the role of redistributing resources which are v. Foreign aid strengthens world inequalities and endorses or supports
unevenly distributed throughout the world. the economic, political and social mighty of richer countries over
poor ones.
f) Foreign aid helps establish links between countries and
consequently enhance international understanding and world peace vi. Sometimes aid is project aid that is given on condition that the
and students may be given grants to study overseas. country receiving the aid should use it for a project chosen by the
donor.
g) Foreign aid encourages and facilitates mobility of labour to where
it is needed most and it also enhances technology transfer.
Then the problem sometimes is that the project chosen by the
h) It promotes the concept of interdependence by allowing the rich to donor may not be important to the developing country receiving
help the poor. the aid.
vii. Sometimes a developed country gives aid to a developing country
i) It encourages trade between countries by strengthening the on condition that the developing country should buy certain
relationship between them. materials from them.

j) Developed countries gain support from developing countries, they viii. Foreign aid encourages waste especially grants. Recipient
give aid against other countries. countries are wasteful if they are given money without having to
pay back.
k) It helps developed countries to protect their investments in
developing countries.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 THE IMPLICATIONS OF FOREIGN AID ON DEVELOPING THE ROLE OF SPECIALISED AGENCIES AND PROGRAMMES
COUNTRIES OF THE UNITED NATIONS
 Tied aid ensures developed countries ready market for their
products. 1. Food and Agricultural Organisation
 Foreign aid is used to put political and economic pressure on
poorer countries. This is a UN specialised agency formed in 1945.
 Foreign aid increases the recipient country’s external debts as
loans are repaid with interest. It aims at promoting rural development by improving agricultural
 In most cases foreign aid only goes to the rich and urban dwellers production and increased food security.
in recipient countries rather than the real poor people.
 In some cases foreign aid encourages corruption amongst officials It provides support to states preparing for emergency food crisis,
in donor and recipient countries. sometimes provides food relief in conjunction with World Food Programme
 Foreign aid also distorts local markets in developing countries. and is often involved in effort to re-establish production following floods,
 Foreign countries do not encourage self-reliance of recipient livestock disease outbreaks and other disasters.
countries so it promotes neo-colonialism.
This agency works to increase the output of farmlands, forests, and fisheries
 Developing countries are often not given appropriate relevant
as well as nutrition levels by collecting and passing information concerning
technology.
nutrition, food and agriculture.
THE SPECIALISED AGENCIES AND PROGRAMMES OF THE
UNITED NATIONS
It helps countries that need technical advice on how to increase food
production, to fight pests and animal diseases and how to conserve the soil.

2. World Food Programme(WFP)

It was formed in 1963.

It specialised in providing food aid to the population caught up in the

natural and man-made disasters and wars.

Most of the resources are used for emergency relief.

Most of the food that it distributes is pledged in kind by donor countries.

Fig.1

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 3. World Health Organisation (WHO) 5. United Nations International Children Emergency Fund
(UNICEF)
It was formed in 1948 to provide worldwide guidance in the field of health.
It was formed in 1946, as a programme to meet the emergency needs of
It cooperates with government in planning and management and evaluation children.
of natural health programmes and promotes the development and transfer of
appropriate health technology, information and standards. It helps in the relief of children. It specializes in the supply of medicine,
The governing body of WHO is the world health assembly that is composed food and equipment for the children’s welfare service.
of all member states and meets every year.
It expanded rapidly during the 1980s attracting considerable funds with its
It plays a key role for example in monitoring disease control research. high profile selective primary health care programme in impoverished
countries.
The organisation strives to prevent the spread of diseases internationally by
giving guidance to countries on health problems and control of diseases. 6. United Nations High Commissioner For Refugees (UNHCR)

It fights an endless war against malaria, leprosy, typhus, polio, HIV/AIDS, Its function is to provide protection and assistance to refugees but this has
SARS, Ebola etc. been extended to include some groups of returned refugees and internally
displaced people.
4. UNITED NATIONS EDUCATION, SCIENTIFIC AND
CULTURAL ORGANISATION (UNESCO) 7. International Labour Organisation (ILO)

This organisation seeks to achieve universal literacy through programmes of It investigates working conditions, wages, trade union rights and social
cultural and intellectual cooperation. security of workers in all parts of the world.

It encourages international cooperation in natural sciences, education and It advices on international labour questions.
social sciences.

It aims at extending educational opportunities for children and at rising

education levels among adults.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 Check Your Progress (b)(i) Describe the advantages of international trade.

1. Fig 1 shows the United Nations Specialised Agencies. Use it to answer (ii) Describe the challenges faced by developing countries in international
question 1(a) [BGCSE 2009] trade.

2(a) (i) Why do countries of the North give aid to the countries of the
South?

 Humanitarian reasons, for example, during emergencies such as

floods and drought/ sympathy
 To encourage more trade between donor and recipient countries
 Protect donor investments in countries of the South/ interests
 Gain support of recipient countries against other countries/
political reasons
 Prestige/publicity/friendship
 Donors may wish to exercise control over recipient countries
 Donors creating employment for their own people
 To satisfy international requirements/redistribution of world’s
Fig.1 wealth
(a)(i) Explain the function of any three of the specialised agencies on the  To support their own industries/ open up markets for their own
diagram. industries.

 FAO: Collects and disseminates information on food and nutrition (ii)Describe effects of foreign aid on developing countries.
 WHO: helps to fight diseases
 UNICEF: to improve living conditions of children/ improve
children’s education
 ILO: investigates working conditions and security of workers- to
improve workers welfare.
 World Bank: gives financial assistance and technical advice to
countries
 UNCHR: helps to improve refugees welfare.

(ii) Describe possible problems that foreign aid can cause to countries
receiving it.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

2. Study Fig. 2 which shows specialised agencies of the United Nations (ii) Suggest challenges that the World Food Programme faces in developing
Organisation. [BGCSE 2015] countries.

Ideas such as:

- misuse of donated food/ people sell donated food for personal gain
- Cultural barriers where people reject food from other cultures
- Large population to feed
- Wars/conflicts disturbing food distribution
- Uncooperative leaders/ dictators wanting to control the duties of
WFP
- Leaders wanting to use WFP food aid for political gains
3. (a) Define the term tied aid.

(b) State three reasons for giving foreign aid.

Describe the forms of foreign aid received by Less Developed

Fig.2 Countries.

(a)(i) Describe ways by which each of the specialised agencies shown in Ideas such as:
Fig. 2 helps countries to develop.
 Technical assistance, for example, experts sent to work in a
World Health Organisation (WHO) controls diseases and promotes developing country
people’s health  Financial help, for example, interest free loans and grants/
monetary
World Food Programme (WFP) distributes food to starving people or
 Gift of consumer goods, for example, food aid/ humanitarian
those suffering from disaster and advice on nutrition
 Military aid, for example, soldiers sent to keep law and order
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) helps to in a country
provide basic needs and safety for refugees  Emergency aid, for example, help given during floods and
drought
World Bank provides loans to countries for development or reconstruction
and provide economic advice to countries

United Nations Education Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) fund

research in education

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

(ii) Suggest problems that a Less Developed Country, which receives (ii) Suggest ways in which rich countries may help poor countries to
foreign aid, can experience. speed up development.

 Corruption, for example, money misused by leaders Ideas such as:

 Reinforcement of master-servant relations/ foster superiority-
inferiority ideology  Developed countries (DCs) should send exports to help
 Aid is often tied/ conditional/ benefiting the developed countries/ development in Less Developed Countries (LDCs)
neo-colonialism  DCs can sponsor LDCs’ students to gain skills/ scholarships/ skills
 Creates dependency syndrome/ loss of self-reliance development
 Some aid encourages inappropriate technology  Technology transfer to LDCs
 Less Developed Countries end up in debt crisis  Send Multi-National Companies to LDCs/ Foreign Direct
Investment
 Encourages wastefulness
 Provide financial assistance for development projects, for example,
 Less Developed Countries become dumping grounds for developed
schools and roads construction/ monetary aid
countries
 Provide emergency/ reconstruction aid when crises occur, for
 Less Developed Countries turned into marketing area for donor
example, the Haiti example and Doctors without borders
products/ creates competition with local products
 Developed countries should relax trade barriers so that poor
Describe the problems faced by poor countries as a result of receiving countries can participate in international trade/ provide reliable
aid from rich countries. market
 Developed countries should facilitate research for development in
 Aid encourages corruption among government officials Less Developed countries
 Aid encourages laziness among locals/ dependency syndrome  Developed countries can send peace keepers to war torn countries
 Aid encourages wastage of resources to stabilise political environment
 Aid cause debt crisis  The rich countries can reduce interest rates/ debt cancellation of
 Aid increases inequality within the country when it benefits poor countries
selected groups (Marks allocation: 5/5 6/4 4/6)
 Aid promotes dumping of discarded resources form donors/
inappropriate technology/ environmental unfriendly
 Donors may interfere in recipients’ politics
 Aid may be tied/ strings attached
 Reinforces master-servant relationship.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

 (ii) Ways by which developing countries can use foreign aid to achieve
higher levels of development.

Ideas such as:

- Use donated funds to invest in industries or production activities

- Use foreign experts to train locals / to work in the country.
- Send students to overseas institutions where doors have been
opened.
- Use donated funds to construct or improve social services, for
example, schools, hospitals and libraries.
- Use foreign loans to construct transportation routes or use them on
(a)(i) Description of different types of foreign aid donors development projects, for example, building of highways.
- Use funds to import machinery for production.
Ideas such as:
(b)(i) Description of different forms of foreign aid
- Rich individuals, for example, Bill Gates who help developing
countries to fight diseases such as HIV/AIDS through his - Gift of consumer goods, for example, food
foundation called Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. - Financial or monetary, for example, loans and grants
- Charities , for example, the Red Cross/ Red Crescent which - Foreign Direct investment which involves establishment of
sometimes help people affected by natural disasters such as flood production activities, for example, factories, farms and mines in
by providing them with shelter and food. poor countries.
- Developed countries or rich countries, for example, giving out - Technical assistance where developed countries provide expertise
assistance in the form of funds to developing countries to carry out to advise poor countries.
development projects. - Education where rich countries sponsor students from poor
- International Non –Governmental Organisations (NGOs) countries to study overseas and send teachers to teach students in
working in specific areas or helping people and countries in those poor countries.
areas, for example, Survival International advocating for minority - Specialised services where specialised agencies of the United
ethnic groups. Nations Organisation, for example, World Bank or other agencies
- Less Developed Countries (LDCs) which are well off offering to carry out research for the benefit of the poor country.
help other countries, for example, Botswana giving fuel to - Trade where rich nations give poor countries opportunities to sell
Zimbabwe their products on the world market or them.
- Agencies of the United Nations - Military where rich countries give weapons or solider services to
poor ones.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8

(ii) How the act of giving may benefit the donor country.

Ideas such as:

- Protection of donor investments or interests in the recipient

country.
- Creation of employment for the donor country’s citizens.
- Recipient country becomes a secure market for donor country’s
goods and services.
- Donor country gains prestige or publicity.
- Donor country gains support of recipient country in international
debates.
- Donor country satisfies international requirements, for example,
rich countries are required by the United Nations Organisations to
give out percentage of their GNP to help poor countries.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1-8