BAHIR DA UNIVERSITY

Institute of Technology

School of Computing and Electrical Engineering

Electrical and Computing Engineering(Power and Control

Stream)

Design Of Off-grid Pv System For Bata

Veterinary Clinic

Members:
Supervisor:
Berhan Teshale [268/01]
Rediet Tsegaye[1067/01] Mr. Teketay .M

February 2014
 Declaration of Authorship
We, Berhan Teshale and Rediet Tsegaye, declare that this thesis titled, ’Title Of
Your Thesis’ and the work presented in it are our own. We confirm that:

□ This work was done wholly or mainly while in candidature for a bachelor
degree at this University.

□ Where any part of this thesis has previously been submitted for a degree or any
other qualification at this University or any other institution, this has been clearly
stated. Where we have consulted the published work of others, this is always
clearly attributed.

□ Where we have quoted from the work of others, the source is always given. With
the exception of such quotations, this thesis is entirely our own work. We have
acknowledged all main sources of help.

Supervisor:
Authors: Mr. Teketay.M

Berhan Teshale
P. Manager:
Rediet Tsrgsye Edmeyalem.G
Date: 17/02/2014
Date: 17/02/2014

It is approved that this thesis has been written in compliance with the formatting rules
laid down by the school of the university.
Examining Committe Members Signature Date

1. Chairman −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−

2. Examiner 1 −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−

3. Examiner 2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−

i
 ii

Abstract

Energy is one of the most important requirements for this world to function properly.
Its availability and regular supply are of paramount interest. As we are all aware,
energy and fuel prices are rising day by day and the negative effects of global warming
are more and more visible. The electrification of rural areas using solar energy is very
economical compare to other Forms of rural electricity supply such as diesel generators
or grid extension. The rural Electrification involves the power supply to remote houses
or villages, electrification of the health care facilities, power supply for water supply
treatment and irrigation etc. This paper focuses on solar home PV system in rural
area.
 Acknowledgements
We would like to express our sincere and firm gratitude and pay a lot of thanks to
our honorable thesis advisor Mr., Teketay M Department of Computing and Electrical
Engineering for his constant supervision to carry out the thesis and that make us to
create a good knowledge and confidence. He extended his helping hand by providing
us encouragement, inspiration, facilities and valuable feedback throughout the course
of this thesis..

iii
Contents

Declaration of Authorship i

Abstract ii

Acknowledgements iii

List of Tables vi

Abbreviations vii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background..................................................................................................................1
1.1.1 Photo voltaic system.....................................................................................2
1.1.2 Rural Electrification in Ethiopia..................................................................3
1.1.3 Rural Electrification in Ethiopia using Solar PV......................................4
1.2 Problem of statement..................................................................................................6
1.3 Objectives....................................................................................................................6
1.3.1 General objective...........................................................................................6
1.3.2 Specific objective.............................................................................................7
1.4 Expected outcome And Significant of the project..................................................7
1.5 Methodology................................................................................................................8
1.5.1 Load demand..................................................................................................8
1.5.2 Size the PV modules......................................................................................9
1.5.3 Battery sizing...............................................................................................10
1.5.4 Inverter sizing..............................................................................................11
1.5.5 Solar charge controller design....................................................................11

2 Review of literature 13
2.0.6 Off-grid pv system.......................................................................................14
2.0.7 Off-grid pv system in Ethiopia.................................................................14
2.0.8 Grid-connected system................................................................................15
2.0.9 Grid-connected system in Ethiopia...........................................................16

3 System description and over all operation 18

4 Design and analysis 20

iv
Contents v

4.0.10 Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.0.11 Photo voltaic array sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.0.12 Panel inclination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.0.13 Battery sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.0.14 Inverter Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.0.15 Charge controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.0.16 Selection criteria of cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.0.17 Balance-of-System (BOS) Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.1 Result and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.1.1 HOMER Optimization Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

5 Conclusion and Recommendation 42

5.0.2 Conclusion....................................................................................................42
5.0.3 Recommendation..........................................................................................43

6 Bibliography 44
List of Tables

4.1 Load wattages...........................................................................................................20

4.2 Ratted wattages........................................................................................................21
4.3 Adjestement factors.................................................................................................22
4.4 energy per day..........................................................................................................22
4.6 electrical characteristics............................................................................................26
4.7 Inclination and zenieth angle of north western Ethiopia....................................30
4.8 Inverter spesification................................................................................................34
4.9 Net present cost........................................................................................................39
4.10 Anualized cost...........................................................................................................39

vi
Abbreviations

PV photo voltaic
SHS solar home system
KW kilo watt
PSH sun shine hour
DC direct current
AC alternating current
MW Mega watt
Wp Peak power
NGO Non Governmental Organization
LED Light Emitting Diode
SHS Solar Home System
KWH Kilowatt Hour
STC Standard Test Condition
MPPT Maximum Power Point Traking
MOSFET Metal Oxide Field Effect Transistor
Amp-Hour Ampere Hour
DF Derating Factor
Voc Open circuit voltage
Ib design current
In Nominal current
Cf Correction factor
Df Diversity factor
Iz Cable Current Capacity
Vref Reference Voltage
Ish Short circuit current

vii
Abbreviations viii

Iadj Adjustable current

NOCT Normal Operating Temperature
EEPCo Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation
EBCS Ethiopian Building Construction Standard
MDG Millennium Development Goal
Hz Harze
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Background

Sunlight is the most abundant energy source available to man. It provides us with heat
to keep us warm, light by which to see, and energy for plants to grow [1]. Dr. David
Goodstein, a professor of physics at the California Institute of Technology said, The
total amount of sunlight that falls on the planet is 20,000 times the amount of fossil
fuel power we are using now. Theres plenty of energy from sunlight.
In [1] Solar energy is one of the most attractive sources of sustainable energy. It is an
important clean, cheap and abundant available renewable energy. Alternative energy
source like solar energy were undermined until fuel price started to rise significantly in
the last few year. In addition, high initial cost of PV generator was a limiting factor for
those users to utilize such renewable and clean energy source. Even through this solar
technology May have a higher starting cost than that of conventional fossil fuel, the low
maintenance and operation cost and the ability to operate without fuel make the solar
powered systems cheaper to keep. One of the most resourceful and suitable renewable
energies that is used in the rural non electrify area is solar power. Solar power or solar
energy is technology of gaining operational energy from the light of sun. In [1] various
type of solar system currently available are categorized as follows as follows, Photo bio-
logic system, Chemical system, Photovoltaic system, and Thermal system.
Photo biologic system
Photosynthesis is the oldest and most widespread method of using the solar system .
in this process, nitrogen and nutrients, needed for the continuation of plants life, are
1
Chapter 1. Introduction 2

absorbed. the biologic energy stored in the plant is retrieved by burning the wood or
preparing fuel such as alcohol and the output of this process is between 0.25 to 0.5
percent and such fuel are rarely used due to their low output [1]. Chemical system
In [1] named the other type of solar energy systems as chemical solar system that are
categorized three two groups:
1. Photo chemical system in which the solar radiation is used in chemical process.
2. Heliothermic system in which the sun is used as thermal resource. Both groups are
used in synthesis which needs thermal and radiant.
Thermal system
In [1] express that thermal system is now considered as the most economical solar sys-
tem. This type of system can be categorized as follows:
1 Cooling and heating systems
2 Water heating systems
3 Drying and cooking systems
4 Desalinating systems
5 Pumping systems
6 Electricity generating
systems 7 Green area making
systems

1.1.1 Photo voltaic system

One of the most common methods currently available for turning sunlight into useful
energy is by the use of photo voltaic, or solar, cells. Photovoltaic comes from the
Greek word photo meaning light and volt referring to electricity (Photo watt). Solar
cells convert light to direct current (DC) electricity by means of the photoelectric
effect[3]. The electricity produced by solar cells may directly power DC machines, be
converted by an invert er to AC power for use by AC machines or devices, or be used
to charge batteries. Solar cells have no moving parts and require minimal
maintenance beyond periodic cleaning of the light-absorbing surface. The
phenomenon of the conversion of light energy to electrical energy was first
discovered by the French physicist Alexander Edmond Becquerel in 1839 (Lenardic).
In 1905, Albert Einstein made comprehensive theoretical studies about photo voltaic
technology. He won the Nobel Prize in physics in 1921 for his services to Theoretical
Physics, and especially for his discovery of the
Chapter 1. Introduction 3

law of the photoelectric effect. Up through the mid-twentieth century, photo voltaic
technology was limited primarily to scientific research. Bell Laboratories developed the
first practical silicon-based solar module in 1954 (Chodos). This silicon solar cell, devel-
oped by Chapin, Fuller, and Pearson, had an energy conversion efficiency of 6 percent
(Chapin). In 1963, Sharp Corporation successfully began to mass-produce the first so-
lar cells (Sharp). Early solar cell use was constrained primarily to remote applications
where no other source of reliable and practical electricity was available. These early ap-
plications included buildings far from the electrical grid, call boxes on distant highways,
and space stations and satellites in earth-orbit. The market’s interest in early solar cell
technology was dampened by its low electrical conversion efficiency. Over the last 50
years, solar cell efficiency has increased while the production costs have decreased [3].

1.1.2 Rural Electrification in Ethiopia.

In Rural areas women and children spent their time in searching of fire wood and the
urban poor also spend a large amount of their income to satisfy their energy demand
[3]. Ethiopia has a very low amount of electricity generation from hydro and diesel
generator but this generated amount also will not fully operated due to constraints on
fuel and maintenance costs of diesel generator [4]. As most of the people live in rural
areas, the development of these areas is a key for the whole country development. The
government is taking actions to promote the electrification. For example, in 1996 invest-
ment proclamation the private investors are allowed to import all types of equipment
related to electricity production, transmission and distribution free of tax and custom
duties [4]. There are two main reasons for the low level of electrification. These are
economic resource constraints and low level of technological advancements. In the rural
area, the relatively high cost of transmission and distribution due to the mountainous
and scattered rural settlements makes it costly and the people are unable to pay for the
electricity and installation [5] [6] . Rural energy problem in Ethiopia will be the cause of
slow growth and poverty unless actions are taken to overcome this problem. [6]. Educa-
tion, health, and rural road building programs are considered the main areas for building
the necessary infrastructure for poverty mitigation. The development of modern energy
in Ethiopia has got a considerable finance but the rural energy sector does not get a
fair share of this allocation. One of the main problems for the national energy policy
Chapter 1. Introduction 4

of Ethiopia is there is no organized responsible body for rural electrification except grid
electricity and petroleum products. Without institutional and managerial structures
and controls, it is impractical to realize that the stated solutions for the problems of
rural electrification like mini and micro-hydropower and PV systems [6].

1.1.3 Rural Electrification in Ethiopia using Solar PV.

Ethiopia has 15 percent electricity grid coverage with a production of less than
100MW of power [7] and its electricity production is mainly from hydro power
supplemented with diesel. There is a large demand of electricity in rural areas of
Ethiopia that could be supplied by small scale PV systems. Even though the power
requirement for the rural population is mainly for grinding cereals and water pumping
it plays an important role in lighting of homes and schools, vaccination refrigeration
and public communica- tion centers and for other small electricity consumer
appliances. In order to see the performance of solar PV under Ethiopian climatic
condition two small scale PV stand alone systems were installed at Addis Ababa
University and it shows PV can be used as energy sources [5]. An estimate shows
that PV power system demand of 2 Wp can be used for light, 10 Wp for light and
music for 4 hours per day, 50 Wp and 100 Wp can be used for little cinema or a
health station with refrigerators [8].
Ethiopia has a large population with a rapidly growing economy and very low level of
electrification [9]. Photovoltaic systems are cost-effective and reliable means to
increase access not only to electricity but also to information and communication
through mobile devices. PV is already an important source of power for the mobile
network in Ethiopia it will also be important for of energizing social institutions such
as schools, clinics and water supply [9]. The large domestic market, increasing
disposable incomes, and growing technical workforce should enable Ethiopia to
develop a sustainable PV manufacturing and distribution industry. Its sizable
domestic market should also enable it to position itself as the regional solar energy
hub. It is estimated that a local manufacturing and service industry for PV systems
can create 50,000 full time skilled jobs by 2020. This, however, requires conceptual
transformation for the sector the existing sector set up is inadequate to achieve this
vision. Policy and regulatory issues must be resolved and sector development support
must be adequately provided. Since new industries are con- stantly faced with new
challenges the key is to have a strong institution to address them
Chapter 1. Introduction 5

effectively as they appear [2].

Such an institution could be the rural electrification support unit within the Ministry
of Water and Energy. This unit must be truly capable and empowered; flexible in its
operations; and be able to work with industry actors [10]. It should first work to
improve the policy and regulatory environment, and then attract resources to provide
adequate sector development support. Today, PV systems have an important use in
areas re- mote from an electricity grid where they Provide power for water pumping,
lighting, vaccine refrigeration, electrified livestock fencing, telecommunications and
many other applications. However, with the global demand to reduce carbon -dioxide
emissions, PV technology is also gaining popularity as a mainstream form of
electricity generation[11]. Photovoltaic modules provide an independent, reliable
electrical power source at the point of use, making it particularly suited to remote
locations. However, solar PV is increasingly being used by homes and offices to
provide electricity to replace or supple- ment grid power, often in the form of solar
PV roof tiles. The daylight needed is free, but the cost of equipment can take many
years before receiving any payback. However, in remote areas where grid connection
is expensive, PV can be the most cost effective power source[12].
Nearly all of the about 80 percentof Ethiopians living in rural areas have no access to
electricity. Excellent solar conditions enable attractive small off-grid PV systems for ru-
ral population. Their todays energy budget allows short payback periods of only about
2 to 4 years [12]. As a consequence of high oil prices, even larger PV systems are very
competitive to diesel generators and village power supply, respectively. Highly economic
solar systems, available to rural population, generate additional purchasing power and
open new financial capabilities for sustainable rural development [13].
Installations of photovoltaic (PV) systems have shown high growth rates around the
world [14]. Nevertheless, most PV markets need considerable governmental support to
reach parity with prevailing electricity supply. On the other side, highly economic but
still small PV markets exist like in Ethiopia, for instance. A sustainable market devel-
opment of such markets often dominated by small off-grid PV solutions has to consider
several key success factors for rural electrification. Similar success patterns have been
observed around the world: adequate system design, training of installers and end-users,
financing, service and institutional cooperation [15-17].
Chapter 1. Introduction 6

1.2 Problem of statement

Our current industrial society works only with conventional energy sources like coal, oil,
natural gases or uranium [11]. Meanwhile, we will have two big problems with them:
They produce several kinds of pollution s. If we do not care, Atmospheric pollution,
climate change or nuclear waste can endanger our living condition on the earth.
After several years the limited energy source will become exhausted, which will not
guarantee our energy supply in the future.
On the opposite side, the renewable energy sources use natural flows. These
renewable energy sources only use a small part of the flow that is why they cannot
damage natural surroundings. One of these natural resources is solar power and there
are several ways to use it. One of them is to produce electricity [16]. Solar energy can
be used instead of fossil fuel or diesel. The decision as to what type of source of
energy is utilized in each case must be made on the basis of economic, environmental
and safety consideration [13]. Because of the desirable environment and safety aspect
is widely believed that solar should be utilized of other alternative energy forms,
because it can be provided sustainability without harming the environment. Most of
our country rural areas do not have electric access by the basis of economic aspects,
geographical topology and other problems like dispersedly populated area [10]. This
problem in fact, the energy crisis is believed to the most series problem in our rural
area. Ethiopia, beside to persisting food in security, it suffering from energy
underutilized result of studies and recent data on the energy requirement of the
country indicates that the energy consumption increase in proportional to the gross
national products. One of the possible remedy for overcoming energy crisis is by
increasing the use of renewable energy source such as solar energy [15]. Our project
purposely focuses on to eradicate this type of problem by using solar energy.

1.3 Objectives

1.3.1 General objective

The objective of our project is to design Off-grid photovltaic system for veterinary
clinic in remote area of the our country.
Chapter 1. Introduction 7

1.3.2 Specific objective

) To sizing PV system

) To sizing battery

) To specify invert er controlling

) To design battery charger controlling

1.4 Expected outcome And Significant of the project

Solar PV based rural electrification is becoming a common phenomenon in Ethiopia,

where people are settled in a scattered pattern which created problems for grid elec-
trification. Both government and non-governmental organization are involved in the
process. Solar Energy Foundation (Stiftung Solar energies), a charitable nongovernmen-
tal organization established in 2006 by Dr. Harald Schtzichel, with main aims of poverty
alleviation in developing countries by promoting the use of renewable energy, especially
solar energy. This organization is working in rural electrification mainly in Ethiopia by
using model projects [8]. The rural people of our country are highly dispersed, so in
order to electrify and fulfill their electrical power demand, modular and flexible power
source system preferable. Therefore solar PV system is significantly important. In ad-
dition it is important with respect to

) Environmental impact
Chapter 1. Introduction 8

) Reducing cost etc.

Designing and implementing solar PV from easily available solar energy for rural
area could alleviate the problem of electrical power scarcity.

1.5 Methodology

The project began with a literature review of solar photovoltaic systems. This was fol-
lowed by a simple prefeasibility study to obtain an idea of the amount of energy that will
be generated by the system, estimate the total space (area) required for the installation
of the system and access the economics of the whole project. A draft procedure for the
design of grid- off systems for rural clinic was prepared which will be updated from time
to time until a standard procedure is developed which can be used to replicate the design
of large-scale grid-off solar PV systems in other institutions. The draft procedure com-
prises the following steps; Numerous optimal sizing methodologies for grid-off systems
have been developed including analytical solutions and numerical method approaches.
Which claims that can bring the price of grid-off systems to economic viability at todays
fuel prices.

1.5.1 Load demand

The first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out the total power and energy
consumption of all loads that need to be supplied by the solar PV system as follows:
Calculate total Watt-hours per day for each appliance used: Add the Watt-hours
needed for all appliances together to get the total Watt-hours per day which must be
delivered to the appliances.

Calculate total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules: To get the optimum
output wattages from PV generator by consideration of inverter and wire efficiency.
This quantity is used as a power adjustment factor when current is changed from dc to
ac. The efficiency of the inverter selected for this application is assumed to be 0.9 and
wire efficiency o.5.
Calculate total Energy demand per day: The amount of energy each appliance requires
per day is determined by multiplying each appliances adjusted wattage by the number
Chapter 1. Introduction 9

of hours used per day.

The Sum of the energy per day determines the total energy demand required by the
appliances per day.

Calculate Total amp-hour demand per day: The battery storage subsystem is sized
inde- pendently of the photovoltaic array. In order to size the battery bank the total
electrical load is converted from watt-hours to amp-hours. Amp-hours are determined
by dividing the total energy demand per day by the battery bus voltage.
Calculate maximum ac power requirement: The sum of the rated wattages for all
appli- ances gives maximum ac power.

1.5.2 Size the PV modules

The size of the photovoltaic array is determined by considering the available solar
insu- lation, the tilt and orientation of the array and the characteristics of the
photovoltaic modules being considered.
Assessment of the solar radiation data for the location from various institutions such
as the Ethiopia metrology which helps to estimate the amount of electricity generated.
Obtain a suitable place that can be used for the solar module
]Calculate required array output per day: The watt-hours required by the load are ad-
justed (upwards) because batteries are less than 100 percent efficient. Dividing the
total energy demand per day by the battery round trip efficiency determines the
required array output per day.
Selected PV module max power voltage at STC x 0.85. Maximum power voltage is
ob- tained from the manufacturers specifications for the selected photovoltaic module,
and this quantity is multiplied by 0.85 to establish a design operating voltage for each
mod- ule (not the array) to the left of the maximum power voltage and to ensure
acceptable module output current.
Calculate Energy output per module per day: The amount of energy produced by the
array per day during the worst month is determined by multiplying the selected photo-
voltaic power output at STC by the peak sun hours at design tilt (5hour).
Number of modules required to meet energy requirements: the required output per day
Chapter 1. Introduction 10

by the module energy output at operating temperature determines the number of mod-
ules required to meet energy requirements.
Number of modules required per string: the battery bus voltage by the module design
operating voltage, and then rounding this figure to the next higher integer determines
the number of modules required per string.
Number of string in parallel: the number of modules required meeting energy require-
ments by the number of modules required per string and then rounding this figure to
the next higher integer determines the number of string in parallel.

Nominal rated array output: Multiplying the number of modules to be purchased by

the nominal rated module output determines the nominal rated array output. This
number will be used to determine the cost of the photovoltaic array.

1.5.3 Battery sizing

The battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep cycle battery. Deep
cycle battery is specifically designed for to be discharged to low energy level and rapid
recharged or cycle charged and discharged day after day for years. The battery should
be large enough to store sufficient energy to operate the appliances at night and cloudy
days. To find out the size of battery by considering the following factors:
The location where batteries are stored should be designed to minimize fluctuations in
battery temperature. For this application the design temperature is assumed to be 25
degrees C.
The battery storage system is designed to provide the necessary electrical energy for a
period equivalent to 3 days without any sunshine.
The allowable depth- of-discharge is for concerning of life time of battery.
]The required battery capacity is determined by first multiplying the total amp-hours
per day by the days of storage required and then dividing this number by the
allowable depth of discharge.
Once the required number of amp-hours has been determined, batteries or battery
cells can be selected using manufacturers information.
Chapter 1. Introduction 11

]The number of batteries in parallel or battery cells needed to provide the required
bat- tery capacity by the amp-hour capacity of the selected battery.
The number of batteries in series is needed to provide the necessary dc system voltage
is determined by dividing the battery bus voltage by the selected battery or battery
cell voltage (taken from manufacturers information) Battery voltage.
The total rated capacity of selected batteries is determined by multiplying the number
of batteries in parallel by the amp-hour capacity of the selected battery.
Based on the selected batteries, the kWh or energy capacity is determined by first
mul- tiplying the total amp-hour capacity times the battery bus voltage and then
dividing this number by 1000.

1.5.4 Inverter sizing

An inverter is used in the system where AC power output is needed. The input rating of
the inverter should never be lower than the total watt of appliances. The inverter must
have the same nominal voltage as your battery.
For stand-alone systems, the inverter must be large enough to handle the total amount
of Watts you will be using at one time. The inverter size should be 25-30 percent bigger
than total Watts of appliances. In case of appliance type is motor or compressor then
inverter size should be minimum 3 times the capacity of those appliances and must be
added to the inverter capacity to handle surge current during starting.

1.5.5 Solar charge controller design

Initially, a maximum power point tracking (MPPT) charge controller was planned for
use in this project. MPPT charge controllers are generally switched mode DC-DC
con- verters which vary the switching duty cycle to regulate the RMS output voltage
to match the charging voltage of the battery, while maintaining the input voltage at
the maxi- mum power point. However, all MPPT controllers researched were priced
in the range of 200−400. Therefore, a less expensive solution had to be found.
Instead of using MPPT controller, the controller in this project was designed using
two LM317 voltage regulators, a TLV2304IP dual comparator; two N-channels
STD95NH02L
Chapter 1. Introduction 12

power MOSFET chips, a two blocking diode and 9V battery. The comparator detects
when the battery is fully charged by comparing the terminal voltage to a regulated 28.4
V reference. When the battery terminal voltage exceeds 28.4, the comparator sends
a low signal to the gate of a charging MOSFET between the battery and the solar
panel, opening the circuit to prevent overcharging. Similarly, the comparator detects
when the battery is at its lowest allowable state of charge by comparing its voltage to
a regulated 21.5 V reference. When the battery terminals are at this minimum voltage,
the comparator sends a low signal to the gate of a MOSFET connected between the
battery terminals and the inverter, opening the circuit and disconnecting the load. See
the figure below the control circuit connects to the other subsystems. Although at full
charge the terminal voltage is about 28 volts, the battery must charge to 28.4 V to over-
come its charging resistance, caused by internal pressure within the charging battery cell.

.
Chapter 2

Review of literature

he first PV systems were installed in Ethiopia in the mid 1980s - these systems were
installed for rural home lighting and for school lighting [11]. The largest of these was a
10.5kWp system installed in 1985 in Central Ethiopia which served 300 rural households
through a micro grid in the village. This system was later upgraded to 30kWp in 1989
to provide power for the village water pump and grain mill. PV installations in the
early days were mainly project based government and NGO action and systems were
provided as grant to users. Project based installations are still important, particularly
for institutional systems (schools, health centers, and water pumps)[13]. However, both
government and NGOs now realize that only market based interventions will enable
wider dissemination and also sustainability; they now combine project (grant) based
actions with market mechanisms and focus on market and capacity development. It is
estimated that a total of some 5.3MWp of PV is now in use in Ethiopia. The main
area of application for PV is now off-grid telecom systems (particularly for mobile and
land mine network stations) which account for 87 percent of total installations. PV
systems are also used in social institutions including health stations, schools and for
water pumping. Some thirty thousand residential customers are also electrified with PV
in rural areas [13].Photovoltaic systems can be grouped into two main groups; namely
off-grid systems and grid-connected systems.

13
 Chapter 2. Literature 1

2.0.6 Off-grid pv system

Off-grid PV systems, as the name implies, are systems that are not connected to the
public electricity grid. These systems require an energy storage system for the energy
generated because the energy generated is not usually required at the same time as it
is generated. In other words, solar energy is available during the day, but the lights
in a stand-alone solar lighting system are used at night so the solar energy generated
during the day must be stored for use in the night. They are mostly used in areas
where it is not possible to install an electricity supply from the mains utility grid, or
where this is not cost-effective or desirable. They are therefore preferable for
developing countries where vast areas are still frequently not supplied by an electrical
grid. Off-grid systems are usually employed in the following applications; consumer
applications such as watches and scientific calculators, industrial applications such as
telecommunications and traffic signs and remote habitations such as solar home
systems and water pumping applications[12]. A typical off-grid system comprises the
following main components: Solar PV Modules: these convert sunlight directly to
electricity.
Charge Controllers: manage the charging and discharging of the batteries in order to
maximize their lifetimes and minimize operational problems.
Battery or Battery Bank: Stores the energy generated by the PV modules.
Invert er: converts the DC current generated by the solar PV modules to AC current
for AC consumer load.

2.0.7 Off-grid pv system in Ethiopia

The outlook for the solar electricity sector in Ethiopia is for rapid increase in
installation for off-grid applications and later for grid connected applications. Off-grid
applications will be dominant in the short term but grid connected PV may become
important in the medium and long term. Short term plans that have direct relevance
for the PV sector include plans to disseminate more than 3 million PV home systems
and plans to increase mobile ownership to 40 million[11]. In 2005 off-grid PV solar
home systems (SHS) in Ethiopia consist of a 10 Wp PV module, charge and remote
controller, 18 Ah gel lead acid battery, two 50 lm/W LED lamps and one plug for a
radio or tape recorder was done. Commonly two kerosene lamps are used by one
family plus optionally one
 Chapter 2. Literature 1

radio or tape recorder powered by dry cell batteries [13]. Off-grid telecom
applications now account for 87 percent of the total installed PV capacity in Ethiopia
[10]. Strong growth is foreseen in the coming ten years for this segment due to the
drive for universal access to mobile connectivity (the plan is for 90 percent mobile
network coverage and for 40million mobile users by 2015 ). This will result in
doubling of installed PV capacity by 2015 then again doubling by 2020. This will be
public sector driven demand and is highly likely to be realized [16]. Off-grid
residential applications will be an important segment of the demand for PV in the
medium to long term. The demand for this seg- ment of the market will be mainly
private sector driven and will depend on policies and regulations in place. Existing
government plans for 3 million solar lanterns and home systems is expected to spur
rapid growth increasing installed capacity by tenfold in the next five years. Off-grid
institutional applications will also be important in the short term [15].

2.0.8 Grid-connected system

Grid-connected systems are systems connected to a large independent grid usually the
public electricity grid and feed power directly into the grid. These systems are usu-
ally employed in decentralized grid-connected PV applications and centralized grid-
connected. Decentralized grid-connected PV applications include rooftop PV genera-
tors, where the PV systems are mounted on rooftops of buildings and incorporated
into the building’s integrated system. In the case of residential or building mounted
grid connected PV systems, the electricity demand of the building is served by the PV
sys- tem and the excess is fed into the grid; their capacities are usually in the lower
range of kilowatts [15]. A typical grid-connected PV system comprises the following
components: Solar PV Modules: these convert sunlight directly to electricity.
Invert er: converts the DC current generated by the solar PV modules to AC current
for the utility grid.
Main disconnect/isolator Switch.
Utility Grid Central grid-connected PV applications have capacities ranging from the
higher kilowatts to the megawatt range. Solar PV is currently the fastest growing
power generation technology in the world with about 38,584MW capacity installed in
the year 2010 [8]. In all, Europe alone contributes about 70 percent of the total
installed capacity
Chapter 2. Literature 1

of PV systems with North America, Japan, China and Australia following in that order
[2]. The solar PV industry has also seen tremendous improvement in cell efficiencies for
the various technologies available on commercial scale. This improvement in technology
and the continuous growth of the PV market has led to drastic reduction in the cost
of solar PV systems on the global market. The situation on the African continent is
however not encouraging, with Africa contributing less than 1 percent of the world’s
installed solar PV systems (installed capacity of 163 MW as at the end of 2010), in spite
of the huge solar energy potential available to the continent [4] . This is as a result
of the lack of policy instruments that help promote renewable energy technologies in
general and also the very high initial capital involved in developing solar PV systems.
Grid-connected solar PV systems are not that popular in Africa since most solar PV
applications are employed in off-grid rural electrification projects to rural communities
(for lighting, educational and health applications) that are far from the national grid [17].

2.0.9 Grid-connected system in Ethiopia

Present PV system prices are so low that they are becoming competitive with some
thermal systems. Grid parity will come later in developing countries because of
gener- ally lower generation and transmission costs for the grid [17]. However, cost
of power generation on the grid is rising while PV prices are dropping closing the cost
gap. This is opening up the market for grid connected PV and governments are now
considering them as feasible alternatives [13]. For example, the 265MW Aleltu West
hydropower plant planned to be commissioned in 2019 will cost USD 0.072/kWh
(EAPP, 2011). Transmission and distribution will add USD 0.04/kWh Increasing
delivered cost to USD 0.12/kWh. In this case PV can reach grid parity if installed cost
(Including PV modules, inverter, other auxiliary equipment and service charges)
declines to USD 3/W4 this is very likely to happen in the coming five to ten years
[10]. Local production of PV com- ponents may lower production costs; and
expanding market for PV systems will lower costs of distribution and installation.
These two together will reduce installed cost for PV and cut the length of time
required for grid parity.
Solar PV system includes different components that should be selected according to
your system type, site location and applications. The major components for solar PV
Chapter 2. Literature 1

FIGURE 2.1: Pv demand in Ethiopia

system are solar charge controller, inverter, battery bank, auxiliary energy sources and
loads (appliances).

□ Module converts sunlight into DC electricity.

□ Solar charge controller regulates the voltage and current coming from the PV
panels going to battery and prevents battery overcharging and prolongs the
battery life.

□ Converts DC output of PV panels or wind turbine into a clean AC current for AC

appliances or fed back into grid line.

□ Battery stores energy for supplying to electrical appliances when there is a de-
mand.

□ Load is electrical appliances that connected to solar PV system such as lights,

radio, TV, computer,refrigerator, etc.

□ The solar panels when exposed to sunlight generate DC electricity.

□ The DC power goes to a battery bank for storing, that are used for during rainy
season and when the sun goes down.

□ The DC power goes through a solar inverter which is a critical component in a

solar energy system. It performs the conversion of the variable DC output of the
Photovoltaic (PV) module(s) into a clean sinusoidal 50- or 60 Hz AC current
that is then applied directly to the load.
Chapter 3

System description and over all

operation

Solar PV system includes different components that should be selected according to your
system type, site location and applications. The major components for solar PV
system are solar charge controller, inverter, battery bank, auxiliary energy sources and
loads (appliances).
Solar PV system includes different components that should be selected according to your
system type, site location and applications. The major components for solar PV
system are solar charge controller, inverter, battery bank, auxiliary energy sources and
loads (appliances).

□ Converts sunlight in to DC electricity.

□ Solar charge controller regulates the voltage and current coming from the PV
panels going to battery and prevents battery overcharging and over discharging
prolongs the battery life.

□ converts DC output of PV panels or wind turbine into a clean AC current for AC

appliances or fed back into grid line.

18
Chapter 3. System description and over all operation 19

□ Battery stores energy for supplying to electrical appliances when there is a de-
mand.
Load is electrical appliances that connected to solar PV system such as lights,
radio, TV, computer, refrigerator, etc.

controller.PNG controller.PNG
FIGURE 3.1: Charge controller

The solar panels when exposed to sunlight generate DC electricity. The DC power goes
to a battery bank for storing, that are used for during rainy season and when the sun goes
down. In this project battery charge regulator are design by using two LM317 voltage
regulators, TLV2304IP dual comparator, two N-channels STD95NH02L power MOSFET
chips, a two blocking diode and 9V battery. The comparator detects when the battery is
fully charged by comparing the terminal voltage to a regulated 28.4 V reference. When
the battery terminal voltage exceeds 28.4, the comparator sends a low signal to the gate
of a charging MOSFET between the battery and the solar panel, opening the circuit to
prevent overcharging. Similarly, the comparator detects when the battery is at its lowest
allowable state of charge by comparing its voltage to a regulated 21.5 V reference. When
the battery terminals are at this minimum voltage, the comparator sends a low signal
to the gate of a MOSFET connected between the battery terminals and the inverter,
opening the circuit and disconnecting the load. See the figure below the control circuit
connects to the other subsystems. The DC power goes through a solar inverter which is
a critical component in a solar energy system. It performs the conversion of the variable
DC output of the Photovoltaic (PV) module(s) into a clean sinusoidal 50- or 60 Hz AC
current that is then applied directly to the load.
Chapter 4

Design and analysis

4.0.10 Load

¡return¿
TABLE 4.1: Load wattages
Appliance amount wattage hours per day
Microscope 2 20 4
Autoclave 1 2000 3
Fluorescent 4 40 10
Refrigerator 1 90 12
Fan 2 60 7

) Inverter and wire efficiency (decimal). This quantity is used as a power adjust-
ment factor when current is changed from dc to ac. The efficiency of the
inverter selected for this application is assumed to be 90 percent and the
efficiency of the wire selected for this application is assumed to be 95
percent.gnerally 85 pecent.

) Battery bus voltage. This is nominal dc operating voltage of the system. The
bat- tery bus voltage for this application is 24 volts. Which corresponds to the
required dc input voltage for the inverter.

) ac voltage. The output voltage of the inverter selected for this application is
220 volts.
20
Chapter 4. Design and 2

The components (appliances) that the system will power are:

Microscope (20 watt each, combined rated wattage 40, used 4 hours/ day) Fan
(rated wattage 60, used 7 hours/day) Autoclave (rated wattage 2000, used 3
hours/day) Fluorescent (rated wattage 40, used 10 hours/day) Refrigerator (rated
wattage 90, used 12 hours/day)

) The rated wattage is listed for each appliance in the above. Note that the rated
wattage for some appliances may vary from the actual power consumed due to
the load variation or cycling.

TABLE 4.2: Ratted wattages

appliance rated wattage

Microscope 40
Fan 60
Autoclave 2000
Fluorescent 40
Refrigerator 90

) Adjustment factor. The adjustment factor is related to the efficiency of the in-
verter and a wire reflects the actual power consumed from the battery bank to
operate ac loads from the inverter. For this application the adjustment factor is
0.85.

) Adjusted wattage. Dividing the rated wattage by the adjustment factor adjusts
the wattage to compensate for the inverter and wire inefficiency and gives the
actual wattage consumed from the battery bank.
Chapter 4. Design and 2

TABLE 4.3: Adjestement factors

Appliance adjustement facter adjusted watt ages

Microscope 40/0.85 47
Fan 120/0.85 141
Autoclave 2000/0.85 2353
Fluorescent 160/0.85 188
Refrigerator 90/0.85 106

) Energy per day. The amount of energy each appliance requires per day is
deter- mined by multiplying each appliances adjusted wattage by the number
of hours used per day.

TABLE 4.4: energy per day

appliance hours per day energy per day

Microscope 47 * 4 188
Fan 141 * 7 987
Autoclave 2353 * 3 7059
Fluorescent 188 * 10 1880
Refrigerator 106 * 12 1272

) Total energy demand per day. The Sum of the Quantities determines the total
energy demand required by the appliances per day. For this application the
total energy per day for the load is 11386 watt-hours.

) Total amp-hour demand per day. The battery storage subsystem is sized
inde- pendently of the photovoltaic array. In order to size the battery bank
the total electrical load is converted from watt-hours to amp-hours. Amp-hours
are deter- mined by dividing the total energy demand per day by the battery
bus voltage. 11386 watt-hours/24 volts = 474.42 amp-hours
Chapter 4. Design and 2

) Maximum ac power requirement. The sum of the rated wattages for all
appliances is equal to 2410 watts. Note that this is the maximum continuous
power required and does not include surge requirements. This value is the
maximum continuous ac power output required of the inverter if all loads were to
operate simultaneously. The Peak, or surge requirement must also be considered
when selecting an inverter.

) Maximum dc power requirement. The sum of the adjusted wattages, or dc

power, for all appliances is equal to 2835 watts. This value is the maximum dc
input power required by the inverter and is necessary to determine wire sizes
fusing and disconnect requirement. If load management techniques are
employed to eliminate the possibility of loads operating simultaneously, the
inverter maximum output requirements may be reduced accordingly.
Inverter efficiency............85 percent
Battery bus voltage............24 volts
Inverter ac voltage.............220 volt

) Total energy demand per day........11386 watt-hours

) Total amp-hour demand per...............474.42 amp-hours

) Maximum ac power requirement.........2410 watts

) Maximum dc power requirement.........2835 watts

4.0.11 Photo voltaic array sizing

The size of the photovoltaic array is determined by considering the available solar
insu- lation, the tilt and orientation of the array and the characteristics of the
photovoltaic
Chapter 4. Design and 2

modules being considered. The array is sized to meet the average daily load require-
ments for the month or season of the year with the lowest ratio daily insulation to the
daily load.
The available insulation striking a photovoltaic array varies throughout the year and is
a function of the tilt angle and azimuth orientation of the array. If the load is constant,
the designer must consider the time of the year with the minimum amount of sunlight.
Knowing the insulation available (at tilt) and the power output required, the array can
be sized using module specifications supplied by manufacturers. Using module power
output and daily insulation (in peak sun hours), the energy (watt-hours or amp-hours)
delivered by a photovoltaic module for an average day can be determined. Then,
know- ing the requirements of the load and the output of a single module, the array
can be sized.
The array is sized to meet the average daily demand for electricity during the worst
insulation month of the year, which is August in North western Ethiopia. The array
will face south and because the sun is low in the sky during August will be tilted at an
angle of 11.78 degrees from the horizontal in order to maximize the insulation
received during August.
DESIGN MONTH: August
DESIGN TILT: 11.78 degrees for maximum insulation during the year.

) Total energy demand per day: 11386 watt-hours

) Battery round trip efficiency. A factor between 0.70 and 0.85 is used to estimate
battery round trip efficiency. For this application 0.85 is used because the
battery selected is relatively efficient and because a significant percentage of the
energy is used during daylight hours.

) Required array output per day: The watt-hours required by the load are adjusted
(upwards) because batteries are less than 100 percent efficient. Dividing the
total energy demand per day by the battery round trip efficiency determines the
re- quired array output per day.
= ( 11386 watt-hours) / (0.85)
Chapter 4. Design and 2

= 13395.294 watt-hours.

) Selected PV module max power voltage at STC x 0.85: Maximum power

voltage is obtained from the manufacturers specifications for the selected
photovoltaic module, and this quantity is multiplied by 0.85 to establish a design
operating voltage for each module (not the array) to the left of the maximum
power voltage.
Chapter 4. Design and 2

TABLE 4.6: electrical characteristics

Model No RDM-100M
Pmax 100 w watt
Power Tolerance 10
Max Volt. 18.80 Volt
Max Current 5.05 Amp
Open circuit Voltage 22.3 Volt
Short circuit Current 5.1 Amp
Max System Volt 1000 VoltDC
Cell Size 125 x 125 Mm
Bypass Diodes -Junction Box 12 Amp
Max. Series Fuse Rating 12A mp
Temp coe of Isc +0.04 Percent / C
of Cells per Module 36 Pcs

Cell Type Mono-crystalline Silicon

Temp of Voc -0.38 Percent / C
Temp of Power -0.47 Percent / C
NOCT 48 2 C
Operating Temp -40 +85 C
STC AM 1.5,1000 W/ m 2, 25 C
mechanical characteristics
Dimensions 1200 * 540*30 Mm
Weight 8.00 Kg
Junction Box TUV certified, IP65
Cable Diameter TUV certified 4mm sqr
Connector compatible to Type 4 (MC4)
Frame 30mm thickness, Aluminum

RDM-100M modules are used in this application. The maximum power voltage at
STC for the RDM-100M Solar is 18.80 volts
= (18.80 volts * 0.85) = 15.98 volt. Selected PV module guaranteed power output at
STC: This number is also obtained from the manufacturers specifications for the selected
module. The above table shows the nominal power output at 1000 watts/meter square
Chapter 4. Design and 2

and 25 degrees C is 100 watts. The guaranteed power output is 90 percent of this
value, or 90 watts.
Peak sun hours at optimum tilt: This is obtained from solar radiation data for the
design location and array tilt for an average day during the worst month of the year.
Peak sun hours at Latitude + 11.56 degrees for north western Ethiopia in august equal
5.85h.

) Energy output per module per day: The amount of energy produced by the
array per day during the worst month is determined by multiplying the selected
photo- voltaic power output at STC by the peak sun hours at design tilt.
= (90 watts) * (5.85 hours) = 526.5 Watt-hour.

) Module energy output at operating temperature: A de-rating factor of 0.90

(for moderate climates and non-critical applications) is used in this application
to de- termine the module energy output at operating temperature.
Multiplying the de-rating factor (DF) by the energy output module establishes
an average energy output from one module.
= (526.5Watt-hour) * (0.90) = 473.85 Watt-hour.

) Number of modules required to meet energy requirements: Dividing the required

output per day by the module energy output at operating temperature determines
the number of modules required to meet energy requirements.
= (13395.294 watt-hours) / (473.85 Watt-hour) = 28.02 module (28 module)

) Number of modules required per string: Dividing the battery bus voltage by
the module design operating voltage, and then rounding this figure to the next
higher integer determines the number of modules required per string.
= (24Volt) / (15.98 volt) = 1.5 (rounded to 2 modules).

) Number of string in parallel: Dividing the number of modules required to

meet energy requirements by the number of modules required per string and
then round- ing this figure to the next higher integer determines the number of
string in parallel.

= (28 module) / (2 modules) = 14 modules.

Chapter 4. Design and 2

) Number of modules to be purchased: Multiplying the number of modules

required per string by the number of strings in parallel determines the number of
modules to be purchased.
= (2 modules) * (14 modules) = 28 modules.

) Nominal rated PV module output: The rated module output in watts as stated
by the manufacturer. Photovoltaic modules are usually priced in terms of the
rated module output (dollar/watt). The RDM-100M rated module power is 100
watts.

) Nominal rated array output: Multiplying the number of modules to be

purchased by the nominal rated module output determines the nominal rated
array output. This number will be used to determine the cost of the
photovoltaic array.
= (28) * (100 watts) = 2800Watts.

4.0.12 Panel inclination

Selection of a sufficiently sized panel is crucial, to ensure that it generates enough energy
to replace that used by the load or lost to inefficiency. To aid in these calculations,
peak sunlight hours are determined, and are defined as the number of hours of peak
isolation (such as, at solar noon) that would produce the same amount of energy as the
variable isolation dispersed throughout an entire day. According to weather data taken
from [23] in north-western Ethiopia august period has low peak sunshine hours,
averaging about 5 peak sunlight hours per day. This means that a solar panel can
collect an equal amount of energy in 5 hours of peak sunlight as it could throughout the
day with varying sunlight.
Chapter 4. Design and 2

FIGURE 4.1: Solar insulation

To help the panel maximize its output, the inclination can be adjusted monthly to
match the Suns zenith angle. To find the zenith angle, the latitude and the daily
declination angle must be known. Zenith angle is calculated according to the
following equation, Zenith Angle = Declination Angle - Latitude
Where negative angles correspond to southern latitudes and south tilting panels. The
latitude for North-western Ethiopia is 11.56 degrees N. The equation for determining
the declination angle is as:
Declination Angle = 23.45 * sin [(360/365)*(284+n)]
Where the variable n is the day of the year, beginning with n=1 on January first.
Below (Table) is the table of inclination angles calculated by month for North-western
Ethiopia.
Chapter 4. Design and 3

TABLE 4.7: Inclination and zenieth angle of north western Ethiopia

No Month Days Declination angle Zenith angle

1 January 15 -21.28 -32.8
2 February 46 -13.32 -24.9
3 March 75 -2.46 -14.02
4 April 106 9.74 -1.82
5 May 136 19 7.44
6 June 167 23.35 11.79
7 July 197 21.378 9.82
8 August 228 13.5 1.946
9 September 259 1.881 -9.678
10 October 289 -9.9 -21.46
11 November 330 -21.32 -32.88
12 December 350 -23.36 -34.9

A zenith angle of -11.78 degrees means that the panel should be tilted 11.78 degrees
due South. This data matches the data shown in Figure, below, which shows the Suns
elevation and hour angle by date and time. The tangential axis measures the Suns
hour angle throughout the day, measured from North, and the radial axis measures the
eleva- tion angle above the horizon. Note that the orange line represents the Suns
location on December 21, 2013, when this graph was obtained. The zenith angle is
defined as the Suns elevation angle above the horizon When its hour angle is 180
degrees, due South. The zenith angle in Figure is approximately 35.5.
Chapter 4. Design and 3

path.PNG path.PNG
FIGURE 4.2: Suns hour angle

4.0.13 Battery sizing

DESIGN TEMPERATURE
The location where batteries are stored should be designed to minimize fluctuations in
battery temperature. For this application the design temperature is assumed to be 25
degrees centigrade.

) Days of storage desired/required (autonomy). The loss of electricity for the resi-
dence in this application, although undesirable, would not be catastrophic.
Conse- quently, the battery storage system is designed to provide the necessary
electrical energy for a period equivalent to 3 days without any sunshine.

) Allowable depth-of-discharge limit (decimal). The maximum fraction of

capacity that can be withdrawn from the battery which specified by the designer.
Note that the battery selected must be capable of this limit or greater depth of
discharge.
Chapter 4. Design and 3

For this application the allowable depth- of-discharge is 0.8.

) Required battery capacity. The required battery capacity is determined by

first multiplying the total amp-hours per day by the days of storage required and
then dividing this number by the allowable depth of discharge limit and
battery effi- ciency.
474.42 X (3 / [0.8]) = 1779.075 amp-hours.

) Amp-hour capacity of selected battery. Once the required number of amp-hours

has been determined above, batteries or battery cells can be selected using man-
ufacturers information. Exide 3E120-17 industrial grade batteries were selected
for this application because of their long cycle life and rugged construction [24].
Exide 3E120-17’s Shows that capacity for a 3 day rate is 1077 amp-hours. Since
battery capacity may vary with the rate of discharge, the amp-hour capacity that
corresponds to the required days of storage should be used.

) Number of batteries in parallel. The number of batteries or battery cells

needed to provide the required battery capacity by the amp-hour capacity of the
selected battery.
1779.075 amp-hours / 1077 amp-hours = 2 (round up from 1.65).
Chapter 4. Design and 3

FIGURE 4.3: Battery selection

) Number of batteries in series. The number of batteries needed to provide the

nec- essary dc system voltage is determined by dividing the battery bus voltage
by the selected battery or battery cell voltage (taken from manufacturers
information).

24 volts / 6 volts = 4.

) Total Number of batteries. Multiplying the number of batteries in parallel by

the number of batteries or battery cells in series, determines the total number of
bat- teries needed.
4 x 2 = 8.

) Total battery amp-hour capacity. The total rated capacity of selected batteries
is determined by multiplying the number of batteries in parallel by the amp-hour
capacity of the selected battery.
2 x 1077 amp-hours = 2154 amp-hours.

) Total battery kilowatt-hour capacity. Based on the selected batteries, the

kWh or energy capacity is determined by first multiplying the total amp-hour
capacity
Chapter 4. Design and 3

times the battery bus voltage, and then dividing this number by 1000.

[2154 amp-hours x 24 volts] / 1000 = 51.67 kilowatt-hour.

4.0.14 Inverter Selection

The AIMS 3000 W Modified pure Sine Wave Inverter was selected for its output
voltage 220 V, 50 Hz AC and for its low retail price of dollar. I80t has a nominal
maximum output power of 3000 W, so it can easily supply the 24 DC volt.
Additionally, it has shutoff features to protect from low or high DC input voltages and
high AC currents. See the Table below, for the nominal minimum and maximum DC
voltages and maximum AC current, as provided by the manufacturer.

TABLE 4.8: Inverter spesification

Rated capacity 3000 w

Model AIMS 4000-221 model
Nominal voltage 220 volt
Optimum efficiency 90 percent
Transfer time Ac to DC: 10 ms (typical)
Rated current 40 Ampere 50Hz
Frequency 50 Hz
Load Current Draw less than 1A(24V)

Low Battery Alarm 21.5 23V

Auto Low Battery Shutdown 20.5 22V
Cooling Fan double
Certification CE ,RoHS, FCC

4.0.15 Charge controller

One problem encountered when designing this control circuit was that that the regu-
lated outputs needed from the LM317 linear regulators were either above the battery
voltage or less than 1.5 volts below it. Therefore, to ensure that the input voltage to
the
 Chapter 4. Design and 3

regulators was high enough above the desired output, a 9 V battery was connected in
series with the 24 V batteries to supply a nominal input voltage of 33 V to the LM317
chips. This ensured that the regulated reference voltages would remain constant and
accurate while allowing for any necessary internal voltage drops within the regulators.
The 24 V regulators uses an R1 value of 240 Ohms and an R2 value of 3813.5 Ohms,
which gives a nominal regulated output voltage of 21.5 V, according to the equation:
Vreg = 1.25*(1+R2/R1) + Iadj*R2
Obtained from the LM317 datasheet, where Iadj = 100uA.
The 28.4 V regulators use an R1 value of 240 Ohms and an R2 value of 5113 Ohms,
which gives a nominal regulated output voltage of 28.4. N-channel STD95NH02L MOS-
FET transistors are used as switches in this project to connect the battery to the panel
and to the inverter. These MOSFETs are rated for up to 80 Amps, and a 22 V
nominal gate-source voltage is used to turn them on. This gate-source voltage is
supplied by the TLV2304 comparator. The actual output voltage of this comparator is
its supply voltage (taken from the battery), plus or minus 0 .3 V, according to the
datasheet, meaning that the gate-source voltage should be within 0.3 V of the battery
voltage.

controller.PNG controller.PNG
FIGURE 4.4: Charge controller

4.0.16 Selection criteria of cable

We know that solar system is a limited capacity system. Appropriate cable should be
used to reduce the loss of voltage and to make the system work with optimum
efficiency.
Chapter 4. Design and 3

The cables used for wiring the d. c. section of a standalone PV system need to be
selected to ensure that they can withstand the following :

Environmental

) Voltage and

) Current conditions at which they may be expected to operate.

) Effects of both current and solar gain.

• Load installation

) For microscope: P = (2*20) = 40watt

Where p is demand power and 2 is number of microscope. 20 the value of micro-
scope
Current design (Ib) =40/220V
= 0.1818A

) Choose the nominal current (In) for rating of protection from the table of
EBCS In = 6, 10, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40.........
In Ib
For microscope In = 6A.

) The cables current carrying capacity for microscope is:

Iz = In/CF
Where CF is correction factor 0.94 @ a temperature of 35c
= 6/0.94 = 6.38A
The cable size and rate from EBCS table current carrying capacity depending on
Iz is 1mm2, 11A, cables are required
Chapter 4. Design and 3

) For refrigerator

) the design current is

Ib = p/v
Ib = 90/220
= 0.409A

FIGURE 4.5: Feeder diagram

4.0.17 Balance-of-System (BOS) Requirements

) Fuses fuse holders, switches, and other components should be selected to

sat- isfy both voltage and current requirements.

) All battery series branches should contain fuses.

) Fused disconnects are strongly recommended to isolate the battery bank

from the rest of the system.

) Surge protectors are strongly recommended to prevent surge voltage. Surge

protectors help to protect your system from power surges that may occur if
the PV system or nearby power lines are struck by lightning. A power
surge is an increase in voltage significantly above the design voltage.
Chapter 4. Design and 3

) Automatic and manual safety disconnects protect the wiring and

components from power surges and other equipment malfunctions. They
also ensure the system can be safely shutdown and system components can
be removed for maintenance and repair.

) Array DC Disconnect The array DC disconnect, also called the PV

discon- nect, is used to safely interrupt the flow of electricity from the
PV array for maintenance or troubleshooting.

) DC Disconnect Along with the inverter AC disconnect, the inverter DC

dis- connect is used to safely disconnect the inverter from the rest of the
system.

) Battery DC Disconnect In a battery-based system, the battery DC

discon- nects is used to safely disconnect the battery bank from the rest of
the system.

) Equipment Grounding Equipment grounding provides protection from

shock caused by a ground fault. A ground fault occurs when a current-
carrying conductor comes into contact with the frame or chassis of an
appliance or electrical box. All system components and any exposed metal,
including equipment boxes, receptacles, appliance frames and PV mounting
equipment should be grounded.

) Blocking diode- to prevent the reverse current.

4.1 Result and discussion

4.1.1 HOMER Optimization Results

HOMER requires input information in order to analyze the system and to give
the feasible solutions. The main input to the software is the load. After carefully
determining the hourly community electric load from the primary load.
Chapter 4. Design and 3

FIGURE 4.6: primary load

TABLE 4.9: Net present cost

Comp Cap Repl OM Fuel Total

PV 2,100 655 2,940 0 5,328
battery 2,000 1,488 2,940 0 6,001
Converter 195 81 1,023 0 1,284
System 6,295 5,168 5,892,364 16,611 5,919,553

TABLE 4.10: Anualized cost

Comp Cap Repl OM Fuel Total

PV 164 51 230 0 417
battery 156 116 230 0 469
Converter 15 6 80 0 100
System 492 404 460,940 0 463047
Chapter 4. Design and 4

FIGURE 4.7: Cash flow diagram

FIGURE 4.8: Monthly statistic

Having fed the necessary input data given in the earlier section to the software
the software is run. The resulting list of optimal combinations of realizable
setups obtained is given in both overall and categorized forms. The above Table
shows extracted part of the long list from the complete overall table. The
extraction is based on the contribution made by renewable resources in the
realizable set-ups.

Rural villages in Ethiopia lack modern energy supply and this creates a
challenge for sustainable development. The energy source of rural community
which ac- counts more than 83 percent of the countrys population depends on
unsustainable biomass supply. The use of biomass in traditional way has caused
chronic health problems such as reparatory and eye diseases. For example the
World Bank in 2008 reported 1.6 to 2 million deaths each year is caused due to
poor indoor air quality from fuel wood.
Chapter 4. Design and 4

Modern energy supply using PV in rural areas helps to meet millennium develop-
ment goals (MDG) by transforming the quality and accessibility of schools, health
center, communication centers and clean water supply and hence improve the so-
cioeconomic status of the livelihood. Apart from socio economic development, PV
based rural electrification, which is renewable energy source, can mitigate climate
change by curbing CO2 emission. This helps us to understand the multidimen-
sional advantages of rural electrification using PV in rural community. However,
technology transfer always requires a detail study on the sustainability based on
cost feasibility and level of technology for the specific literacy level. What makes
this study special is that it uses an existing PV electrified rural village called BATA
to study the impact of PV based rural electrification on socio-economic develop-
ment, climate change and its sustainability on the study area. Different methods
of attack have been used to study PV based rural electrification by different au-
thors [Stutenbaumer et al 1999; Fara et al 1998; Kaufman et al 2000; A. Chaurey
et al 2010; Nieuwenhout et al 2004; K. Muhopadhyay et al 1993]. Problems of
existing energy systems are identified and new improved model is proposed for
the village. However, there are several limitations of PV for rural electrification
which threat the sustainability of PV based rural electrification projects. The high
investment required is the main problem which limits its affordability by most of
rural households of Ethiopia. The high technical skill required for installation and
maintenance is also a problem for the PV project for rural electrification.
Chapter 5

Conclusion and
Recommendation

5.0.2 Conclusion

Regarding the solar energy it is definitively conclusive that there is abundant re-
source. The feasibility study, which is based on the findings of the potential showed
a list of possible feasible set-ups according to their Net Present Cost (NPC). The
level of the renewable resource penetration can be said is closely tied with the
net present cost. The choice as to which feasible system to pick from the list is
linked to the choice of whether to consider the renewable resource or the net
present cost. This decision is left to the policy makers of the country. However,
as in the quotation given in the Introduction part Engineers shoed persistently
press the policy makers to consider the utilization of the renewable resource.
Solar power plants are currently the mere process which can be used in all the
poor developing countries. So we think that if researchers continue to work hard
to improve all the processes, in several years, solar energy will be the first
renew- able energy source. Ethiopian is an example that off-grid PV is a highly
attractive source of electricity for rural population in developing countries. Very
short pay- back periods for small PV systems offer high financial savings which
can be spent for other needs like education. A fast and successful dissemination
strategy has to include local availability of PV systems, training of solar experts,
local solar busi- nesses, exchange of information about end users needs and
manufacturers, which might be achieved by local solar production, adapted
appliances, financing schemes
42
Chapter 1. Conclusion and Recommendation 43

and model projects. Beneficial economics of PV in Ethiopia could generate

addi- tional purchasing power and PV service jobs in rural regions. Access to
electricity has the potential for sustainable rural development and a new
enlightenment in rural areas. For our future, it is now essential to diversify our
energy sources. If we do not react now and stop or decrease our dependency on
fossil fuels the future is in danger. When oil and coal resources will be
exhausted, there will probably have tensions between the countries, maybe war
or economic crisis will increase.

5.0.3 Recommendation

) Curb the financing problem of PV projects availability of loan facility can

be a solution. The involvement of microcredit institutions in the village
such as Amhara credit and saving institution can solve the problem of loan
availabil- ity.
) Further study on the carbon saving and sequestration by PV electrification
can be a source of income by carbon trading and will make such kind of
projects more sustainable.
) Technical capacities for installation and maintenance in village can be
solved by training more villagers in the solar center.
) Awareness about the technology was also seen a problem in the village
and different awareness creation method such as billboards, leaflets and
special trainings can increase the awareness.
Chapter 6

Bibliography

1 Raoufirad (1985), book of solar energy system, second edition

2 K.M. Arkesteijn, A.E. Maaskant, Small is beautiful: Solar product and market
development should be scaled to the actual needs of end-users in the developing
world, Proceedings 22nd European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Milan,
2007, June 3 7
3 Frances Drake, Yakob Mulugetta (1996), Assessment of Solar and Wind
Energy Resources in Ethiopia; Solar Energy, Vol. 57, No. 3; 1996.
4 S.Firth, K. Lomas, A. Wright, R. Wall (2008), Identifying trends in the use of
domestic appliances from household electricity consumption measurements, En-
ergy and Building, vol. 40:2008.
5 Dr. Winfried Hoffmann (18April 2006), PV solar Electricity: status and future.
Photo Crystal Materials and devices III, 3April2006, Strasbourg, France.
6 Solar Energy Foundation (SEF, 2009),Rural Electrification with Photovoltaic,
Sun Connect, 1 November 2009, available on, www.stiftung-solarenergie.org,
viewed on April 2010.
7 Getachew Bekele (2009), study into the potential and feasibility of a
standalone solar wind hybrid electric energy supply system for application in
Ethiopia, Stock- holm, Sweden.
8 Ch.Breyer, A.gerlach, M.hlusiak, C.Peters, P. Adelmann, J. Winiecki, H.Schtzechel,
S.Tsegaye, W.Gashie (2009),Electrifying the Poor: Highly off grid PV system in
Ethiopia- A basis for sustainable development, Avalibale on, http://www.arcfinance.org/pdfs/new
viewed on March, 2010.

44
Chapter 1. Conclusion and 4

9 Stephan Lacey (2010), Why Investors like solar PV; available at, http://www.renewableenergyw
investors-likesolar- pv, published August 5, 2010, viewed on September 21, 2010.
10 United Nations, World Population Prospects: The2006 Revision Highlights, UN
Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, Working
Paper
No. ESA/P/WP.202, New York, 2007, www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006
WPP2006Highlightsrev.pdf
11 Ministryof WaterandEnergyResourcesof Ethiopia(2002), availableonlineathttp :
//www.mowr.gov.et/index.php.pagenum.
12 EthiopianRuralEnergyDevelopmentandPromotionCenter, (2007), SolarandWindEnergyUt
1 3D.Y.Goswami, F.Kreith, J.F.Kreider(1999), Principleof SolarEngineering, secondedition, B
14 EuropeanPhotovoltaicIndustryAssociation(EPIA), SolarGenerationV 2008 :
Solarelectricityforoveronebillionpeopleandtwomillionjobsby2020, EPIAandGreenpeace, Bruss
15 J.Merten, X.V allv, P.Malbranche, Sevenkeypointsforsuccessfulruralelectrificationprogr
16 H.Mller, B.Siepker, AwarenessTrainingFinancing : Thewaytoasustainabledisseminationof
alonePV systemsforruralelectrification, Proceedings2ndWorldConferenceonPhotovoltaicSol
10
17 N.Argaw, TheroleofinstitutionsforsustainabledevelopmentofruralcommunitiesusingPV sy
10
18 C.Breyer, A.Gerlach, M.Hlusiak, C.Peters, P.Adelmann, J.Winiecki, H.Schutzeichel, S.Tse
HighlyEconomicOff−GridPV SystemsinEthiopia, ABasisforSustainableRuralDevelopment
3860, 21 − 25September2009.
19 CentralStatisticsAgency(2007), The2007PopulationandHousingCensusof Ethiopia :
StatisticalReportatCountryLevel, AddisAbaba, Ethiopia2007.
20 D.Eskenazi, D.Kerner, andL.Slorninski, (1986), Evaluationofphotovoltaicproject, V
olume−
II, TechnicalReport, MeridianCorporationFallschurch, V A22041.
21 C.Breyer, A.Gerlach, M.Hlusiak, C.Peters, P.Adelmann, J.Winiecki, H.Schutzeichel, S.Tse
HighlyEconomicOff−GridPV SystemsinEthiopia, ABasisforSustainableRuralDevelopment
3860, 21 − 25September2009.
22 TheinitiationofsolartradeinEthiopia(2005 − 2011)Dr.haraldschutzeichel. 23
Www.Gaisma.com, BahirDar, Ethiopia−Sunrise, sunset, dawnanddusktimes, table, BahirDar
Sunrise, sunset, dawnanddusktimes, graph, BahirDar, Ethiopia−Solarenergyandsurfacemete
Sunpathdiagram.
24 Exide6E95 − 11s, datasheet, providedbyBatteriesPlus.
25 N−channelSTD95NH02LMOSFET, datasheet, providedbyFairchildSemiconductor.
Chapter 1. Conclusion and 4

26 TLV 2304IPdatasheet, TexasInstruments

27 LM 317datasheet, TexasInstruments.
28 PhotovoltaicSystemSizingWorksheet, standalonePV sizing,
29 Bookof SocratesKaplans, designandintegrationofpossiblePV configurationtodeterminethe
30 AIMS3000WModifiedpureSineWaveInverter, providedbyshenzhen/HongKong.