INSTRUMENTS

Pressure
• Aneroid capsule/pressure diaphragm used for
- Low pressure fuel pump
- Intake pressure of gas turbine engine powerplant
- Manifold pressure gauge
• Bellows sensor used for
- Cabin differential pressure
- Fuel pressure gauge
- Manifold pressure
• Bourdon tube/transducer measures hydraulic pressure
• Manifold pressure is absolute pressure in intake near inlet valve
• 1 BAR = 15 psi = 1000hpa or 100000 PASCAL

Temperature
• SAT = TAT – (Ram rise x Kr)
SAT = RAT ÷ [1+ (0.2 x Kr x M2)]
SAT = TAT ÷ [1+ (0.2 x M2)]
• Ratiometer: Operates without SUPPLY VOLTAGE*
• Bimetallic thermometers
- Based on iron & brass having different coefficients of linear expansion
- - 50°c to 400°C
• Thermocouple
- Temperature increase voltage increase
- Uses thermoelectric effect to measure differential temperature

Fuel measurement
• Electric float: Simple, independence of power supply voltage if made of ratiometer
• Integrating fuel flow with respect to time
• Mechanical fuel flow meter: Spring loaded vane

Tachometer
• Measures angular speed
• Transmitter fitted with magnetic sensor connected to an RPM indicator: Permanent magnet rotating in a non-
magnetic cup, AC converted to square pulses
• Magnetic tachometer: Permanent magnet rotating inside a non-magnetic cup
• Mechanical: Shaft rotates magnet in drag cup
• Electronic: Inductive probe/notched wheel rotating in a magnetic field. Uses magnetic sensor, Disadvantage:
Needs power supply
• Electrical: Uses generator, magnet rotor, principle of measuring rotation speed of a synchronous motor
energized by an alternator
1. DC generator:
- Advantage: Easy transmission, independent of power supply
- Disadvantage: Spurious signals
2. Single phase:
- Advantage: Suppression of spurious signals due to D.C, independent of power supply, simple design, no
influence of temperature
- Disadvantage: Suffers line resistance, transmission problems
3. 3 Phase: Consists of generator, synchronous motor turning drag cup & magnetic tachometer. Frequency
varies with RPM. (Most common)
4. Electrical induction:
- Advantage: Not sensitive to line resistance, independent of power supply, can use several indicators
connected in parallel to a single transmitter
- Disadvantage: Affected by temperature variations
 - Rotation speed of an asynchronous motor energized by alternator
FADEC
• Flow regulation, auto start, engine data transmission to cockpit, management/protection of engine limits, thrust
reverser operations, auto thrust but no auto shutdown, no airspeed or yaw modification
• Flexible take-off: Where full power not required, increasing engine life. By selecting higher ambient air temp for
reduced power. Conditions: Low take-off mass, low OAT, high atmospheric pressure
• EPR inlet blocked, indications over reads, EPR = Quotient of pressure at exhaust & compressor inlet
Turbine exhaust ÷ compressor inlet
• Engine speed displayed with % value of max RPM e.g. N1(% RPM value of LP spool), N2(Second spool)
• N1 can be greater than 100%

Torque meter (16119,25057)

• Torque (Nm) measured by:
1. Measuring change in phase between torque & reference shaft
2. Total twist of engine output shaft over a known distance
3. Oil pressure at the fixed crown of a reducer of the main engine gearbox
• Electronic torque meter: Increase in power causes twisting of the torque shaft
• Oil/Hydraulic torque meter uses helical cut gears & torque proportional to axial load
• Torque = Power ÷ RPM
Torque = Force x Distance/lever arm
Power = Work done ÷ time
Power = Torque x Angular velocity

Synchroscope
• Measures difference in output frequencies of both alternators connected to gear box
• Master engine is outer left engine
• Uses piezo-electric crystals or magnets, 2 accelerometers
• Magnetic chip detectors: Warn of impending failure
• Reduces structural vibration & noise, set several engines to the same speed, does not synchronize but does
reduce fuel consumption

Altimeter
• Pressure in cabin less than outside due to aerodynamic suction static pressure is less, so altimeter thinks that
you are higher so it over-reads
• Blocked static port, capsule senses lower pressure, thus ASI & altimeter over reads at high speed/sideslip
• HYSTERISIS(lag) error: varies with time passed at given altitude
• Electromagnetic pick-off makes the altimeter more accurate, vibration motor reduces friction
• Density altitude: Altitude of standard atmosphere on which density is equal to the actual density of the
atmosphere
• QNH = Equivalent sea level pressure at the airfield

VSI
• Accuracy between +50°C & -20°C : +/- 200ft
• Uses correction based on an accelerometer sensor, acceleration pump
• Pressure inside capsule drops faster than inside the case

Airspeeds/ASI
• ECTM
• Mach no: TAS/LSS
• LSS: 38.95 x √OAT (In kelvin)
• During pitot LEAK (NOT blocked) sensed dynamic pressure reduces, ASI UNDEREADS
• Inside capsule is total pressure & inside case is static pressure
• During take-off if question mentions altitude, answer is CAS speed constant, if not EAS
• Compressibility taken into account for aircraft moving more than 200 knots
• TAS = IAS + 10%
• IAS: Remains unchanged in head/tail wind
• V MO : Maximum operating speed Calculated from EAS, displayed as CAS, second striped needle
• V NO : Maximum structural cruising speed, not to be exceeded except in still air
• V LE : Speed with landing gear down
• V LO : Landing gear operation speed
• V SO – V FE (White) V S1 – V NO (Green) V NO – V NE (Yellow/Structural warning range) [SOFE SINO NONE]
• Square law compensation: The differential pressure of the air increases with the square of airspeed

ADC
• Does not determine true altitude
• Output peripheral: EFIS screen (e.g. SAT, altitude all indicated on EFIS)
• AOA sensor made of potentiometer, protected by icing electrically. A vane detector/conical probe only

Magnetism
• Heading change: (Bank angle + latitude) ÷ 2
• Difference between Compensation: Correct for deviation (CoCo)
Calibration: Determines residual deviations (CaRe)
• Compass deviation card/compass swinging curve: Notes residual deviation after swinging
• Quadrantal deviation: Fixed by pairs of permanent magnets. Cause: Soft iron pieces influenced by geomagnetic
field
• Agonic: 0 variation
• Aclinic: 0 dip
• Dip: Angle between compass needle & horizontal component
• Line of latitude: Same magnetic dip
• ANDS, UNOS, FEAT
• Flux: 3 pickup coils fed with AC, accuracy less than 0.5%, deviation compensation in remote reading
magnetic/indicating compass done mechanically, flux fed to stator in the slaved gyro control (error detector)
• Compass & CDI uses electrical power
• Attraction/repulsion force varies inversely as the square of distance between magnets
• Compass in question, compass in answer

Gyroscopes
• Mechanical gyro uses: Electrical or vacuum gyro
• Vacuum operated gyro: Uses pendulous unit for automatic erection of gyro, air flow reaction
• Precession: A 90° REACTION caused by BEARING FRICTION , force applied on a spinning rim in the same
direction or 180° with the axis of rotation
• Rigidity: TENDENCY to REMAIN in axis of rotation
• TL1: Spin axis parallel to pitch axis & lateral axis uses rate gyro, return spring
- Rate 1 turn : Bank angle = (TAS ÷ 10) + 7 or 15% IAS
- Bank angle CONSTANT, rate turn INVERSELY proportional to airspeed
- ROT indicators keywords: Change rate of HEADING/YAW about VERTICAL AXIS
• AV2: Uses gravity erector (Three axis data generator), uses electrical servos fed from a gyroscopic reference
• DH2: Doesn’t spin on vertical axis on equator
• FEAT/Gyromagnetic compass same as DH2
- SLAVED/GYROMAGNETIC (Uses FEAT) VS CONVENTIONAL (Uses DRMC) directional indicators
- Annunciator/amplifier: Synchronize magnetic & gyro compass elements, checks operation of slaving loop
- LEVELLING ERECTION TORQUE MOTOR (Keywords for ANSWERS, if not, torque on sensitive axis)
• Drift = 15 x sin latitude, right NH/CW & left SH/CCW
Drift – Horizontal, Topple – Vertical
• Rate gyro: Turn coordinator
• Rate integrating gyro: Inertial attitude unit & inertial navigation unit
• ERRORS: (A red warning flag)
Apparent wander/Earth rate: Rotation of earth – Reduced by latitude NUT
Real wander: Instrument error/mechanical defects
Transport wander: Airplane/gyro motion relative to earth, aircraft position/meridian change, depends on GS
Gimbal error: Lateral & transversal bank/pitch angles
Track error = (Distance covered ÷ 60) x Average drift
ADI
• Mechanical: Uses VACUUM GYRO, PENDULOUS VANE (AIR flow reaction), electrical servos fed from a
gyroscopic reference
• Electrical: VERTICAL axis 2 mercury levelling switches & 2 torque motors
• AIR DRIVEN INDICATORS:
0º : Climb, bank low
180º: Climb, bank correct
270º: Climb, bank high
360º: All correct
Acceleration: Climb
Deceleration: Descent

AHRS (Glass cockpit)

• Lower weight, size, cost, higher accuracy & reliability
• MEMs tech, piezo-electric gyros,
• Provides horizontal & vertical components of magnetic field
• Uses 3 gyros

INS
• Accuracy decreases exponentially
• DSR TK/STS: Desired track & status
TK/GS: Track & ground speed
HDG/DA: Heading & drift angle
XTK/TKE: Cross track distance & track error angle
• ADC (Air data computer) supplies wind velocity, TAS
• Errors: Either 1.5NM or between 0.5 – 2NM
Aircraft manoeuvres, earth rotation, transport wander & coriolis
• Gyroscopic drift is main error source
• Cumulative TRACK error from initial misalignment error & wander
• Cumulative DISTANCE error from wander in the levelling gyros & second stage integrations
• Alignment:
- After alignment output data from INS computer is rate corrections to gyros
- Battery test takes place
- 20 mins
• Also gives attitude & sideslip

IRS
• Alignment:
- Aligned in ALIGN or NAV mode
- Calculate/computed/measured TRIHEDRON with respect to earth
- Only accelerometers are used for alignment phase
- 3 – 10 mins
• Dither motor to prevent low rates of rotation
• Uses electrical power
• Magnetic variation is stored in IRS memory
• Errors: 0.5NM or less
• Laser gyro works on the principle of frequency difference between two laser beams/light waves rotating in
opposite directions
• Drift is main error
• ADIRU: IRS connected to ADC

Autopilot
• Autopilot law:
- Computer input deviation data & output control deflection signal
- Regulator processes difference between target & corrected actual value
• Basic auto pilot law:
- Speed along track & wings horizontal
• Inner loop:
- PITCH attitude & ROLL [wings level* keyword]
- Stabilization function: Closed control loop between FMC & actuator
- Aircraft stabilisation about its COG (One axis per loop).
- Servomechanism: Closed loop controls small power inputs to much larger output proportionately
• Outer loop: Guidance/command/path along a 3D path,
- (NO PITCH/ROLL ATTITUDE/HORIZONTAL WING HOLDING/BANK/WINGS LEVEL)
• Disengage AP: Pitch trim
Engage AP: Synchronisation
• FBW: How pilot’s control demands are translated into control surface movements
• FBW software better than FMS software
• AFCS: Parallel actuators, passes to pilot via stick position
• DOES NOT include EFIS, DOES NOT use GPS, FMS uses GPS to update position
• SPD/PTH* mode: Enables vertical path & speed

Auto land, auto approach

• AUTOMATIC APPROACH :Pilot performs GA, autopilot does not monitor GA
• AUTOLAND/AUTOMATIC LAND : Autopilot performs GA, Pilot monitors GA
• ROLL-OUT mode: Controls rudder to keep on centreline

Auto-trim
• Hydraulically controlled screw jack, AP disengagement

Mach trim
• Operates above a predetermined mach number

Yaw damper
• Uses rate gyro or accelerometer
• YAW DAMPERS: Signal varies INVERSELY

FEP
• Automatically ROLLS aircraft level for stall and over-speed protection
• Uses AOA, pitch attitude & speed inputs
• Protects bank angle, angle of attack, speed, pitch attitude, OVERSPEED & STALL, VMO/MMO limits
• Produce pitch up signal
• No auto manoeuvres, idling of power, pitch trim inhibiting
• Autothrust protects FEP via reversion modes

Auto-throttle
• Cannot hold N2
• Take-off:
- Autothrottle: N1 holding
• Landing:
- Autothrottle: IAS holding
• Climbing/altitude hold mode:
- Autopilot: Vertical speed/altitude hold mode
- Autothrottle: IAS holding mode
- N1 automatically adjusted
• IAS & MACH holding mode: (Opposite of above)
- Autopilot pitch channel in climb mode at constant IAS/MACH
- Autothrottle in altitude/glide path holding mode
• Overspeed & underspeed protection
• NOT used for engine start. FADEC provides that
• Engine thrust controlled by mode commands from the flight crew or FMC

Voice/data-link communications & FANS

• ACARS (Aircraft communications & addressing systems) :
- On-board & ground units : ATC/AOC/AAC (Airline administrative control)
- DATALINK: Transmit & receive from HF, VHF & SATCOM
• FANS (Future air navigation sys) : Communications, navigation & surveillance
- CPDLC(Controller pilot data link communications)
- ADS(Automatic dependent surveillance) : Periodic, on demand & on event
- FANS-A uses ACARS
• North pole communications: HF frequency
• Aircraft Condition Monitoring System (ACMS): Includes data management unit, recording device & printer

FMS
• Difference between 5 APLHANUMERICS & LETTERS inputs
• Performance factor/cost index (Operating ÷ Fuel cost) keywords : AIRCRAFT AGE & FUEL
- COST INDEX = Aircraft OPERATING COST ÷ FUEL COST
- High cost index: High airspeed & high trip fuel
- Low cost index: Minimum trip fuel, max range airspeed
• IDENT-POS INIT-RTE-PERF INIT-TAKEOFF REF (IPRPT) – I pick roses part time
• Approved for NPA (Non – ILS/MLS), NPA error 95% and 0.3NM
• RTA (Required time of arrival) – Provides speed target to satisfy time constraint
• LOC used for navigation, but NOT COMMON
• No oxygen or MSA parameters
• Magnetic variation stored in NAV database , but NOT DISPLAYED
• Progress/Leg/Plan mode: Does NOT display FMS POSITION
• AUTOTUNE: Auto tunes frequencies of VOR/DME, NOT for communications
• One master and one slave
• Updated on software update
• FMC displays
- Position between mean inertial position & radio fix position
- Most inaccurate position during top of descent
• Dual mode: FMCs operate independently but exchange data
• Single mode: One FMC supplies both pilot’s CDU & EFIS
• ALTN mode: CDU/EFIS connects to other computer
• VNAV: Pitch angle, speed target, vertical speed (No such thing as vertical acceleration)
• LNAV: Roll angle/heading target
• Offset function: Flying along flight plan legs with constant left/right offset manually entered

MFDU
• When radio updating unavailable (via GPS) a warning message shown on EHSI & MFDU
• Insufficient fuel: Insufficient fuel to reach diversion after a go around

EFIS
• Main purpose display electronic ADI & HSI
• Contains photo diode for light sensor
• EGT parameters: Instantaneous, max take-off, max start, max cont EGT (You can’t command EGT)
• Flight path vector (FPV) : Displays glide angle
• CRT generates a lot of heat
• LCD has limited viewing angle
• ALTN position, CDU & EFIS switch to alternate computer
• Commanded values are in magenta
• No indication of admissible fuel flow
EICAS (Engine indicating & crew alerting system)
• STATUS page needs to be selected manually & provides information on lower screen
• N1 shown as present, commanded & limit

ECAM (Electronic centralised aircraft monitor)

• Engine, hydraulics and wheels
• Upper & lower screens showing primary & secondary engine parameters
• ECAM failure: Light only

Flight warning systems

• Receives, categorises & displays the status of the aircraft systems
• 1) Warning: Immediate recognition & correction is required (RED)
2) Caution: Immediate crew awareness & subsequent action will be required (AMBER)
3) Advisory: Crew awareness & subsequent action may be required
• Priority: Stall – Wind shear – GPWS – TCAS
Stall protection system: Stick pushers: Protects WITHOUT pilot action requirement
Stall warning systems: Stick shakers (Inputs: AOA & flaps/slats positions ONLY)
Activates at 5% CAS or 5kts whichever greater

Take-off warning
• Aural warning when aircraft stabiliser/trim/flaps are not within approved range for take-off, parking brake still
set. Nothing to do with elevator.
• Longitudinal trim, flaps, speed brakes, parking brakes & stabiliser (NOT elevator)

Altitude alerting
Approaching altitude during climb/descent & deviation from preselected altitude

Radio altimeter:
• 4200-4400MHz, 6.9 cm SHF, range = 2500ft, Frequency modulated (FM)
• Supplies TCAS,GPWS & Auto-land
• Low alt RA: CENTRIMETRIC wavelengths SHF
High alt RA: DECIMETRIC wavelengths
• Two directional aerials, one for transmission another for reception
• Precision: +/- 20ft between 0 & 500ft

TCAS
• Uses transponders, indicates collision avoidance manoeuvre in vertical plane
• Antennae is directional & separate from transponder
• Inputs: Flap/gear position, pressure alt from Mode C & height from RA
• CORRECTIVE RA: Pilot must modify vertical speed of aircraft
PREVENTIVE RA: Pilot must keep the vertical speed, avoid changing
• Anti-collision logic is based on TIME
• Other aircraft position/BEARING based on DIRECTIONAL ANTANNAE
• RAs have priority over ATC
• At least mode C for 3D TA & RA
• At least mode A for 2D, detect aircraft and provides TA, but NO RA
• Mode S gives datalink info to coordinate RA
• Data-link provided by mode S is used for evasive manoeuvres
• Resolution advisory – Red full square
Traffic advisory – Amber full circle
Proximate/ close traffic advisory– White/Cyan full diamond
Others – White/Cyan empty diamond
• Arrows indicate if climbing or descending at a rate of 500ft/min
• Positive indicates above, negative indicates below
• Reversal RA: Occurs after a change of TCAS advisory due to lack of spacing
• WARNING:RED Immediate crew awareness and action IS required
CAUTION: AMBER Immediate crew awareness is required, and subsequent crew action WILL BE required
ADVISORY: GREEN/WHITE Immediate crew awareness is required, and subsequent crew action MAY BE required

GPWS
• Modes:
- SEND : SINKRATE,PULL UP
- THE : TERRAIN,PULL UP
- DUCK : DON’T SINK
- TO : TOO LOW FLAPS, TOO LOW GEAR, TOO LOW TERRAIN
- GO : GLIDESLOPE
- BUY : BANK ANGLE
- WINE : WINDSHEAR
• Colours used : RED, MAGENTA, GREEN, AMBER
• WARNING: Gives alert 20 – 30 seconds before hitting obstacle
CAUTION: Gives alert 40 – 60 seconds before hitting obstacle
• Operating height 0 – 2500ft (Same as radio altimeter)
• Required by turbojet & turboprop aircraft
• EPGWS:
- Enhanced, uses electronic map of the world, terrain clearance floor, look ahead alerting & display
- Can’t predict wind-shear, only warns when it happens
- If computed aircraft position inaccurate, only terrain display will diverge from real terrain environment,
colours used: RGBY
• MUST have at least SOUND alarm, VISUAL MAY be added

TAWS
• Must be connected to 4D FMS for positional accuracy forward looking terrain avoidance

CVR
• 30 minutes recording time
• Functions: Auto/on, test & erase, & a head jack
• Does not record cabin crew communications

FDR
• 25 hours recording time
• Functions: Event button, mark is set on recording
• 8 flights can be flown before it is repaired
• Memory chip or magnetic tape (Chips & tape)
• Parameters: FDR capacity & operational requirements

Computers
• Basic “Von Neumann”: A processing unit, a single storage structure to hold both instructions & data, an
ARITHMETIC and logic unit (ALU) & control unit
• Multitasking (Software): Multiple tasks share common resources
Multiprocessing (Hardware): Two or more CPUs used in computer
- BUS: Transfers data between components
- Parallel bus provides simultaneous different data
- Control unit (Do NOT mistake for CPU): Sequencing & coordination of operations
- ALU(Arithmetic logic unit): Performs basic operations
- CPU: Consists of ALU, control unit & registers, communicates to memory via control, address & data BUS
- Memory: Holds DATA AND INSTRUCTIONS (NO CACHE MEMORY)
• Binary: 1000 = 23+02+01+00
 101010 = 25+04+23+02+21+00
• Safety levels: 5 levels: Levels A – E, Level A most catastrophic
• FBW systems have higher certifications than FMS
• Assembly language: Used for performance execution
• Software for ATSU/Aircraft on board computers: RTCA/DO-178B
• EUROCAE: Certifies electronic documentation on aircraft e.g. approach plates
• Onboard documents (Company charts/info) not certified
OS use for on board documents (IPAD/ANDROID) need NO certification