Horngren’s Cost Accounting: A Managerial

Emphasis
Seventeenth Edition

Chapter 2
An Introduction to Cost
Terms and Purposes
Learning Objectives
1 Define and illustrate a cost object
2 Distinguish between direct costs and indirect costs
3 Explain variable costs and fixed costs
4 Interpret unit costs cautiously
5 Distinguish the financial accounting concepts, inventoriable
costs, and period costs
6 Illustrate the flow of inventoriable and period costs in
financial accounting
7 Explain why product costs are computed in different ways
for different purposes
8 Describe a framework for cost accounting and cost
management.
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Basic Cost Terminology (1 of 2)

• Cost—a sacrificed or forgone resource to achieve a

specific objective
• Actual cost—a cost that has occurred
• Budgeted cost—a predicted cost
• Cost object—anything for which a cost measurement is
desired

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Cost Object Examples at Tesla
Exhibit 2.1 Examples of Cost Objects at Tesla

Cost Object Illustration

Product A Tesla Model 3 vehicle
Service Telephone hotline providing information and assistance to
Tesla stores and galleries
Project R&D project on an electric Tesla truck
Customer The Dubai Road and Transport Authority (RTA), which is
building a large fleet of electric taxis in the city
Activity Setting up machines for production or maintaining
production equipment
Department Worker health and safety department

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Basic Cost Terminology (2 of 2)
• Cost Accumulation—the collection of cost data in an
organized way by means of an accounting system
• Cost Assignment—a general term that encompasses the
gathering of accumulated costs to a cost object in two
ways:
– Tracing costs with a direct relationship to the cost
object
– Allocating accumulated costs with an indirect
relationship to a cost object

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Direct and Indirect Costs
• Direct costs can be conveniently and economically traced
(tracked) to a cost object.
• Indirect costs cannot be conveniently or economically
traced (tracked) to a cost object.
• Instead of being traced, these costs are allocated to a cost
object in a rational and systematic manner.

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Cost Assignment to a Cost Object
(Tesla Example)
Exhibit 2.2 Cost Assignment to a Cost Object

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Cost Allocation Challenges
Direct Costs

Material (steel or tires for a car, as an example)

Labor (assembly-line worker wages)

Indirect Costs

Electricity
Rent
Property taxes
Plant administration expenses

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Factors Affecting Direct/Indirect Cost Classifications

• The materiality of the cost in question

• The available information-gathering technology
• Design of operations

Note: a specific cost may be both a direct cost of one cost

object and an indirect cost of another cost object.
The direct/indirect classification depends on the cost
object that one is trying to determine the cost of.

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Cost Behavior Patterns: Variable
Costs and Fixed Costs (1 of 2)
Variable costs change, in total, in proportion to changes in
the related level of activity or volume of output produced.
Fixed costs remain unchanged, in total, for a given time
period, despite changes in the related level of activity or
volume of output produced.
Costs are fixed or variable for a specific activity and/or for a
given time period.

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Cost Behavior Patterns: Variable
Costs and Fixed Costs (2 of 2)
Variable costs are constant on a per-unit basis. That is, if a
product takes 5 pounds of material each, it stays the same
per unit regardless if one, ten, or a thousand units are
produced.
Fixed costs per unit change inversely with the level of
production. As more units are produced, the same fixed cost
is spread over more and more units, reducing the cost per
unit.

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Cost Behavior Summarized
Costs Total Dollars Cost Per Unit
Variable Costs Change in proportion Unchanged in relation to
with output output
(more output = more
cost)
Fixed Costs Unchanged in relation to Change inversely with
output (within the output
relevant range) (more output = lower
cost per unit)

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Graphs of Variable and Fixed Costs
Exhibit 2.3 Graphs of Variable and Fixed Costs

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Other Cost Concepts

Mixed costs have both fixed and variable elements.

Cost driver—a variable, such as the level of activity or
volume, that causally affects costs over a given time span
Relevant range—the band or range of normal activity level
(or volume) in which there is a specific relationship between
the level of activity (or volume) and the cost in question
Fixed costs are considered fixed only within the relevant
range.

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Illustration of Fixed Cost Within
Relevant Range
Exhibit 2.4 Thomas Transport Company

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Multiple Classifications of Costs

• Costs may be classified as

– Direct/Indirect and
– Variable/Fixed.
• These multiple classifications give rise to important cost
combinations:
– Direct and variable
– Direct and fixed
– Indirect and variable
– Indirect and fixed

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Examples of the Multiple Classifications
of Costs
Exhibit 2.5 Examples of Costs in Combinations of the Direct/Indirect and
Variable/Fixed Cost Classifications for a Car Manufacturer

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Use Unit Costs Cautiously

Although unit costs are regularly used in financial reports

and for making product mix and pricing decisions, managers
should think in terms of total costs rather than unit costs for
many decisions.

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The Three Different Sectors of Economy

1. Manufacturing-sector companies purchase materials and

components and convert them into various finished
goods.
2. Merchandising-sector companies purchase and then sell
tangible products without changing their basic form.
3. Service-sector companies provide services (intangible
products) like legal advice or audits.

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Types of Inventory in Manufacturing

Direct materials—resources in-stock and available for use

Work-in-process (or progress)—goods partially worked on
but not yet completed, often abbreviated as WIP
Finished goods—goods completed but not yet sold
Note: Merchandising-sector companies hold only one type
of inventory: Merchandise Inventory

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Commonly Used Classifications of
Manufacturing Costs
Also known as inventoriable costs:
Direct materials—acquisition costs of all material that will
become part of the cost object
Direct labor—compensation of all manufacturing labor that
can be traced to the cost object
Indirect manufacturing—all manufacturing costs that are
related to the cost object but cannot be traced to that cost
object in an economically feasible way

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Inventoriable Costs Versus Period
Costs
• Inventoriable costs are all costs of a product that are
considered assets in a company’s balance sheet when the
costs are incurred and that are expensed as cost of goods
sold only when the product is sold. For manufacturing
companies, all manufacturing costs are inventoriable
costs.
• Period costs are all costs in the income statement other
than cost of goods sold. They are treated as expenses of
the accounting period in which they are incurred.

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Cost Flows
The Cost of Goods Manufactured and the Cost of Goods
Sold section of the income statement are accounting
representations of the actual flow of costs through a
production system.
Note: Inventoriable costs go through the balance sheet
accounts of direct materials, work-in-process, and finished
goods inventory before entering the cost of good sold in the
income statement.

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Cost Flows Illustrated
Exhibit 2.7 Flow of Revenue and Costs for a Manufacturing-Sector Company,
Cellular Products (in thousands)

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Multiple-Step Income Statement (1 of 2)
Exhibit 2.8 Income Statement and Schedule of Cost of Goods Manufactured of a
Manufacturing-Sector Company, Cellular Products

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Multiple-Step Income Statement (2 of 2)
Exhibit 2.8 Income Statement and Schedule of Cost of Goods Manufactured of a
Manufacturing-Sector Company, Cellular Products

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Other Cost Considerations
• Prime cost is a term referring to all direct manufacturing
costs (materials and labor).
• Conversion cost is a term referring to direct labor and
indirect manufacturing costs.
• Overtime premium labor costs are considered part of
indirect overhead costs.
• Idle time refers to the wages paid for unproductive time
caused by lack of orders, machine or computer
breakdown, work delays, poor scheduling, and the like.

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Measuring Costs Requires Judgment
Because management can define and classify costs in
multiple ways, judgment is required.
Managers, accountants, suppliers, and others should agree
on the classifications and meaning of the cost terms
introduced in this chapter and throughout the book.

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Different Product Costs for Different
Purposes (1 of 2)
Pricing and product-mix decisions—decision about pricing
and maximizing profits
Contracting with government agencies—very specific
definitions of allowable costs for “cost plus profit” contracts
Preparing external-use financial statements—GAAP-driven
product costs only

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Different Product Costs for Different
Purposes (2 of 2)
Exhibit 2.11 Different Product Costs for Different Purposes

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A Framework for Cost Accounting
and Cost Management
The following three features of cost accounting and cost
management can be used for a wide range of applications
(for helping managers make decisions):
1. Calculating the cost of products, services, and other cost
objects
2. Obtaining information for planning and control and
performance evaluation
3. Analyzing the relevant information for making decisions

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