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00826-0100-0002, 07/09

Process Control Fundamentals

Module 2
Level Measurement
Emerson Process Management - Rosemount Measurment, 2009. All Rights Reserved. Printed in U.S.A.

While this information is presented in good faith and believed to be accurate, Emerson Process Management - Rosemount
Measurement does not guarantee satisfactory results from reliance upon such information. Nothing contained herein is to be
construed as a warranty or guarantee, expressed or implied, regarding the performance, merchantability, fitness or any other matter
with respect to the products, nor as a recommendation to use any product or process in conflict with any patent. Emerson Process
Management - Rosemount Measurement reserves the right, without notice, to alter or improve the designs or specifications of the
products described herein. The training material contained in this manual was developed by Emerson Process Management -
Rosemount Measurement for their exclusive use. This manual and the material contained herein may not be copied, reproduced,
sold, given or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole or in part without the prior written permission of the Director of
Emerson Process Management - Rosemount Measurment.

© July 2009
Table of Contents
Introduction..................................................................................................................................................... 1
Why Measure Level?....................................................................................................................................... 3
Why Measure Level?........................................................................................................................................ 4
Inventory ................................................................................................................................................... 4
Custody Transfer ...................................................................................................................................... 4
Efficiency .................................................................................................................................................. 4
Safety......................................................................................................................................................... 5
Consistent Supply ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Level Terminology .......................................................................................................................................... 7
Terminology ..................................................................................................................................................... 8
Volume ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
Strapping Tables.............................................................................................................................. 11
Tanks with Dished Ends .................................................................................................................. 11
Interface.................................................................................................................................................. 14
Density .................................................................................................................................................... 14
Specific Gravity ............................................................................................................................... 15
Mass........................................................................................................................................................ 15
Device Characteristics................................................................................................................................... 16
Bottom-up vs. Top-down Measurement .................................................................................................. 16
Direct vs. Indirect Measurement ............................................................................................................ 16
Continuous, Single-Point, or Multipoint Measurement.......................................................................... 17
Indication vs. Control ............................................................................................................................. 17
Contacting vs. Noncontacting................................................................................................................. 18
Device Selection ............................................................................................................................................ 19
Device Selection............................................................................................................................................. 20
Why is the Level Measurement Needed? ................................................................................................ 20
What are the Conditions Within the Vessel? .......................................................................................... 20
What are the Environmental and External Conditions?......................................................................... 22
What are the Product Characteristics? .................................................................................................. 22
What is the Accuracy Requirement for the Application?........................................................................ 23
What are the Instrument Requirements? ................................................................................................ 23
What is the Total Cost of the Device? .................................................................................................... 24
What is the Operator Comfort? .............................................................................................................. 24
Classifying Level Technologies .................................................................................................................... 25
Manual/Mechanical................................................................................................................................ 26
Electromechanical .................................................................................................................................. 26
Electronic Contacting............................................................................................................................. 26
Electronic Non-contacting...................................................................................................................... 27
Cost vs. Performance.............................................................................................................................. 27
Device Summary Table ........................................................................................................................... 28
Classifying Level Technologies ..................................................................................................................... 29
Level Technologies........................................................................................................................................ 31

Level Measurement Page 3

© Rosemount Inc. 2009
Table of Contents
Point Level Systems ....................................................................................................................................... 32
Point Level Detection ............................................................................................................................. 32
Ultrasonic Level Switches....................................................................................................................... 32
Advantages ...................................................................................................................................... 33
Magnetic Float-operated Switches ......................................................................................................... 34
Horizontal Type Level Switches ...................................................................................................... 35
Vertical Type Level Switches........................................................................................................... 36
Displacers ............................................................................................................................................... 37
Tuning Fork Level Switches.................................................................................................................... 38
Advantages ...................................................................................................................................... 39
Ultrasound ..................................................................................................................................................... 40
Ultrasonic Signals .................................................................................................................................. 40
Ultrasonic Level Transmitters ................................................................................................................ 40
Ultrasound and Level Accuracy ............................................................................................................. 42
Blanking Distance & Ring-Down Time .................................................................................................. 42
Beam Angle............................................................................................................................................. 43
Air Temperature...................................................................................................................................... 44
Attenuation of Ultrasonic Signals........................................................................................................... 44
Vapors.............................................................................................................................................. 44
Condensation................................................................................................................................... 45
Foam................................................................................................................................................ 45
Turbulence....................................................................................................................................... 45
Benefits of Ultrasonic Technology................................................................................................................. 46
Benefits ................................................................................................................................................... 46
Pressure Transmitters.................................................................................................................................... 47
Open-Vessel Level Measurement............................................................................................................ 47
Compensation for Transmitter Datum............................................................................................. 48
Closed-Tank Level Measurement ........................................................................................................... 50
Differential Pressure Transmitter ................................................................................................... 50
Transmitter Adjustments.................................................................................................................. 51
Performance Considerations .................................................................................................................. 53
Process Characteristics................................................................................................................... 53
Transmitter Installation................................................................................................................... 53
Benefits ................................................................................................................................................... 54
Limitations .............................................................................................................................................. 54
Bubbler Systems ............................................................................................................................................. 55
Applications ............................................................................................................................................ 56
Benefits ................................................................................................................................................... 56
Limitations .............................................................................................................................................. 56

Page 4 Level Measurement

© Rosemount Inc. 2009
Table of Contents
Hydrostatic Tank Gauging............................................................................................................................. 57
Measurement Options............................................................................................................................. 57
Mass................................................................................................................................................. 57
Density............................................................................................................................................. 57
Volume............................................................................................................................................. 58
Level ................................................................................................................................................ 58
Temperature .................................................................................................................................... 58
Benefits ................................................................................................................................................... 58
Limitations .............................................................................................................................................. 58
Radar ............................................................................................................................................................. 59
Radar Advantages................................................................................................................................... 59
Non-Contacting or Free Radiating Radar.............................................................................................. 60
Application and Installation Impact on Free Radiating Radar.............................................................. 61
Guided Wave Radar................................................................................................................................ 62
Application and Installation Conditions’ Impact on GWR ............................................................. 63
Benefits and Limitations .................................................................................................................. 63
Applications with Foam.......................................................................................................................... 64
Hybrid Inventory Systems .............................................................................................................................. 65
Measurement Options............................................................................................................................. 65
Level ................................................................................................................................................ 65
Volume............................................................................................................................................. 66
Density............................................................................................................................................. 66
Mass................................................................................................................................................. 66
Temperature .................................................................................................................................... 66
Benefits ................................................................................................................................................... 67
Workbook Exercises....................................................................................................................................... 69
Workbook Answers ........................................................................................................................................ 79

Level Measurement Page 5

Introduction
To assure the safety and profitability of processes, it is often essential to be equipped with instruments
providing reliable and precise measurements of level. At the basics of level measurement, it is simply
about determining the position of a surface inside a tank, reactor or other vessel. More precisely, level
measurement is the determination of the linear vertical distance between a reference point (usually the
base of a holding container) and the surface of either a liquid, the top of a solid, or the interface of two
liquids. Precise control of the level of liquid in a tank, reactor, or other vessel is important in many
process applications. Level measurement is often used for Inventory Measurement. To provide good
control, accurate measurement is essential.
Several devices and systems are available for measuring product level. Each is designed to provide
accurate level measurement, although measurement precision and principles of operation vary among
devices. All level measurements involve interaction between a sensing device, element, or system and
a product inside a holding container.
Different process industries measure level for different reasons. The following pages will introduce
you to the most common reasons for measuring level and explain why and how the instruments in each
of the four level-measurement classes work. You will also learn about important aspects to consider
when selecting a level-measurement device or system for a particular application, as well as the
benefits and limitations of level measurement products.
The following five sections are included in this module:
T Why Measure Level?
T Level Terminology
T Device Selection
T Classifying Level Technologies
T Level Technologies

PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVE
After you have completed this module, you will understand and be able to explain the basis upon
which level-measurement technologies are differentiated in the process industry.

Level Measurement Page 1

Why Measure Level?

Process industries measure level for several reasons, the most common of which are outlined in this
section.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE
After you have completed this section, you will be able to:
T List and briefly explain the five most common reasons for measuring level:
• Inventory
• Custody transfer
• Efficiency
• Safety
• Consistent supply

Level Measurement Page 3

Why Measure Level?

Activities
INVENTORY
One important reason for measuring level is to keep track of
inventory in terms of volume or weight. Consumers want to
know the amount of material available for a process. For
example, the gas gauge in your car lets you know how much
gas you have left in your tank.

CUSTODY TRANSFER
In many instances, the amount of material that is bought and 1. Explain why accurate level
sold (custody transfer) is based on a level measurement that is measurement is important in
known to coincide with a certain volume or weight (from custody transfer applications.
mathematical equations or strapping tables) (see Strapping
Tables on page 11). An error of even 1/4 inch of measured level
can result in very large errors in terms of volume, especially in
large vessels. Therefore, precise level measurement is required
for custody transfer applications.

EFFICIENCY
Accurate level measurement increases efficiency. For example, 2. Explain one way in which
if a tank farm must keep a certain amount of material on hand accurate level measurement can
at all times and the storage tanks are not filled to capacity, the save money.
facility will incur the unnecessary expense of purchasing and
maintaining additional storage vessels. The storage tanks in
Figure 2.1 could hold another 60 units of product before the
farm would need to purchase a new tank. Efficient use of
storage space prevents the extra cost of needlessly acquiring
more storage vessels.

vessels
filled to capacity before purchasing new
By ensuring that storage vessels are 2.
Figure 2.1: Storage Efficiency
accurate charging of customers.
Accurate level measurement ensures 1.

Page 4 Level Measurement

Why Measure Level?

SAFETY Activities
Level is also measured for safety reasons. Filling vessels above 3. Overfilling vessels can result in
their capacities can cause safety hazards—spills (overflowing) ____________ in open vessels.
in open vessels. If the vessels are holding caustic, hot,
flammable, or hazardous materials, spills or overpressure could
lead to catastrophic results.

CONSISTENT SUPPLY
Many processes require a steady supply of inputs and outputs. 4. Identify one way in which a
A consistent supply may be difficult to maintain if the supply is more consistent supply rate can
delivered at varying rates or if there are surges in the supply be attained.
line. A storage vessel between the supply and the process can
act as a buffer to ensure that outflow is kept steady despite
fluctuating inflow (Figure 2.2). If the process level in the
storage vessel is always maintained within an appropriate
range, the supply delivery rate to the storage vessel can rise and
fall without affecting the supply delivery rate from the storage
vessel to the process.
Consistent supply is directly related to product quality in pulp
and paper industries, where a consistent supply ensures that
each sheet of paper has the same thickness as every other sheet.
\

Figure 2.2: Ensuring Consistent Supply the process

storage vessel between the supply and
By maintaining a certain level in a 4.
Spills 3.

COMPLETE WORKBOOK EXERCISE 2.1 ON PAGE 69

Level Measurement Page 5

Level Terminology
Precise control of product level in a tank, reactor, or other vessel is important in many process
applications. To provide good control, accurate measurement is essential. This section introduces the
concepts and terminology you will need to master in order to fully understand level technology devices
and how they work, as well as how various other material properties (e.g., volume, density) can be
determined from a level measurement.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After you have completed this section, you will be able to:
T Identify four material properties that can be determined from a level measurement and explain
how each is determined:
• Volume
• Interface
• Density
• Mass
T Identify and describe the following five options for level-measurement device operation:
• Bottom-up vs. top-down
• Direct vs. indirect
• Continuous, single point, and multipoint
• Contacting vs. noncontacting
• Indication vs. control

Level Measurement Page 7

Terminology
Level measurements are typically expressed in terms of feet or Activities
meters. Level may also be given in terms of percent full or
percent of measured span. For example, the level of the vessel 1. List three ways in which level
in Figure 2.3 could be expressed as 9 feet (2.7 m), 90% full, or can be expressed.
50% of measured span. Measured span is the distance between
the lowest and the highest level that a level transmitter (LT) can
measure in a particular application. In Figure 2.3, the measured
span is from 8–10 feet.
2. Define measured span.

Figure 2.3: Level Measurements

Sometimes level is measured for its own sake—for example, if 3. List three material properties
the goal of the measurement is to prevent spills. More often, that can be determined from a
level is measured to find some other property of the stored level measurement.
product. Product properties that can be determined from a level
measurement are:
T Volume
T Interface
T Density
T Mass

Interface; density; mass; volume 3.

application
(LT) can measure in a particular
highest levels that a level transmitter
The distance between the lowest and the 2.
measured span
meters]); percent full; percent of
Feet (or other unit of measure [e.g., 1.

Page 8 Level Measurement

Terminology
VOLUME Activities
Volume is the space occupied by a quantity of material. Volume 4. Define volume.
is typically expressed in gallons, liters, cubic centimeters,
cubic feet, or barrels. Volume is the measurement most
commonly derived from level.
Volume is usually determined by first measuring the level of 5. True or False? Volume is the
process in a tank and then calculating the process volume based space occupied by a quantity of
upon the tank geometry. material.

Many level-measurement devices store the level/

volume relationship for common tank geometries in
their electronic components (computer), which
enables them to calculate a direct volume output.

In other cases, the volume may be calculated in a

programmable logic controller (PLC) or determined from a
look-up table (see Strapping Tables on page 11) that relates
level to volume. The relationships between level and volume
for several common tank shapes are shown below:
Where: v = tank volume
r = tank radius
H = tank height (or length)
L = product level
6. If the process level in a vertical
Vertical Cylinder cylinder is 5 m and the cylinder
r radius is 2 m, what is the
volume of product in the
cylinder (pi = 3.14)?
H 2
v = πr L
L

62.8 m3 6.
True 5.
material
The space occupied by a quantity of 4.

Level Measurement Page 9

Terminology
Horizontal Cylinder Activities
H

r L

2 l
v = 2r - + H ( L – r ) L ( 2r – L )
H atan -------------------
2r – L

Sphere

2
r π L ( 3r – L )
v = --------------------------------
3
L

Vertical Bullet
If L ≤ r
2
πL r
v = --------- 3r – L
3

If r < L < (H – r) H
2 3 2
v = --- πr + πr ( L – r )
3
L

If (H – r) ≤ L
2
2 π ( L + 2r – H )
v = πr ( H – 2r ) + ------------------------------------- ( 3r – ( L + 2r – H ) )
3

Page 10 Level Measurement

Terminology
Horizontal Bullet Activities

r
L

πL2 2 L
= --------- ( 3r – L ) + 2r ( H ( – 2r ) ) atan ------------------- + ( H – 2r ) ( L – r ) L ( 2r – L
3 2r – L
Note: “atan” is the arctangent of the angle, or the inverse of “tangent.”

Tanks with Dished Ends

Tanks with dished ends do not have a standard shape
(Figure 2.4). Therefore, the volume of these tanks cannot be
determined strictly from geometry. Instead, strapping tables
are used to determine volume.

Figure 2.4: Tanks with Dished Ends

Strapping Tables
Calculating volume from level and tank geometry provides a 7. Strapping tables relate
volume measurement accurate enough for the needs of most. ______________ to
However, in some instances, the geometry of the tank may be ______________ for several
irregular, which makes it nearly impossible to model the discrete points in a tank.
relationship between level and volume mathematically. In such
cases, volume must be determined from the level reading
through the use of a strapping table.
A strapping table is a look-up table that relates level to volume
for several discrete points in a tank (Figure 2.5). Strapping
tables are usually derived by adding a known volume of
product to a tank and then measuring the level of product that Level; volume 7.

Level Measurement Page 11

Terminology
corresponds to that volume (manual strapping). The volume Activities
and level measurements are recorded in a strapping table.
Then, when a volume measurement is required, level is
measured and looked up in the strapping table to find the
corresponding volume.
8. If the level in the tank in
Figure 2.5 is 10 inches and later
Level Volume it is increased to 27 inches, the
Point (inches) (gallons) initial volume of product in the
10
1 0 0 tank is _______ gallons and the
2 5 10 final volume is ________
3 10 32 gallons.
9 4 15 68
(Hint: interpolate)
7 5 20 115
5 6 25 173
H
3 7 30 230
1 8 35 313
9 40 394
10 100 957

Figure 2.5: Strapping Table

Strapping tables can just be a few points to accommodate tank 9. Typically, more / less points are
shape or they can be hundreds of points. Larger numbers of included in a strapping table for
points are used with larger tanks that tend to bulge when filled. the dished region of a tank.
If a measured level falls between two points in a table, volume
is determined by interpolating the two points. Typically,
strapping tables have a higher concentration of points in tank
regions where the relationship between level and volume is not
linear. For example, in Figure 2.5, strapping points are
concentrated near the bottom of the tank. This concentration
provides for better resolution in the strapping table and a more
accurate measurement.
There are several circumstances in which a strapping table may
be required for level measurements. When product is added to
a tank, the tank’s sides bulge—the bulging causes an error in
the mathematical calculations for specific tank geometries. The
amount of error is related to the degree of bulging. Strapping
tables are commonly used to eliminate errors in calculations
due to bulging error (Figure 2.6).

More 9.
32 gallons; 195.8 gallons 8.

Page 12 Level Measurement

Terminology
In certain applications (e.g., petroleum storage and
Activities
transfer), bulging errors may cause suppliers to over-
or undercharge customers.

10. Define bulging error.

Empty Tank Tank with Product

Figure 2.6: Bulging Error

Strapping tables are also used to store level/volume

relationships for irregularly shaped tanks (Figure 2.5) or for
tanks with internal equipment (Figure 2.7).

Figure 2.7: Tank with Internal Equipment

added to the tank

bulging of tank sides when product is
10. A calculation error caused by the

Level Measurement Page 13

Terminology
INTERFACE Activities
An interface is the boundary between two immiscible 11. Define interface.
(incapable of being mixed) fluids with different densities
(e.g., oil and water). An interface measurement finds the
boundary between two liquids stored in the same tank, each
with a different density. For example, when oil and water
occupy the same vessel, the oil floats on top of the water. The
interface between the two fluids is the upper level of the water
and the lower level of the oil (Figure 2.8).

Interface is often used when a manufacturer has two

fluids in a tank and wants to pour off only the top
fluid—the interface measurement indicates when to
stop.

Liquid A to Air
Interface

Liquid A

Liquid A to B
Interface

Liquid B

Figure 2.8: Interface

DENSITY
Density is the mass of a material per unit of volume. Density is 12. Define density.
often expressed in terms of grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3)
or pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3). Specific gravity is often used
to describe the density of a material compared to the density of
water.

volume at a specific temperature

12. The mass of a material per unit of
fluids with different specific gravities
11. The boundary between two immiscible

Page 14 Level Measurement

Terminology
Specific Gravity Activities
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a material to the 13. Define specific gravity.
density of water at a common reference temperature. Water has
a density of 1 g/cm3 (62.43 lb/ft3) at 39.2 °F (4 °C). Glycerin, a
compound often found in soaps, has a density of 78.66 lb/ft3.
At the same temperature, therefore, glycerin’s specific gravity
is 1.26 (78.66 ÷ 62.43).

MASS
Mass, the amount of matter an object contains, is often 14. How is mass determined from a
equivocated to weight. Mass is typically expressed in terms of level measurement?
kilograms, grams, tons, or pounds. Mass is unaffected by
temperature. Thus, 60 lb (27.2 kg) of oil at 50 °F (10 °C) is still
60 lb at 86 °F (30 °C)—however, the overall volume of the oil
may change due to expansion.
If density is known, mass can be found from a level
measurement by first finding volume (see Volume on page 9)
and then using the following equation:

Mass = Density × Volume

Some level-measurement devices measure mass

directly (e.g., load cells). See Module 2a, Level
Measurement Reference.

multiplying it by the density

14. By first finding volume and then
reference temperature
the density of water at a common
13. The ratio of the density of a material to

COMPLETE WORKBOOK EXERCISE 2.2 ON PAGE 70

Level Measurement Page 15

Device Characteristics
Activities
BOTTOM-UP VS. TOP-DOWN MEASUREMENT
A top-down measurements may or may not contact the process
fluid. A top-down measurement poses less potential for
leakage (Figure 2.9) and enables level measurement devices to
be installed or removed without emptying the tank (e.g., radar,
gauge).
A bottom-up measurement typically contacts the process fluid
(e.g., weigh scale). Level devices that use pressure transmitters
are bottom-up measurement systems.

Bottom-up measurements may cause leakage or

introduce installation complications with
underground vessels.

15. A direct measurement is

independent of / dependent on
Top-down Measurement other process parameters.
System

Bottom-up Measurement
System

Figure 2.9: Bottom-up vs. Top-down Measurement

DIRECT VS. INDIRECT MEASUREMENT 16. What is an indirect level

measurement?
Direct measurement indicates that level is measured directly.
For example, when you use a dipstick to check the oil level in
your car, you are making a direct measurement. A direct
measurement is independent of any other process parameters.
Indirect measurement, also known as inferred measurement,
indicates that a variable other than level is first measured and
then used to determine a level measurement. For example,
pressure transmitters use mass and the fluid’s specific gravity
to calculate level. then used to determine level
other than level is first measured and
16. A measurement in which a variable
15. Independent of

Page 16 Level Measurement

Device Characteristics
CONTINUOUS, SINGLE-POINT, OR MULTIPOINT Activities
MEASUREMENT
A continuous level-measurement system monitors the height of 17. List two examples of when a
product within a range of points within the tank at all times. continuous level-measurement
Continuous measurement is used for precise control, to system would be used.
maintain the level of a material at a particular point, and to
ensure a consistent supply, like in a batch reactor.
Single-point measurement indicates whether a product is at
least as high or low as a certain point, usually the high- or
low-level limit. They are typically used to prevent overflow. A
common example is a toilet tank float.
In multipoint measurements, level indication is observed at two
or more discrete points in the tank. Two single-point
measurement devices may sound alarms or operate equipment
at high and low limits. Several single-point devices located
throughout the vessel could approximate a continuous level-
measurement system.

INDICATION VS. CONTROL

Level measurement indicators enable an on-site level check. 18. How does an open-loop control
Indicators require the operator to interpret the measurement system differ from a closed-loop
and take the appropriate action. Systems with level control system?
measurement indicators are referred to as open-loop control
systems. Indicators are frequently used to help calibrate
automatic control systems as well (Figure 2.10).
Automatic control systems, or closed-loop systems, are able to
electronically control level in a vessel. A level-measurement
device, combined with a transmitter, generates either a
pneumatic or electronic control signal that is proportional to
the level in the vessel. The signal is received by a controller
that operates other devices (e.g., valves or pumps), which, in
turn, control the amount of product flowing in and out of a
vessel. Automatically controlled vessels may also include level
measurement indicators.

system controls level electronically.

take action, while a closed-loop control
operator to interpret measurements and
18. Open-loop control systems require an
to ensure a consistent supply
the level of material at a particular point;
17. To ensure precise control; to maintain

Level Measurement Page 17

Device Characteristics
Controller
Activities
Manual
Operation
Control
Valve

Load
Valve Level
Transmitter

Indicator

Load Valve
Vessel

Figure 2.10: Indication vs. Control

CONTACTING VS. NONCONTACTING

In a contacting measurement, some part of the measurement 19. Explain what a contacting level
system is in direct contact with the contents of the vessel. measurement is.
Examples of contacting measurement techniques include floats
and dipsticks.
In a noncontacting measurement, no part of the measurement
system directly contacts the contents of the vessel.

Noncontacting methods are preferred when the

measured fluid is especially abrasive or corrosive.

vessel.
in direct contact with the product in the
some part of the measurement system is
19. In a contacting level measurement,

COMPLETE WORKBOOK EXERCISE 2.3 ON PAGE 72

Page 18 Level Measurement

Device Selection
Because of the large variety of level-measurement devices available, selecting the appropriate device
for a particular application can be difficult. While most level-measurement technologies are adaptable
to more than one process measurement, there is no single level device that will work for every
application. However, by asking the right questions and understanding some basic application needs,
you can narrow down the selection pool considerably and determine which device will work best in
each application.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE
After you have completed this section, you will be able to:
T Identify eight important questions about basic application needs and explain how the answer to
each question affects level-measurement device selection:
• Why is the level measurement needed?
• What are the conditions within the vessel?
• What are the environmental and external conditions?
• What are the product characteristics?
• What is the accuracy requirement for the application?
• What are the instrument requirements?
• What is the total cost of the device?
• What is the operator comfort?

Level Measurement Page 19

Device Selection
WHY IS THE LEVEL MEASUREMENT NEEDED? Activities
Do you need a rough indication of product level, or do you
want to know exactly how much product is in the vessel?
The answer to this question will indicate what information is 1. If a customer wants to know
needed from the level device and what type of measurement is exactly how much product is in
required (e.g., mass measurement or single-point a vessel, he or she should use a
measurement). single-point / continuous level-
measurement system.
For example, if an engineer wants to prevent spills or know
when to refill a vessel, a single-point level device may be
sufficient. If the engineer needs to keep the product volume
within a certain range in the vessel, a continuous level device is
needed. If the engineer needs to know how many pounds of
product are needed, a mass measurement is required.

WHAT ARE THE CONDITIONS WITHIN THE VESSEL?

Does the level-measurement device need to be able to handle
high pressures and temperatures?
Some level-measurement devices can withstand high 2. What level-measurement
temperatures and pressures quite well, while others cannot. technology might you suggest
Specification limits affect device selection. Table 2.1 shows the for 1,000 °F and up
specification limits of some of the more common level devices. temperatures within the vessel?
In some devices that can withstand process extremes,
performance is compromised. The accuracy of some devices
can be affected by temperature changes.

3. Refer to Table 2.1. What

level-measurement technology
might you suggest for pressures
of 3,000–4,000 psig and a wide
temperature range?

Capacitance 3.
Nuclear 2.
Continuous 1.

Page 20 Level Measurement

Device Selection
Technology Pressure* Temperature Activities
Nuclear No limit No limit
Full vacuum to 5,000 –200 to 900 °F and up
Capacitance
psig (340 bar) (–129 to 482 °C)
Full vacuum to 4,000 4. Top-down / bottom-up devices
Displacer –40 to 900 °F (–40 to 482 °C) are better suited to turbulent
psig (272 bar)
Pressure Full vacuum to 4,000 –100 to 600 °F processes.
with seals psig (272 bar) (–73 to 316 oC)**
Full vacuum to 4,000
Pressure –40 to 380 °F (–40 to 193 °C)
psig (272 bar)
Ultrasonic Atmospheric to 1,000
–40 to 320 °F (–40 to 160 °C)
point psig (68 bar)
Ultrasonic Atmospheric to 200
–40 to 180 °F (–40 to 82 °C)
non-contact psig (13.6 bar)
Free
Full vacuum to 798
radiating –40 to 752 °F (–40 to 400 °C)
psig (55 bar)
radar
Contacting Full vacuum to 5000
–76 to 752 °F (–60 to 400 °C)
radar psig (345 bar)
*Full vacuum = –14.7 psig; atmospheric = 0 psig
**The upper temperature for seals is limited in vacuum applications.

Table 2.1: Pressure and Temperature Limits

Is there product turbulence from agitation or mixing?

Are steam or other vapors present in the space above the
product?
Product turbulence or vapors above the product may be
difficult to measure for some top-down devices. For example,
some devices require that a return signal be reflected from the
product surface. The signal may be weakened or not returned at
all if there is product turbulence or vapors. Turbulence and
vapors are less problematic for bottom-up measurement
devices.
Are there any interfaces, temperature gradients, foams, or
suspended solids?
Interfaces, temperature gradients, foams, suspended solids, or
obstructions in the vessel could potentially affect the validity of
a measurement, depending on the technology selected. For
example, suspended solids may clog some devices. Foam is an
important consideration because some users want to measure
level at the top of the foam while others want to measure level
underneath the foam. Bottom-up 4.

Level Measurement Page 21

Device Selection
Are there any mounting constraints on the vessel? Activities
Existing taps should be used if at all possible. Some 5. List three factors that may affect
installations are more difficult if the vessel is glass lined or measurement device selection
double walled. Smaller tanks have less available mounting based on mounting features.
area. Tanks that are underground, close together, close to the
ceiling, or wrapped with heating coils may have limited
accessibility. Floating roofs may limit the mounting of some
top-down devices.

WHAT ARE THE ENVIRONMENTAL AND EXTERNAL

CONDITIONS?
What effect will environmental conditions have on the 6. Indoor / outdoor installations
instrument’s performance? are more likely to have a
constant temperature.
Indoor installations are likely to have a fairly stable
surrounding environment with minimal temperature changes
and constant humidity. Outdoor installations are more likely to
have temperature and humidity extremes. Vibration,
electromagnetic interference, and transients (power surges
caused by lightning) are other external issues that must be
considered. Transient protectors (or surge protectors) can help
protect against transients.

WHAT ARE THE PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS?

All processes cannot be measured by the same type of device. 7. ___________ processes may
Corrosive processes may require special construction materials require special construction
on the level sensor. If special materials are required, consider materials on the level sensor.
whether these materials are readily available or if it would be
better to select a device that does not have to contact the
process.
Process characteristics can affect different devices in different 8. List four process characteristics
ways: that could potentially affect
T A viscous product may plug the ports on some devices. level measurement, depending
T Dust, surface foam, and vapors may interfere with some on the technology selected.
transmitted signals.
T If the process density changes, the level indication for
pressure devices could be affected unless compensated
for. dielectric constant; coating tendencies
T If the dielectric constant (electrochemical property of a
Viscosity; density; dust or surface foam; 8.
fluid related to the fluid’s ability to transmit electrical Corrosive 7.
Indoor 6.
charges from one body to another) changes, capacitance
Vessel walls; proximity; floating roofs 5.

Page 22 Level Measurement

Device Selection
measurements will be affected. Activities
T Process coating tendencies could affect the sensitivity of
devices requiring contact.
T Solids tend to pile up in a vessel and are not likely to have
a flat surface. Consider at what point on the angle of
repose (maximum slope without product sliding) the level
should be measured and whether or not this point is
consistent.

WHAT IS THE ACCURACY REQUIREMENT FOR THE

APPLICATION?
How is the instrument accuracy specified? 9. True or False? A device with
an accuracy of 0.1% of span
A device that works well on a small tank may not provide the
gives an accuracy of ±0.06
accuracy required for a larger tank. For example, a device with
inches (1.5 mm) on a 5 ft tank
an accuracy of 0.1% of span gives an accuracy of ±0.06 inches
level and an accuracy of ±0.6
(1.5 mm) on a 5 ft (1.5 m) tank level. The same device provides
inches (15 mm) on a 50 ft tank
an accuracy of ±0.6 inches (15 mm) on a 50 ft (15 m) tank
level.
level.
Other devices, such as top-down radar devices, generally
specify accuracy to within a certain value (± 0.1 in or 3 mm) or
as a percentage of distance measured. The impact of other
performance parameters (e.g., temperature effect) should also
be evaluated.
Is there a need for high accuracy?
The primary goal in some applications may simply be the
ability to make a reliable measurement. In other applications,
repeatability may be far more important than accuracy, i.e. the
ability to provide the same measurement when repeatedly
measuring a steady level.

WHAT ARE THE INSTRUMENT REQUIREMENTS?

What approvals are needed?
Hazardous approvals need to comply with local requirements.
A standard of “explosion proof” may be sufficient for many
devices, but some plants or applications may require intrinsic
safety or other approvals. In other instances, sanitary
requirements may need to be met.

True 9.

Level Measurement Page 23

Device Selection
What are the outputs required? Activities
The most common output is a continuous analog 4–20 mA
signal, although digital signals are also gaining popularity. In
some instances, an alarm or control relay may be needed.
What power is available?
Most devices will run on 12–24 V dc (direct current), although 10. List three instrument
there are some devices that run on 110 or 220 V. A few devices requirements that must be
may operate on low power. considered when selecting a
level-measurement device.
WHAT IS THE TOTAL COST OF THE DEVICE?
The list price of the level-measurement device is important, but
the cost of installation and maintenance should be given an
equivalent amount of consideration. In general, the lower-cost
devices (usually mechanical) tend to require higher levels of
maintenance. The more sophisticated electronic instruments
are often higher priced, but the maintenance cost is much
lower. The initial costs of some of the non-contacting
technologies are dropping as technical capabilities and market
demand increase.
Another cost consideration is the life of the measurement 11. Why is maintenance an
device. An inexpensive device that needs to be replaced important consideration in
frequently can be very costly compared to a more expensive device cost?
device that is more durable, reliable, or better suited to the
application. In general, high-performance devices tend to cost
more.

WHAT IS THE OPERATOR COMFORT?

Lastly, consider the ease of using the device.
Will the method selected be understood by the people who have
to use it everyday?
Will the device be easy to install, calibrate, and maintain? maintenance costs in the long run
While performance and engineering issues are critical, the 11. Cheaper devices have very high
everyday use of a level-measurement device can be a key factor approvals
10. Available power; outputs required;
in its ultimate selection and long-term use.

COMPLETE WORKBOOK EXERCISE 2.4 ON PAGE 73

Page 24 Level Measurement

Classifying Level Technologies

Many level-measurement technologies are available. Choices vary from simple, manual methods to
more elaborate methods that do not contact the measured products. Some technologies are available in
both continuous-level and point-level measurement versions. In an effort to group general
characteristics, level-measurement devices can be organized into the following four categories:
T Manual/mechanical
T Electromechanical
T Electronic contacting
T Electronic non-contacting

This section introduces and explains in detail the function, benefits, and limitations of the devices in
each category. For more extensive descriptions, see supplemental technology information.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After you have completed this section, you will be able to:
T Describe, in general terms, how the level measurement devices in each category work:
• Manual/mechanical
• Electromechanical
• Electronic contacting
• Electronic non-contacting
T Identify benefits and limitations of the devices in each category

Level Measurement Page 25

Device Selection
MANUAL/MECHANICAL Activities
Devices in the manual/mechanical category have no electronic 1. Manual and mechanical devices
output. The operator uses the device to get a visual indication do / do not have electronic
of the amount of material in the vessel. Examples of level- output.
measurement devices in this category are sight glasses or rod
gauging systems. These devices are low cost but have no 2. Cite an example of a manual or
automation. (See Module 2a: Level Measurement Reference, mechanical measurement
for more information on manual/mechanical devices.) device.

ELECTROMECHANICAL
Devices in the electromechanical category are mechanical 3. Why do electromechanical
assemblies with a number of moving parts that produce an devices have relatively high
electronic output for control. Unlike manual/mechanical maintenance requirements?
devices, electromechanical devices provide an automated
measurement that can be read remotely.
Devices with moving parts tend to have high maintenance
requirements. Exposing electromechanical devices to sticky,
viscous, or corrosive fluids creates an environment in which
the devices’ mechanical parts are subject to fouling (dirtying of
moving parts) and corrosion, which leads to frequent cleaning
or repairs. An example of a level measurement device in this 4. Electromechanical devices do /
category is a displacer. (See Module 2a: Level Measurement do not have electronic output.
Reference, for more information on electromechanical
devices.)

ELECTRONIC CONTACTING 5. Give one example of an

electronic contacting device.
Devices in the electronic contacting category have no moving
parts. While they are not immune to problems with coating or
corrosion, electronic contacting devices tend to be more robust
and thus require less maintenance than electromechanical
devices. Examples of level-measurement devices in this
category are capacitance probes and pressure-based level
transmitters. (See Module 2a: Level Measurement Reference,
for more information on electronic contacting devices.)
level transmitter
Capacitance probes; pressure-based 5.
Do 4.
corrosion
moving parts are subject to fouling and
They have moving parts; the mechanical 3.
Sight glasses, rod gauging systems 2.
Do not 1.

Page 26 Level Measurement

Device Selection
ELECTRONIC NON-CONTACTING Activities
Devices in the electronic non-contacting category provide
sophisticated level measurement without ever touching the
product. Because they have no moving parts and no direct
contact, maintenance is minimal. Electronic non-contacting
devices can be easier to install than other level devices because
the holding vessel generally does not need to be drained or
penetrated. An example of a level-measurement device in this
category is a radar measurement device. (See Module 2a: Level
Measurement Reference, for more information on electronic
noncontacting devices.)

COST VS. PERFORMANCE 6. Explain why electronic

noncontacting devices have
Which level measurement technology is chosen relatively low maintenance.
depends on whether there is more concerned about
cost or about value and performance. The two are
indirectly proportional.

Figure 2.11 shows the relationship between initial cost and 7. Why are electronic
performance for the level-measurement device chosen. noncontacting devices easy to
install?

Figure 2.11: Initial Cost vs. Performance

penetrated
vessel does not have to be drained or
Because the product in the holding 7.
in direct contact with the product
They have no moving parts; they are not 6.

Level Measurement Page 27

Device Selection
Figure 2.12 shows the relationship between maintenance cost Activities
and the type of level measurement device chosen.

Figure 2.12: Cost vs. Maintenance

DEVICE SUMMARY TABLE

Table 2.2, “Level Measurement Classification,” on page 29
shows the breakdown of the various level measurement
technologies into their specific categories. The table also
indicates which process properties each device is able to
measure.

Page 28 Level Measurement

Manual/Mechanical
Floats and Float Systems x
Rod Gauging/Dip Probes x x
Sight/Gauge Glasses x x
Tape Levels and Tape Systems x x
Electromechanical
Displacers x x x
Magnetostrictive x x
Resistance Tape x
Rotation Suppression x
Servo x x
Electronic Contacting
Capacitance x x x
Conductivity x
Optical x
Phase Tracking x
Pressure-Based Level Technologies x x x x
Bubbler Systems x x x
Guided Wave Radar x x
Hybrid (HTG and Radar) x x x
Thermal x
Vibrating Level (Tuning Fork) x
Ultrasonic Gap Sensors x
Electronic Noncontacting
Laser x
Load Cells x x
Nuclear x x x x
Free Radiating Radar x
Ultrasonic x x
Table 2.2: Level Measurement Classification

COMPLETE WORKBOOK EXERCISE 2.5 ON PAGE 75

Page 29 Level Measurement

Level Technologies
There are several types of level measurement technologies—point level, pressure-based, ultrasonic
non-contact, and radar based. This section details the benefits and limitations of each level technology
product and explains in detail how each device works.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After you have completed this section, you will be able to:
T Explain how point level systems work, including:
• Ultrasonic level switches
• Magnetic float-operated switches
• Displacers
• Tuning fork level switches
T Explain how each of the following level measurement technologies works:
• Ultrasound
• Pressure transmitters
• Bubbler systems
• Hydrostatic tank gauging
• Radar
• Hybrid inventory systems
T Identify benefits and limitations of level-measurement devices

Level Measurement Page 31

Point Level Systems

Activities
POINT LEVEL DETECTION
Point level detection can either be single point or multipoint
measurement and is normally used where either high or low
alarm levels are to be indicated. The most common application 1. Point level detection is most
is for over-fill protection, and is frequently used in addition to often used in applications where
continuous level measurement systems where additional back protection against ___________
up or high integrity alarm signals are required. is required.
Multipoint measurement is commonly used for automatic
pump control for filling or emptying vessels, where separate
start and stop levels are required for the pump.

ULTRASONIC LEVEL SWITCHES

Ultrasonic level switches are used in most industrial processes
and marine cargo applications to detect high and low levels.
Operation is achieved using the time-proven principle of
ultrasonic transmission between two crystals. Liquid presence 2. An ultrasonic gap sensor is
is detected by virtue of its bulk. Liquid droplets, condensation, typically operated at a
or foaming are ignored. frequency of ________.
Typically an ultrasonic gap sensor is operated at a nominal
frequency of 1 MHz. Sensor electronics are set to respond to
the gain or the attenuation due to the lack of liquid in the sensor
gap.

Figure 2.13: Ultrasonic Gap Switch Theory

1 mHz 2.
Overfilling 1.

Page 32 Level Measurement

Point Level Systems

Activities

Figure 2.14: Ultrasonic Gap Switch Operation

Generally, gap sensors are designed for fail safe low level duty.
A special “Hi-sens” type sensor is used for fail safe high level
duty.

Advantages
Advantages of ultrasonic gap switches: 3. True or False? One advantage
T No moving parts, no maintenance of an ultrasonic gap switch is
T Simple installation that it doesn’t have any moving
T Hazardous area use parts.
T Immune to foam
T Unaffected by:
• RF interference
• Conductivity
• Droplets
• Most coatings
• Liquid color/opacity

True 3.

Level Measurement Page 33

Point Level Systems

MAGNETIC FLOAT-OPERATED SWITCHES Activities
Magnetic float-operated switches usually fall into two 4. How are magnetic
categories, horizontal and vertical-operated configurations. In float-operated switches
most applications it is common to have the float switch directly typically mounted?
mounted to the tank or vessel via a stand-off nozzle and
flanged connection. In certain cases, especially in the process
industries where vessels may be at high temperatures and
pressures, the float switch device may be installed in a separate
chamber or bridle as shown in Figure 2.15.

Figure 2.15: Magnetic Float-operated Switch

stand-off nozzle and flanged connection

mounted to the tank or vessel via a
Typically, the float switch is directly 4.

Page 34 Level Measurement

Point Level Systems

Horizontal Type Level Switches Activities
The horizontal level switch typically employs a two magnet
principle to provide the switching action. The main advantage
of this design is that the internal float is mechanically isolated 5. What is the main advantage of a
from the electrical switching mechanism via the magnetic horizontal type level switch?
coupling through the non-magnetic flange of the switch body.
Figure 2.16 shows how the horizontal magnetic two-magnet
principle operates.

Figure 2.16: Horizontal Switch Operation

One permanent magnet forms part of a float assembly which 6. Where are the two permanent
rises and falls with changing liquid level. A second permanent magnets located in a horizontal
magnet is positioned within the switch so that the adjacent type level switch?
poles of the magnet repel each other through a non-magnetic
diaphragm.
A change of liquid level which moves the float through its
permissible travel causes the float magnet to move and repel
the switch magnet to give the snap action operation.
This type of float switch can have numerous float
configurations to cater to a wide range of S.G, tank shapes and the float assembly and within the switch
pressures from full vacuum up to 3000 psi (200 bar), The permanent magnets are located in 6.
depending on flange rating. mechanism
isolated from the electrical switching
The internal float is mechanically 5.

Level Measurement Page 35

Point Level Systems

Vertical Type Level Switches Activities
The float in a vertical type level switch carries a stainless steel
sheathed permanent magnet which rises and falls in the
glandless pressure tube with changing liquid level. A switch 7. When the liquid level increases,
mechanism is mounted inside the enclosure adjacent to the a vertical type level switch
pressure tube. Switching is achieved with a unique latches / resets.
three-magnet system, giving snap action “latch-on” switching.

Figure 2.17: Vertical Switch Operation

Vertical movement of the float magnet in the pressure tube 8. What does vertical movement in
simultaneously actuates the secondary and tertiary magnets in a vertical switch mechanism do
the switch mechanism to operate the contacts. The to the secondary and tertiary
three-magnet system enables the float magnet to pass on and magnets?
actuate switch mechanisms at other levels. Actuated switch
mechanisms cannot reset until the return of the primary magnet
actuates the magnet system once again.

contacts
It actuates those magnets to operate the 8.
Latches 7.

Page 36 Level Measurement

Point Level Systems

DISPLACERS Activities
Displacers are ideal for sump applications and other top
mounting duties such as low level alarm in deep tanks. The
principle makes them suitable in a modified form for very high
pressure or low S.G applications.
The displacer element, typically made of stainless steel, is 9. What creates the tension on the
suspended on a stainless steel cable from a spring. The element spring in a displacer element?
is always heavier than its equivalent volume of the liquid in
which it operates, so it always creates tension on the spring. In
free air, the spring will be extended to a known length,
controlled by a mechanical stop to prevent overstressing.
Fixed to the spring is the float rod and magnet assembly, free to
move up and down as the spring extends or contracts, andt the
switch mechanism is outside the pressure tube in the usual
manner.

Figure 2.18: Floats and Displacers

As liquid rises to cover the displacer element, a buoyancy force

is created equal to the weight of the liquid displaced. This force
is sensed by the spring as a reduction in weight, causing the
spring to contract, moving the magnet upwards inside the
pressure tube, and actuating the switch mechanism. When
liquid levels fall, the displacer element is uncovered and the
spring senses an increasing effective weight, thus causing the
spring to extend and move the magnet, which resets the switch
mechanism.
tension on the spring
in which it operates, so it always creates
than its equivalent volume of the liquid
The displacer element is always heavier 9.

Level Measurement Page 37

Point Level Systems

TUNING FORK LEVEL SWITCHES Activities
The tuning fork type of level switch typically comprises a
sensor consisting of a pair of tines that act like a tuning fork
plus associated electronics that provide either a solid state
electronic output or simple relay contact.
Tuning fork tines are oscillated at their natural resonant 10. What is the natural resonant
frequency of typically 1300 Hz by a piezoelectric crystal frequency of a tuning fork level
located near the head of the fork. When the sensor is in the switchwhen it is in vapor space?
vapor space, the natural resonant frequency is maintained at
1300 Hz.

Figure 2.19: Vibrating Fork Technology

When the sensor tines become immersed in liquid, the sensor’s

natural frequency is reduced. Typically electronics are set to
respond when the natural frequency drops by approximately
200Hz to 300Hz.

Figure 2.20: Vibrating Fork Type Level Switch

10. 1300 Hz

Page 38 Level Measurement

Point Level Systems

The electronics can provide a wide range of output switching Activities
options. The simplest form is a solid state direct load switching
capability where the switch is wired directly in series with
load, for example a relay coil or contactor. Alternatives include
a relay output with a SPDT volt-free relay, and a PNP transistor
output for direct interface to PLCs. For hazardous area
applications, an intrinsically safe (IS) Namur type output is
available to DIN 19234 (IEC 60947-5-6).

Advantages
The advantage of the self-sustaining resonant frequency probe 11. True or False? Vibrating fork
design is that material build-up on the probe has only limited level switches are less effective
effect, because with a limited amount of coating, the resulting in applications where the fork is
change in the natural frequency of the probe does not collapse subject to coating.
the oscillation. Therefore, the sensor is suitable for applications
where a small amount of coating can be tolerated.
Other advantages:
T Easy to install
T Screwed or flange mounting options
T Use on hygienic applications with special hygienic
connections
T Temperature range – 40 °F to +300 °F (-40 °C to 150 °C)
T High pressures up to 1500 psi (100 bar~)
T No moving parts, no maintenance
T Wide S.G range 0.6 to 2.0
T Wide viscosity range 0.2 to 10000 cps
T Optional output switching modes – Direct load, Relay
contacts, Solid state PLC compatible, I.S Namur

11. False

Level Measurement Page 39

Ultrasound
The production of ultrasound is used in many different fields, Activities
particularly in medicine. For process level measurement,
ultrasound is a useful way of continuously measuring level
using pulse-echo techniques.

ULTRASONIC SIGNALS
An ultrasonic signal is generated by driving a piezo-electric
crystal with a high voltage AC signal. The crystal tries to
oscillate but is unable to because it is bonded to the inside face
of the transmitter. As a result, the whole assembly oscillates at
the crystal’s natural frequency and an ultrasonic signal is
transmitted.

ULTRASONIC LEVEL TRANSMITTERS 12. What type of crystal is used to

generate ultrasonic signals?
Ultrasonic level transmitters are non-contacting instruments
installed over a liquid that may be in a tank, wet-well, or open
air reservoir. An ultrasonic pulse is emitted by the transmitter
toward the liquid surface, which it then detects as an echo that
returns from the liquid surface. An on-board microprocessor
calculates liquid level from this information, although more
complex calculations such as the volume of liquid in a tank or
the flow in an open channel are also possible.
Ultrasonic level transmitters typically send a signal directed 13. An ultrasonic level transmitter
toward the liquid surface about once every second. The signal sends a signal about once every
travels at the speed of sound and is reflected back as an echo _____ second(s).
towards the transmitter when it hits the liquid surface.

13. One second

voltage AC signal
Figure 2.21: Typical Ultrasonic Echo Trace 12. A piezo-electric crystal with a high

Page 40 Level Measurement

Ultrasound
The transmitter knows the instant in time when the signal was Activities
sent and also the instant in time when the echo is received
back, so the overall journey time is known. Dividing this time
in half provides the time taken for the signal to hit the liquid
surface.
14. How does an ultrasonic
transmitter calculate the
distance to a surface?

Figure 2.22: Ultrasonic Level Measurement

Because the transmitter knows both the speed of sound and

time taken, the distance to the target is calculated using the
basic equation:
Distance = Speed x Time

For example, if a signal travelling at the speed of sound in air 15. A signal travelling through air
(1049 feet per second) has a round trip time of 20 milliseconds, has a round trip time of 15
the distance to the target is 1049 feet per second multiplied by milliseconds. What is the
20 milliseconds and divided by 2, or 10.49 feet. distance to the surface?
When the transmitter is programmed with the tank height and
the distance to target is known, the level can be calculated by
subtracting distance from tank height. Additionally, if the tank
in the example above had a linear profile and the transmitter
were programmed with the cross sectional area of the tank, the
transmitter could also calculate the actual volume of liquid in
the tank.

15. 7.87 feet

received and dividing it by half.
for a signal to be sent and the echo to be
14. Distance is calculated by taking the time

Level Measurement Page 41

Ultrasound
ULTRASOUND AND LEVEL ACCURACY Activities
The following factors have an impact on the accuracy of an
ultrasonic level measurement:
T Blanking distance and ring-down time
T Beam angle
T Air temperature
T Signal attenuation

BLANKING DISTANCE & RING-DOWN TIME

All transmitters have a blanking distance, sometimes called a
blocking distance or dead zone, in which no measurements can
be made.
To transmit the ultrasonic signal, the transmitter energizes the 16. What is ring-down time?
transmit mechanism (the piezo-electric crystal) for a finite
time, and the crystal naturally vibrates or oscillates at the
ultrasonic frequency. The time it takes for the oscillation to
decay is known as the ring-down time. The ring-down time can
be used to calculate the distance to the surface, since in
ultrasonics time equals distance.

Figure 2.23: Ultrasonic Blanking Distance

oscillation to decay.
16. The time it takes for an ultrasonic

Page 42 Level Measurement

Ultrasound
If the liquid surface is too close to the transmitter face, an echo Activities
is received before the transmitter oscillation decays, which
makes it extremely difficult to detect the echo among other
“noise.” To avoid this situation, manufacturers stipulate a
minimum blanking distance based on the ring-down time of the
transmitter.

The blanking distance can be of use in

commissioning, since it can be set so false echoes
from stand-offs or close false targets can be
effectively ignored.

BEAM ANGLE
Once released into the air, the ultrasonic signal spreads like a 17. Beam angle is defined as the
flashlight beam. Manufacturers generally define the beam ______________ or _______
angle as the half-power point or 3dB point—in other words, the point.
inside of the beam’s “cone” contains half of the transmitted
energy. Much is made of beam angles and the need to keep
them small, but in reality, good software and echo handling
algorithms in the transmitter are far more important.

Figure 2.24: Ultrasonic Beam Angle

17. Half-power or 3dB point

Level Measurement Page 43

Ultrasound
AIR TEMPERATURE Activities
Distance calculations used by ultrasonic transmitters rely on
the speed of sound, but changes in air temperature also change
how quickly sound travels. For this reason, it is customary for
ultrasonic level transmitters to have built-in temperature
measurement capabilities that compensate for temperature
changes.
For certain applications, it is possible to use remote 18. Why does a change in air
temperature sensors where more precise measurement is temperature affect calculations
required or where a faster response is needed to track changes for distance-to-surface when
in ambient air temperature. This is important, for example, in using ultrasound technology?
open channel flow applications where precise level
measurement is required and where the transmitter can be
subjected to extreme changes in air temperature.
A 1 °C change in temperature is the equivalent of a 0.6 m/s change in
the speed of sound, which is equal to a 0.18% change in measured
distance. See Table 2.3 for examples of how this affects distance to
surface at 20 °C and 22 °C.

Air Speed of Distance to

Round Trip
Temperature Sound Surface
343 x (0.020 / 2) =
20 °C 343 m/sec 20 milliseconds
3.43 meters
344.2 x (0.020 /2) =
22 °C 344.2 m/sec 20 milliseconds
3.442 meters

Table 2.3: Affect of Air Temperature on

Ultrasonic Level Measurement

ATTENUATION OF ULTRASONIC SIGNALS 19. When would an ultrasonic

measurement device need a
Ultrasonic signals can be affected by vapors, condensation,
speed of sound correction
foam, and various other factors.
factor?
Vapors
Certain liquids are prone to giving off heavy vapors, which can
cause problems for some ultrasonic transmitters. If the vapor
above the liquid is not homogenous (such as with bitumen,
gasoline, or aviation fuel), the speed of sound travelling
through it is variable and an incorrect level reading will be non-homogenous vapors
calculated. This error can usually be overcome by 19. When a liquid gives off heavy,
programming a speed of sound correction factor. distance calculations
on the air temperature, which affects
18. The speed of sound changes depending

Page 44 Level Measurement

Ultrasound
If the vapor is very attenuative to ultrasound, no echo is Activities
returned. Classic examples of this are carbon dioxide, acetone,
and applications which have high proportions of free chlorine
present.

Condensation
Light condensation on the transmitter face is generally not a
problem, since the movement of the transmiter face during a
transmission tends to encourage any condensation to migrate to
the edges of the face. Heavy condensation is best avoided.

Foam
Liquids with foamy surfaces are difficult for ultrasonic
technology. Ultrasound is in effect a pressure wave and foam
acts like a sponge, absorbing the energy of the wave and giving
little or no echo.
If foam is present, it is frequently transient or there is a
foam-free area around the inlet to the vessel. Correct
positioning of the transmitter above this foam-free area usually
solves the problem.

Turbulence
Turbulent liquid surfaces can also be problematical, but 20. When would you need to use a
generally only if the transmitter is working at the extreme of its stilling tube in conjunction with
measuring range. A stilling tube can minimize excessive an ultrasonic device?
agitation.

agitated
20. When a liquid surface is turbulent or

Level Measurement Page 45

Benefits of Ultrasonic Technology

BENEFITS Activities
T Simple process connections—threaded, flanged or simple 21. True or False? Ultrasonic
mounting brackets transmitters are a good choice
T The ability to measure distance, level, tank volume, and when measuring the level of a
open channel flow sticky liquid such as liquid latex
T They can be used for both measurement and control rubber.
In addition, ultrasonic transmitters:
• Use a non-contacting technology, which is especially
beneficial with liquids that are highly viscous, sticky, or
corrosive and when continuous agitation is required
• Are a lower-cost solution compared to other
non-contact solutions
• Can be and frequently are installed on existing tank
connections
• Allow for a top-mount install, which eliminates the
need to empty the tank before or during installation

Ultrasonic transmitters are widely used in the water

and wastewater utilities sector and general process
industries.

21. True

Page 46 Level Measurement

Pressure Transmitters
Pressure transmitters are the most commonly used technology Activities
for liquid level measurement. They are straightforward, easy to
use and install, and work in a variety of applications and a wide 22. What level-measurement
range of conditions. technology is most commonly
used for liquids?
If a level measurement is being made on an open/vented vessel,
a single gauge (GP) or differential pressure (DP) is required. If
the tank is closed or pressurized, a DP transmitter must be used
to compensate for the vessel pressure.
In addition to basic level measurements, DP transmitters can be 23. List two types of pressure
set up to provide density and interface level measurements. transmitters.

OPEN-VESSEL LEVEL MEASUREMENT

In an open-vessel configuration, the head pressure of the liquid
is measured to infer a level measurement. Any column of liquid
exerts a force at the base of the column because of its own
weight. This force, called hydrostatic pressure or head
pressure, can be measured in pressure units. Hydrostatic
pressure is determined by the following equation:
Hydrostatic Pressure = Height × SpecificsGravity

If the liquid level (height) changes, hydrostatic pressure 24. In an open vessel, a simple head
changes proportionally. Therefore, a simple way to measure measurement is being used to
level is to install a pressure gauge on the holding vessel at the measure the level of liquid. The
lowest level to be measured. The level of the liquid above the hydrostatic pressure will be
measurement point can then be inferred from hydrostatic proportional to the __________
pressure by rearranging the formula above to solve for height of the liquid.
(Figure 2.25):
Pressure
Height = ---------------------------------------------
SpecificGravity

Gauge Reading = 12 psig

Each Foot of Height = 0.43 psig
Height = 12/0.43 = 27.9 ft

12 psig

24. Level
Figure 2.25: Hydrostatic Pressure
transmitters
23. Differential (DP) and gauge
22. Pressure transmitters

Level Measurement Page 47

Pressure Transmitters
Water Column Activities
A common unit of measurement is “inches of water column”
(inH2O). 1 inH2O is the amount of pressure applied by a
one-inch column of water at 68 °F (20.0 °C). Pressure
measurements given in psi can be converted into inH2O. A
reading of 120 inH2O from the high-pressure tap means the
liquid level is 120 inches above that transmitter. If a liquid
other than water is measured, the reading is multiplied by the
specific gravity of the measured liquid to compensate for the
density difference.

Compensation for Transmitter Datum

When using pressure-based technology to measure level, it is 25. List two ways to compensate for
important to consider the height of the transmitter in relation to specific gravity in pressure
the tank geometry. The specific gravity of a wet leg or capillary transmitter measurements.
with fill fluid must be considered when installing and ranging a
pressure transmitter.
For example, consider how the transmitter’s mounting location
impacts the 4 and 20 mA range points. Assume that for an
example application the liquid level in the tank is 100 inches of
water, the maximum level in the tank is 10 feet, and the remote
seal system is filled with DC 200 fill fluid (specific gravity
0.934). If the transmitter is mounted two feet below the process
connection, the transmitter will need to be calibrated from
22.42 to 118.42 inH20. If the transmitter is mounted two feet
above the process connection, the transmitter will need to be
calibrated from -22.42 to 73.48 inH20.
Instrument Toolkit can be used to easily calculate the correct
calibration values for any pressure/remote seal application,
including open tank level measurements.
Figure 2.26 shows a sample screenshot from Instrument
Toolkit. Simply enter the basic installation parameters detailed
in the graphic, and Toolkit will automatically calculate the
proper calibration ranges.

mathematical calculations
25. Measuring the column of water; using

Page 48 Level Measurement

Pressure Transmitters
Calibration setpoints for an open tank configuration are as Activities
follows:
4 mA = (Minimum Level x Process Specific Gravity) –
(Mounting Location x Fill Fluid Specific Gravity)
= (L1 x Process Specific Gravity) – (T – S1) x (Fill Fluid
Specific Gravity)
20 mA = (Max Level x Process Specific Gravity)
– (Mounting Location x Fill Fluid Specific Gravity)
= (L2 x Process Specific Gravity) – (T – S1) x (Fill Fluid
Specific Gravity)

Figure 2.26: Calibration Example

Level Measurement Page 49

Pressure Transmitters
CLOSED-TANK LEVEL MEASUREMENT Activities
If a vessel is pressurized, a single AP or GP transmitter may 26. In pressurized vessels, the
not be adequate, as changes in the overall pressure of the vessel pressure gauge measures not
can affect the accuracy of the level measurement. For example, only the hydrostatic pressure
50 gallons of a certain compressible fluid may correspond to 5 resulting from the height of the
feet in a vented tank (14.7 psi). However, in a closed tank liquid column, but also what?
pressurized to 30 psi, that same 50 gallons may only
correspond to 2.5 feet. To solve this issue, a DP transmitter
should be used in closed tank applications to compensate for
the vessel pressure.

Differential Pressure Transmitter

When a DP transmitter is used, changes in the overall vessel 27. Which level measurement
pressure affect the high- and low-pressure taps of the system is used for pressure
transmitter equally, so the effects of pressure variation are measurement in a closed vessel?
canceled out.
The high-pressure side of the DP transmitter connected near
the bottom of the vessel measures hydrostatic pressure plus
vapor space pressure. The low-pressure side of the DP
transmitter connected near the top of the vessel reads only the
pressure in the vapor space. The difference in pressure between
the process connections (differential pressure) is used to
determine level.
When using DP level-based technology for a closed-vessel 28. When would it be most
application, customers have traditionally used one of three appropriate to use a dry leg
methods: system to measure the level in a
T Dry leg system closed vessel?
T Wet leg system
T Remote seal/capillary system

Wet and Dry Leg Systems 29. True or False? When the gas
above the liquid can condense
In a wet/dry leg configuration, impulse piping is used to
easily in a closed vessel, a wet
connect the DP transmitter to the high and low pressure taps on
leg system is used to measure
the vessel. The user then must fill the low-side impulse piping
level.
with a suitable gas (dry leg) or liquid (wet leg) to endure that a
suitable reference pressure is applied on the low side of the DP
transmitter sensor. Dry leg configurations are used when the
gas in the vapor space of the vessel cannot condense (e.g., 29. True
nitrogen). Wet leg configurations are used when the vapor gas condense
can condense, such as steam. 28. When the gas above the liquid cannot
27. Differential pressure transmitter
26. The pressure above the stored liquid

Page 50 Level Measurement

Pressure Transmitters
In general, wet and dry leg configurations are maintenance- Activities
intensive and should be replaced with remote seal or capillary
systems when possible. Dry legs must be kept free of moisture
and condensation, while wet legs need to be checked and
re-filled to ensure system accuracy.

Remote Seal/Capillary Systems

Remote seal/capillary systems are the preferred configuration 30. What are remote seals?
to use for a DP level measurement, as they eliminate many of
the maintenance and performance issues that exist with wet and
dry leg systems.
Remote seal systems consist of external sensing diaphragm
seals that are connected to the transmitter with oil-filled
capillaries. The oil used in the capillaries is not compressible,
and thus they offer significantly better performance than wet/
dry leg configurations. Additionally, it is a closed system that
requires little maintenance. There are no impulse tubes to fill or
drain, fewer leak points, and drastically better performance.

Transmitter Adjustments
To determine the differential pressures that correspond to zero
and span transmitter adjustments, use the formulae in Table
2.3.

Zero Span
High-Pressure Connection
Head pressure at Lmin = Head pressure at Lmax = inH2O
inH2O produced by distance produced by distance
Y(SG1) (X + Y)(SG1)

Low-Pressure Connection

Head pressure of reference Head pressure of reference leg =

leg = inH2O produced by inH2O produced by distance
distance Z(SG2) Z(SG2)

Differential Pressure

Differential pressure at Lmin = Differential pressure at Lmax =

High – Low High – Low

Table 2.4: Determining Lmin and Lmax Points

(Ranging) the process liquid
transmitter to avoid direct contact with
30. Transmitter extensions that enable the

Level Measurement Page 51

Pressure Transmitters
Wet Leg Calibration Activities

Figure 2.27: Wet Leg Calibration

Where:
T Lmax = 300 in (highest level measured)
T Lmin = 100 in (lowest level measured)
T Y = 50 in (distance between the transmitter datum and
Lmin)
T Z = 275 in (height of reference leg)
T SG1 = 1.0 (specific gravity of liquid in the vessel)
T SG2 = 1.2 (specific gravity of reference liquid in the wet
leg)
The wet leg, though connected to the low side of the DP 31. List the two main objectives of a
transmitter, will always measure a higher pressure than the wet leg calibration.
high side of the DP transmitter because of the height of the wet
leg. Therefore, the differential pressure measurement will be
given in negative numbers.
The objective of the wet leg calibration is to adjust the
transmitter so that the following occur:
T The transmitter output is at its minimum value when the
transmitter measures a differential pressure produced by
liquid level Lmin minus the wet leg pressure. level Lmax
T The transmitter output is at its maximum value when the differential pressure produced by liquid
transmitter measures a differential pressure produced by value when the transmitter measures a
liquid level Lmax minus the wet leg pressure. the transmitter output is at its maximum
level Lmin minus the wet leg pressure;
differential pressure produced by liquid
value when the transmitter measures a
transmitter output is at its minimum
31. To adjust the transmitter so that

Page 52 Level Measurement

Pressure Transmitters
PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS Activities

Process Characteristics
Several process properties must be considered in order to 32. List four process characteristics
obtain the best performance from a pressure transmitter. One that can affect performance.
property is the density of the fluid. Because level is a function
of head pressure and specific gravity, the density of the fluid
must be stable to obtain accurate level measurements. Fluid
density often changes as the fluid’s temperature, concentration,
or composition changes. A second measurement device is
needed to compensate for the density change. In addition, the
fluid must be homogenous. If the fluid is stratified, the
measured density may not be representative of the full quantity
of fluid.
Other process characteristics that could influence the accuracy
of the level measurement are the fluid’s temperature, tendency
to plug connection lines, and corrosiveness.

Transmitter Installation
Pressure transmitters are usually mounted near the bottom of 33. Where are pressure transmitters
the tank, on a side wall, or on the underside of a suspended typically mounted?
tank. Mounting transmitters on outlets or drainage pipes,
especially prior to a pump, can cause a pressure drop when
starting and should be avoided. As long as the transmitters are
slightly recessed from the major impacts of agitation,
bottom-mounted pressure transmitters work well in vessels that
are subject to turbulence from agitation.
Pressure transmitters should be mounted where sediment will 34. List two items that can be used
not build up on the measurement surface. Pressure transmitters to extend a transmitter’s
are immune to foam layers, which generally do not have capability with underground
enough weight to contribute to the pressure measurement. In tanks.
addition, any vapors above the fluid are compensated for in a
DP system and do not interfere with the measurement.
Tank accessibility, particularly for underground tanks, may
require modification in order to use pressure transmitters.
Remote seals and bubblers are two alternatives for extending
the transmitter’s capacity to handle these problems (see 34. Bubblers, remote seals
Bubbler Systems on page 55). tank
wall, on the underside of a suspended
33. Near the bottom of the tank, on a side
tendency to plug connections
32. Density, temperature, corrosiveness,

Level Measurement Page 53

Pressure Transmitters
Activities
Capillary

Pressure Remote Seal

Transmitter

Add Fill Fluid Subtract Fill Fluid

Figure 2.28: Remote Seal Assembly

BENEFITS
In general, pressure transmitters are economical, easy to use,
and are well understood. In addition, pressure transmitters
meet electrical safety requirements as they often have
intrinsically safe electrical components and thus no associated
potential for sparks.

LIMITATIONS
Level measurement accuracy in pressure transmitters can be 35. List three types of fluids that
affected by changes in fluid density. In addition, special require special precautions or
precautions are required with thick, corrosive, or otherwise that should not be used with
hostile fluids. In addition, some fluids (e.g., paper stock) tend pressure transmitters.
to solidify as their concentration increases. Pressure
transmitters do not work well with such solidified states.

their concentration increases

fluids, fluids which tend to solidify as
35. Very thick fluids, caustic or hostile

Page 54 Level Measurement

Bubbler Systems
A bubbler system consists of three main components Activities
(Figure 2.29):
T Dip tube (vertical pipe extending the height of the liquid 36. List the three main components
to be measured) of a bubbler system.
T Air supply and regulator
T Pressure transmitter

100 in

SG=1.1

Figure 2.29: Bubbler System

The dip tube is inserted into the tank so that the end of the pipe 37. The ________________ of the
falls at the minimum desired tank level. Level can only be process fluid is equal to the
measured if the process level covers the bottom of the dip tube. amount of air supply pressure
The bubbler passes a regulated flow of gas (usually air or needed to ________________
nitrogen) through the dip tube and into the process fluid. The through the pipe.
air flow creates bubbles in the process fluid and prevents the
fluid from flowing up into the dip tube.
Fluid viscosity (thickness) is determined by measuring the time 38. Back pressure is proportional to
required for a bubble to rise through the fluid. The head the product ____________.
pressure of the process fluid is equal to the amount of air
supply pressure needed to blow bubbles through the pipe (back
pressure).
A pressure transmitter mounted at the top of the dip tube
measures the back pressure, which is proportional to the
product level in the tank. The higher the level, the greater the
back pressure. 38. Level
37. head pressure; blow bubbles
supply and regulator
36. VDip tube, pressure transmitter, air

Level Measurement Page 55

Bubbler Systems
APPLICATIONS Activities
Bubblers are often used when the application requires that the 39. List three applications in which
process does not contact the measurement device. For example, bubblers are often used.
if the holding vessel is buried, it may be impossible to mount a
transmitter on the vessel’s low-pressure tap. Bubblers may also
be used if the process is too corrosive for even special materials
to handle—that is, materials that usually stand up well to
corrosive processes. Most often, bubblers are used with open
vessels—closed-tank applications have additional
complications when used with bubblers, which should only be
used as a last resort.

BENEFITS 40. Bubbler systems have a

measured range that is limited
Bubbler systems offer the following benefits:
only by the ________________
T Enable the DP transmitter to be a top-down measurement
_____________________.
device, which eliminates direct contact with the process
T Only one tap is required
T Applicable to atmospheric, vacuum, and pressurized
vessels
T Applicable to tanks containing slurries or corrosive or 41. Bubbler systems can / cannot
viscous processes measure density.
T Measured range is limited only by the available air supply
T Can measure density and interface in addition to level
T Measurement device can be relocated to any convenient
location

LIMITATIONS
The following limitations are associated with using bubbler 42. List two things upon which the
systems for level measurement: accuracy of a bubbler system is
T Applicable to pressurized tanks, but only up to the dependent.
pressure of the available air supply
T Accuracy depends on the readability of the pressure
indicator and a constant, repeatable air supply
T Fluid density changes create level measurement errors
T Installation cost (labor) is high
T May not work well in viscous or sticky process fluids that
tend to clog the dip tube
T Regular preventative maintenance is required pressure indicator
T If air supply fails, the process material can enter the dip
42. Repeatable air supply, readability of the
41. Can
tube and damage instrumentation
40. Available air supply
T Exhausted air can pick up volatile materials from the
the process uses open storage vessels
process fluid that should not be released into the product, the process is very corrosive, or
environment 39. When the device does not contact the

Page 56 Level Measurement

Hydrostatic Tank Gauging

Hydrostatic tank gauging (HTG) uses a multipoint system to Activities
measure mass, volume, density, level, and temperature for
liquid inventory and process applications (Figure 2.30).
43. Define hydrostatic head
pressure.

Figure 2.30: Hydrostatic Tank Gauging

MEASUREMENT OPTIONS
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure created by a height of 44. The hydrostatic head pressure
liquid above a given point. HTG works on the principle that the of a column of liquid is directly
hydrostatic head pressure of a column of liquid is directly proportional to the __________
proportional to the height of that column. HTG systems of that column.
provide four basic measurements (mass, density, volume, and
level) using combinations of up to three pressure
measurements and one temperature measurement. The
measuring device sends data to a local tank-side interface unit, 45. In an HTG system, density
where the data is compiled and calculations are completed. cannot be calculated if the
product volume is above /
Mass below the middle transmitter.
Mass is equal to the pressure difference between the bottom
and top transmitters multiplied by the average area of the tank.
The tank area is based on the current product level (determined
by the pressure difference) and strapping table data.

Density
Density is equal to the pressure difference between the middle
and bottom transmitters divided by the distance between them. 45. Below
Density cannot be calculated when the product volume is 44. Height
below the middle transmitter. liquid above a given point
43. The pressure created by the height of a

Level Measurement Page 57

Hydrostatic Tank Gauging

Volume Activities
Volume is equal to the mass measurement divided by the
density measurement.

Level
Level is equal to the difference between the bottom and top 46. Define heel.
pressure measurements divided by the density plus the heel.
The heel is the height of the process fluid from the bottom
transmitter to the floor of the tank.
The head pressure measurement in an HTG system is taken
near the bottom of the tank. Therefore, level errors caused by
roof movements during tank filling and emptying, which are
common with top-down devices, do not exist in HTG.
A top-down pressure transmitter is used in pressurized tanks to
measure static pressure. The static pressure value is used to
correct for static pressure influence in the bottom transmitter. If
the tank is open to atmosphere, the top transmitter is not
needed.

Temperature
A temperature measurement is taken between the bottom and 47. In a tank that is open to
middle pressure transmitters. The temperature measurement, atmosphere, the bottom / top
combined with the product’s measured density and density transmitter is not needed in a
correction factors, is used to calculate standard density and temperature measurement with
standard volume values. an HTG system.

BENEFITS
HTG offers the following benefits:
T Highly accurate on-line direct mass and density
measurements
T Nonintrusive device
T Can be installed without removing the tank from service
T No mechanical parts
T Capable of handling conditions up to 375 °F (190 °C) and
3,000 psi (204 bar)

LIMITATIONS
When using HTG for level measurement, temperature and 47. Top
density stratification and turbulence in the tank can cause tank
bottom transmitter to the floor of the
measurement inaccuracies. If the turbulence is only on the the height of the process fluid from the
surface of the product, it is unlikely to affect the measurement. 46. The reading obtained when measuring

Page 58 Level Measurement

Radar
Radar (radio detection and ranging) technologies transmit a Activities
continuous microwave signal from a radar device mounted on
top of a vessel to the surface of the material held inside. The 48. Explain how radar devices
transmitted signal is reflected back to the device and the gauge measure level.
measures the distance (and determines the level) by
differentiating the transmitted and returned signals. The level
measurement is determined by using the reference height of the
gauge minus the distance to the surface.

Figure 2.31: Radar Level Device

Radar level devices are available in two basic versions: free 49. What are the advantages of
radiating and guided wave. Each type has distinct using radar gauge for level
characteristics that result in their use in different kinds of measurement?
applications.

RADAR ADVANTAGES
Both free radiating and guided wave radar provide a top-down
direct measurement where they measure the distance to the maintenance is minimal
surface. Both can be used with liquids, sludges, slurries, and conditions; it has no moving parts so the
some solids. Radar level devices are ideal for applications affected by changes in process
where a direct measurement is needed. A key advantage of properties; its measurements are not
49. It is insensitive to changes in fluid
radar is that no compensation is necessary for changes in signals.
density, dielectric, or conductivity of the fluid. Changes in between transmitted and returned
pressure, temperature, and vapor space conditions have no determines the level by differentiating
impact on the accuracy of radar measurements. In addition, gauge measures the distances and
The signal is reflected back and the
radar devices have no moving parts so maintenance is minimal. microwave signal to the product surface.
48. They measure level by transmitting a

Level Measurement Page 59

Radar
NON-CONTACTING OR FREE RADIATING RADAR Activities
Free radiating radar sends a signal through the vapor space that
bounces off the surface and returns to the gauge. Because it is
non-contacting, its susceptibility to corrosion is limited and it
is an ideal choice for viscous, sticky, and abrasive fluids. Free
radiating radar can frequently be used in vessels with agitators.
It can be completely isolated from the process and used with
isolation valves. Most vendors offer non-contacting versions
that can be used in applications from 1 to 30 or 40 meters.
Free radiating radar is available using two basic techniques: 50. True or False? High frequency
pulse (time of flight) radar and FMCW, or frequency modulated gauges use larger antenna and
continuous wave. Pulse based radar offers a repeatable beam width as compared to low
measurement and has lower power requirements to make the frequency gauges.
basic measurements. The power requirement for FMCW is
higher than for pulse, but it is also a more robust measurement
and is more accurate.
The frequency ranges of the non-contacting radar can impact 51. What are the advantages of
its performance more than the techniques used. A lower narrow beam width when using
frequency reduces sensitivity to vapor, foam, and the radar gauge for level
contamination of the antenna, whereas a higher frequency measurement?
keeps the radar beam narrow in order to minimize influence
from nozzles, walls, and disturbing objects. Beam width is
inversely proportional to antenna size. The beam width of a
given frequency will decrease as the antenna size increases.
52. Name three things that low
frequency radar gauges are less
sensitive to.

52. Vapor, foam, and corrosion of antenna

types of nozzles
for greater flexibility in choosing the
walls, and disturbing objects; it allows
51. It minimizes the influence from nozzles,
Figure 2.32: Radar 50. False

Page 60 Level Measurement

Radar
Activities
Frequency
(GHz) Antenna Diameter Beam Width

6 6 in (DN 150) 23° (for 3 DB power density)

6 6 in (DN 200) 19° (for 3 DB power density)
10 3 in (DN 80) 25° (for full beam width)
10 4 in (DN 100) 21° (for full beam width)
24 3 in (DN 80) 13.7° (for full beam width)
24 4 in (DN 100) 10.5° (for full beam width)

Table 2.5: Radar Frequency, Antenna

Diameter, and Beam Width

APPLICATION AND INSTALLATION IMPACT ON FREE

RADIATING RADAR
For the free radiating radar, a good installation is the key to 53. True or False? The amount of
success. Free radiating radar needs a clear view of the surface reflected energy from the fluid
with a smooth, unobstructed, unrestricted mounting nozzle. surface is directly dependent on
The measured surface needs to be relatively flat, not slanted. its dielectric constant.
Non-contacting radar gauges can handle agitation, but their
success will depend on a combination of the fluid properties
and the amount of turbulence. Dielectric properties of the
medium and the surface conditions will impact the
measurement. With low dielectric process fluids, much of the
radiated energy is lost to the fluid, leaving very little energy to
be reflected back to the gauge. High dielectric fluids such as
water, alcohols, and most acids reflect 50 to 70% of the energy
back to the gauge. Low dielectric fluids, such as many oils and
solvents, reflect back only a small amount of the energy. A
fluid with a dielectric constant of 4 only reflects back about
10% of the energy. If the surface is turbulent, whether from
agitation, product blending, or splashing, more of the signal is
lost. So a combination of low dielectric fluid and turbulence
can limit the return signal to a non-contacting radar gauge. To
get around this, cages or stilling wells can be used to isolate the
surface from the turbulence.

53. False

Level Measurement Page 61

Radar
Activities

54. Stilling wells can be used to

isolate the surface from
turbulence and thereby _______
the returned signal, especially in
applications where the fluid
dielectric constant is low.

Bypass Cage

Figure 2.33: Stilling Well Free-Radiating Radar

GUIDED WAVE RADAR

Guided wave radar (GWR) is also called time domain 55. Because a portion of energy
reflectometry (TDR) or micro-impulse radar (MIR). GWR continues to travel through low /
sends a low energy pulse down a probe or cable that bounces high dielectric fluids when
off the surface and back to the device. Since the probe guides using guided wave radar, a
the signal in each direction, a lower energy pulse can be used second pulse can be detected
and it has a high signal-to-noise ratio. Because a portion of the from a second surface with a
energy continues to travel through low dielectric fluids, a higher / lower dielectric.
second pulse can be detected from a second surface with a
higher dielectric. This characteristic makes guided wave radar 56. What are the advantages of
a good technique for measuring liquid/liquid interfaces such as using a guided wave radar
oil and water and measuring through some foams. Guided gauge?
wave radar can be used in vessels with tight geometry, smaller
tanks, and long access nozzles. It also works well in low
dielectric, turbulent applications. Because it is not dependent
on reflecting off a “flat” surface, it works well with many
powders and grains as well as liquids with slanted surfaces level as well as interface level
caused by vortices. turbulent applications; it can measure
works well in low dielectric and
geometry; it can measure solids; it
56. It can be installed in tanks with tight
55. Low; higher
54. Increase

Page 62 Level Measurement

Radar
Activities

Figure 2.34: Guided Wave Radar

Application and Installation Conditions’ Impact on GWR

While guided wave radar works in many conditions, it should 57. True or False? Guided wave
not be used in applications with sticky fluids or ones that tend radar should not be used with
to coat heavily. Several probe styles are available and the for measuring the level of a
application, length, and mounting restrictions influence their vessel containing syrup.
choice. Unless a coax-style probe is used, probes should not be
in direct contact with a metallic object, as that will impact the
signal. Applications with layers of sand and sludge do not
impact the general measurement capabilities, just the lower
level limit. Small vessels and vessels with obstacles that inhibit
the use of free radiating radar are ideal places to consider using
guided wave. It also works well in displacer and bypass cages
for both interface and level measurements.
Benefits and Limitations 58. Guided wave radar is ideal for
use in large / small vessels.
While each type of radar has unique advantages, both are
subject to application restraints. Understanding the application
conditions and matching them to the correct type of radar is the
first step to a successful measurement. Beyond that, proper
installation and configuration play key success roles.
58. Small
57. True

Level Measurement Page 63

Radar
APPLICATIONS WITH FOAM Activities
Foam is a condition that is a frequent cause of frustration for
users of radar gauges. The characteristics of foam are partly
dependent upon its source and its dielectric constant, the 59. What type of radar can be used
amount of entrapped air, the size and shape of the bubbles, and in applications where foam is
the overall thickness of the foam layer. The effect of the present?
resulting foam is hard to predict. With some types of foam the
radar signal will be entirely absorbed and there will be no
target to present to the gauge. With other foams, the foam will
be reflective enough to provide a reliable signal, a clear
situation of “try it and see.” Guided wave radar may be a better
alternative than non-contacting. It can cut through some foams
that stop the free radiating radar.

59. Guided wave radar

Page 64 Level Measurement

Hybrid Inventory Systems

Hybrid inventory systems combine the advantages of an HTG Activities
system with those of a radar system to provide a complete
system for precise measurements of level, volume, density, and 60. A hybrid inventory system has a
mass. An average temperature measurement can also be highly accurate ____________
made.In hybrid inventory systems, a highly accurate radar level __________ at the top of the
gauge is located at the top of the holding vessel to measure vessel and a ______________
level. A pressure transmitter is mounted near the bottom of the ___________ at the bottom of
vessel to measure the head pressure of the product the vessel.
(Figure 2.35).

Figure 2.35: Hybrid Inventory System

MEASUREMENT OPTIONS
Level
In a radar hybrid inventory system, the radar unit measures 61. In a radar hybrid inventory
product level by determining the distance from the surface of system, level is calculated by
the product to the radar device. Level is calculated by subtracting the distance
subtracting the distance measurement from the height of the measurement from the
mounted radar device. ___________ of the mounted
radar device.

61. Height
60. Radar level gauge; pressure transmitter

Level Measurement Page 65

Hybrid Inventory Systems

Volume Activities
Strapping tables reflecting the tank’s shape and level/volume
relationships are incorporated into the electronics of the radar
device (see Strapping Tables on page 11). Using the level
measurement, the volume of the material can then be
computed.
Density 62. What two readings from a radar
gauge are used to determine
The pressure transmitter measures the head pressure exerted by
density?
the height of the product in the vessel. Pressure is equal to the
height of a product multiplied by the product’s specific gravity.
Therefore, the density of the material can be determined from
the head pressure reading and the level reading provided by the
radar gauge. The resulting density value of this calculation is
representative of the entire height of product.

Mass
Once level, volume, and density are determined, mass can be 63. What three factors do you need
derived. Because the density of the entire product is to calculate a product’s mass?
represented, the mass measurement is more accurately
represented than with a traditional level system.

Temperature
A good temperature measurement is critical for correcting
density and volume back to standard values (60 °F, 15 °C).
Standardization can be accomplished using a multipoint or
averaging temperature probe incorporated into the hybrid
system. Using the level measurement as a guide, only that
portion of the sensor covered by the product is used for an
accurate average temperature.

63. Level, volume, and density

reading
62. Head pressure reading and the level

Page 66 Level Measurement

Hybrid Inventory Systems

BENEFITS Activities
Using hybrid inventory systems for level measurement offers
the following benefits:
T Highly accurate level, density, mass, and volume
measurements
T Can be installed without removing the tank from service
T Radar unit can be used with or without a stilling well
T Conditions up to 375 oF (190 oC) and 150 psi (10 bar)
T Optional average temperature measurement
T Good for density-stratified products
T Can be used for mass, density, and volume measurement
of liquids

COMPLETE WORKBOOK EXERCISE 2.6 ON PAGE 76

Level Measurement Page 67

Workbook Exercises
Note: All exercise answers are located at the end of this module.

EXERCISE 2.1 — WHY MEASURE LEVEL?

1. Match each level-measurement application to the correct scenario.

___ Inventory a) During open-heart surgery, a patient’s blood is circulated

through a heart-lung machine. The level of blood in the reservoir
must remain at a certain level to ensure a steady blood flow to
the patient.
___ Custody transfer b) A master brewer for a large brewery wants to know how much
beer is currently in the storage tanks.
___ Efficiency c) A chemical manufacturer must store the hazardous waste in
underground tanks. The manufacturer must ensure that the waste
does not overflow from the storage tanks.
___ Safety d) A food and beverage company wants to ensure that it is filling
storage tanks to their full capacity so it does not have to spend
additional money on vessels.
___ Consistent supply e) A petroleum supplier needs to ensure that customers are charged
correctly, according to the quantity of product pumped from a
storage tank to a tanker truck.

Level Measurement Page 69

Workbook Exercises
EXERCISE 2.2 — LEVEL TERMINOLOGY
1. In the tank shown below:

The product level is ______ feet. It is ______ percent full and the product level is _____ percent of
measured span.

a) 5 a) 48% a) 10%
b) 10 b) 50% b) 17%
c) 20 c) 60% c) 20%

Page 70 Level Measurement

Workbook Exercises
2. Match the measured level to its corresponding volume. Use either mathematical calculation
(1 cubic feet = 7.481 gallons) or the strapping table below as necessary.
___ 5,431 a) 8 ft of product in a vertical cylinder where r = 30 ft and h = 20 ft
___ 169,130 b) Product level at point 8 in Tank A
___ 313 c) 5.3 ft of product in a spherical tank where r = 10 ft

Volume
Point Level (in) (gallons)

1 0 0
2 5 10
3 10 32
4 15 68
5 20 115
6 25 173
7 30 230
8 35 313
9 40 394
10 100 957

Level Measurement Page 71

Workbook Exercises
EXERCISE 2.3—DEVICE CHARACTERISTICS
1. Match the level measurement to its correct description. (Options can be chosen more than once.)

___ Bottom-up a) The measuring instrument does not contact the process fluid.
___ Top-down b) The measuring instrument directly contacts the process fluid.
___ Direct c) An oil dipstick is an example of this level measurement
technology.
___ Indirect d) Pressure transmitters are of this technology.
___ Contacting e) Mass (or some other variable) is measured to determine level.
___ Non-contacting f) The measuring device is installed at the top of the tank and it
may or may not make contact with the product.

1. Match the level measurement to its correct description.

___ Continuous a) A toilet tank float is an example of this level measurement
technology.
___ Single point b) Two or more single-point level measurement devices are used.
___ Multipoint c) This level measurement technology is also called an open-loop
control system.
___ Indication d) This level measurement technology is used for precise control.

Page 72 Level Measurement

Workbook Exercises
EXERCISE 2.4—LEVEL MEASUREMENT DEVICE SELECTION
1. If a precise level measurement is required at all times during the process, which device should be
selected?

a) A continuous level measurement device that will provide a measurement output that reflects
changes in level throughout the process.
b) A single point level measurement device.
c) A multipoint level measurement device.
d) A dipstick.

2. If a rough indication of product level is required, which level measurement devices could be
selected? (Select all that apply.)
a) A low-cost continuous level measurement device that provides a reasonably reliable
measurement.
b) An electronic non-contacting device that provides very accurate level measurement.
c) A pressure transmitter, capacitance probe, or any level measurement device that provides visual
indication of product level.
d) A single point level measurement device is sufficient to measure the level in this case.

3. What level measurement devices would you recommend if the primary use of the level
measurement was to prevent spills? (Select all that apply.)

a) A point level measurement technology that triggers an alarm when the level reaches the top of
the tank.
b) A low-cost electronic continuous level measurement device that provides a reasonably accurate
indication of level.
c) Any level measurement device that provides a visual indication of product level.
d) A direct measurement device such as radar.

Level Measurement Page 73

Workbook Exercises
4. Given that high pressure (up to 5,000 psi) and high temperature (300–1000 °F) conditions exist
within a vessel, what is the appropriate level measuring technology?
a) A non-contact radar gauge
b) A pressure transmitter
c) A nuclear device
d) An ultrasonic device

5. What level measurement device is appropriate if a tank is glass-lined and located underground?
a) A radar gauge
b) A nuclear device
c) A pressure transmitter with remote seals

6. The customer should consider a(n) ___ technology such as _

when measuring the level of a product that is highly viscous and sticky.
a) Intrusive a) Nuclear
b) Bottom-up b) Radar
c) Non-contacting c) Capacitance

7. What is the recommended technology for asphalt level measurement?

a) A top-down, contacting technology
b) A bottom-up, non-coating technology
c) Contacting radar

8. Given that repeatability is more important than accuracy, a pressure transmitter would be a good
low-cost solution when measuring the level of a product with a relatively constant density.
a) True
b) False

Page 74 Level Measurement

Workbook Exercises
EXERCISE 2.5—CLASSIFYING LEVEL TECHNOLOGIES
1. Match each level measurement device classification to the corresponding level measurement
device.

___ Manual / Mechanical a) Devices in this category, such as a capacitance probe,

have no moving parts.
___ Electromechanical b) Devices in this category never touch the process and they
have no moving parts.
___ Electronic contacting c) Devices in this category, such as a sight glass, have no
electronic output.
___ Electronic non-contacting d) Devices in this category have a number of moving parts
that produce an electronic output for control.

Level Measurement Page 75

Workbook Exercises
EXERCISE 2.6—ROSEMOUNT TECHNOLOGIES
1. A customer wants to monitor inventory in a petroleum application. Select the choice below that is
not an advantage of a hybrid inventory system.

a) Hybrid inventory systems have no moving parts; this results in better reliability and less
maintenance.
b) In addition to measuring the level and the volume (also provided by a servo system), a hybrid
inventory system measures density and mass.
c) Hybrid inventory systems use strapping tables to compensate for the tank’s shape in volume
calculations.
d) Hybrid inventory systems use only non-contact measurement devices.

2. Your customer wants to measure level in an outdoor storage tank. Currently, the customer keeps
track of inventory based on mass and thus must use the level measurement to calculate mass. First,
the customer converts level measurements to volume using a look-up table that relates level to
volume. The customer then needs to know the product density to find mass (D x V = M). You
would use the following statement to sell hydrostatic tank gauging (HTG) to this customer:

“HTG will determine _______________ directly and provide the added benefit of calculating
volume, ______________, and level. Changes in product ________________ are automatically
compensated for in all measurements.”

a) Pressure a) Temperature a) Temperature

b) Temperature b) Density b) Density
c) Mass c) Pressure c) Volume

Page 76 Level Measurement

Workbook Exercises
3. A customer wants to measure level in a storage vessel. Currently, the customer travels halfway
across a 4-acre property to read the gauge. This customer does not require high accuracy and does
not have much money to spend on an upgrade.

Which of the following are valid reasons for the customer to opt for a pressure transmitter? (Select
all that apply.)

a) A low-cost pressure transmitter provides a level indication that can be read remotely.
b) The reading of the pressure transmitter is not affected by product density changes.
c) Level readings can be obtained without leaving the office.
d) The 4–20 mA signal from the transmitter can be brought back to a control system or to an
indicator in the control room.

4. In free-radiating radar technology, what are the advantages of a gauge that operates at high
frequency (26 GHz)? (Select all that apply.)

a) It has a more focused beam and a greater ability to avoid obstructions

b) Smaller antenna that achieves a stronger signal
c) There is flexibility in the mounting location
d) It works well in applications with thick layers of foam

5. Low-frequency radar gauges are more sensitive to vapor, foam, and contamination of the antenna.

a) True
b) False

Level Measurement Page 77

Workbook Exercises
6. A manager of a soft drink plant wants to measure the level of liquid in tanks for inventory
purposes. He believes that radar technologies are too expensive, difficult to install, and take up too
much valuable tank space.

Which of these advantages would help convince the manager to use radar technology? (Select all
that apply.)

a) It can measure level as well as interface level

b) It can be used in an inventory tank gauging system
c) It works well in low-di-electric and turbulent applications
d) It can be installed even in tanks with tight geometry

Page 78 Level Measurement

Workbook Answers
Exercise 2.1—Why Measure Level?

1. Match each technology or device to the correct description.

b Inventory
___ a) During open-heart surgery, a patient’s blood is circulated
through a heart-lung machine. The level of blood in the reservoir
must remain at a certain level to ensure a steady blood flow to
the patient.
e Custody transfer
___ b) A master brewer for a large brewery wants to know how much
beer is currently in the storage tanks.
d
___ Efficiency c) A chemical manufacturer must store the hazardous waste in
underground tanks. The manufacturer must ensure that the waste
does not overflow from the storage tanks.
c
___ Safety d) A food and beverage company wants to ensure that it is filling
storage tanks to their full capacity so it does not have to spend
additional money on vessels.
a
___ Consistent supply e) A petroleum supplier needs to ensure that customers are charged
correctly, according to the quantity of product pumped from a
storage tank to a tanker truck.

Exercise 2.2—Level Terminology

1. a, b, b
2. b, c, a

Exercise 2.3—Device Characteristics

1. Match the level measurement to its correct description. (Options can be chosen more than once.)
b,
___d Bottom-up a) The measuring instrument does not contact the process fluid.
f Top-down
___ b) The measuring instrument directly contacts the process fluid.
c Direct
___ c) An oil dipstick is an example of this level measurement
technology.
e,___
d Indirect d) Pressure transmitters are of this technology.
b, c,
___d Contacting e) Mass (or some other variable) is measured to determine level.
a Non-contacting
___ f) The measuring device is installed at the top of the tank and it
may or may not make contact with the product.

Level Measurement Page 79

Workbook Answers
2. Match the level measurement to its correct description.
d Continuous
___ a) A toilet tank float is an example of this level measurement
technology.
a Single point
___ b) Two or more single-point level measurement devices are used.
b Multipoint
___ c) This level measurement technology is also called an open-loop
control system.
c Indication
___ d) This level measurement technology is used for precise control.

Exercise 2.4—Level Measurement Device Selection

1. a
2. a, c
3. a, d
4. c
5. a
6. c, b
7. a
8. a

Exercise 2.5—Classifying Level Technologies

1. Match each level measurement device classification to the corresponding level measurement
device.

c Manual / Mechanical
___ a) Devices in this category, such as a capacitance probe,
have no moving parts.
d Electromechanical
___ b) Devices in this category never touch the process and they
have no moving parts.
a Electronic contacting
___ c) Devices in this category, such as a sight glass, have no
electronic output.
b Electronic non-contacting
___ d) Devices in this category have a number of moving parts
that produce an electronic output for control.

Page 80 Level Measurement

Workbook Answers
Exercise 2.6—Level Technologies
1. d
2. c, b, b
3. a, c, d
4. a, b, c
5. b
6. a, b, d
7. b

Level Measurement Page 81

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