15.

ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS
AC SOURCES
1. Explain the differences between direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC)
Direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) are two fundamental types of electrical current, each
with distinct characteristics:

1. Direction of Current:
- DC (Direct Current): Current flows in one direction only, from the positive (+) to the negative (-)
terminal of the source. It does not change direction over time.
- AC (Alternating Current): Current changes direction periodically, typically in a sine wave pattern. It
flows first in one direction (positive half-cycle) and then reverses to flow in the opposite direction
(negative half-cycle). This cycle repeats continuously.

2. Generation:
- DC: Typically generated by batteries, solar cells, and rectifiers (devices that convert AC to DC).
- AC: Generated by power plants using alternators or generators that produce a sinusoidal waveform.

3. Voltage and Frequency:

- DC: Voltage remains constant over time (after any initial transient period). There is no frequency
associated with DC.
- AC: Voltage and current alternate sinusoidally, with a specific frequency measured in Hertz (Hz).
Standard frequencies for AC power vary globally (e.g., 50 Hz or 60 Hz).

4. Transmission and Distribution:

- DC: Historically, DC transmission was less efficient over long distances due to higher energy losses in
transmission lines. However, advancements in high-voltage DC (HVDC) technology have made it more
viable for certain applications.
- AC: AC is typically used for long-distance transmission and distribution because it can be easily
converted to different voltages using transformers and is more efficient over long distances.

5. Applications:
- DC: Commonly used in electronic devices, battery-powered systems, automotive applications, and
small-scale electronics.
- AC: Used in residential, commercial, and industrial applications for powering homes, offices,
factories, and large machinery.

6. Safety Considerations:
- DC: Generally considered safer at low voltages due to fewer risks of electric shock.
- AC: Higher risk of electric shock, especially at higher voltages, due to the cyclic nature of voltage and
the potential for muscle contractions (e.g., at 50 or 60 Hz frequencies).

In summary, while both DC and AC are used to transmit electrical power, they differ significantly in
terms of their directionality, generation methods, voltage characteristics, transmission efficiency, and
safety implications, making each suitable for different applications based on their respective properties.
 2. Define characteristic features of alternating current and voltage, such as amplitude or peak
and the frequency
Alternating current (AC) and voltage exhibit several characteristic features, which are fundamental to
understanding their behavior in electrical systems:

1. Amplitude (Peak):
- AC Current: The amplitude refers to the maximum value of the alternating current waveform. It
represents the peak current reached during each cycle of the AC waveform.
- AC Voltage: Similarly, the amplitude of AC voltage is the maximum value of the voltage waveform
during each cycle. It indicates the peak voltage reached from the zero reference level.

2. Frequency:
- AC Current: Frequency in AC current refers to the number of complete cycles per second that the
current alternates. It is measured in Hertz (Hz). For example, in a 50 Hz AC system, the current changes
direction 50 times per second.
- AC Voltage: Frequency in AC voltage is identical to AC current, representing how often the voltage
changes direction in a given period.

3. Waveform Shape (Sinusoidal Nature):

- AC Current: Ideally, AC current follows a sinusoidal waveform where the current varies smoothly
between positive and negative peaks. This sinusoidal nature is fundamental to AC systems and has
certain mathematical properties that simplify analysis.
- AC Voltage: Similarly, AC voltage ideally follows a sinusoidal waveform. This sinusoidal shape is
critical for efficient transmission and distribution of electrical power and is characteristic of AC
generated by power plants.

4. Phase Relationship (for Three-Phase AC):

- In three-phase AC systems, there are additional characteristics related to the phase relationships
between the different phases (typically labeled as phases A, B, and C). The phases are 120 degrees apart
from each other, which allows for more efficient power generation and transmission in industrial
applications.

Understanding these characteristic features helps in designing, analyzing, and troubleshooting AC

electrical systems. Amplitude determines the maximum level of current or voltage that components
must handle, frequency influences equipment design and operational parameters, and the sinusoidal
nature ensures efficient power delivery and compatibility with AC devices and machinery.

SIMPLE AC CIRCUITS
1. Interpret phasor diagrams and apply them to ac circuits with resistors, capacitors, and
inductors
Phasor diagrams are graphical representations used in AC circuit analysis to simplify the calculations
involving sinusoidal voltages and currents. They represent AC quantities (voltages or currents) as vectors
rotating in a complex plane, where the magnitude represents the amplitude of the sinusoidal quantity,
and the angle represents the phase difference relative to a reference.
Phasor Representation:

1. Magnitude and Angle:

- The length of the phasor vector represents the magnitude (amplitude) of the AC quantity (voltage or
current).
- The angle of the phasor vector with respect to a reference axis (usually the horizontal axis)
represents the phase angle of the AC quantity.

2. Rotation:
- In an AC circuit, phasors rotate counterclockwise with time at a frequency determined by the AC
source. The rate of rotation corresponds to the angular frequency \( \omega \) of the AC signal (related
to the frequency \( f \) by \( \omega = 2\pi f \)).

Application to AC Circuits:

# Resistors:
- Voltage and Current Relationship: In a purely resistive AC circuit, voltage and current are in phase (no
phase difference). The phasor diagrams for voltage \( V \) and current \( I \) are aligned along the same
axis (angle = 0° or \( \pi \) radians).

# Capacitors:
- Voltage and Current Relationship: In a capacitive AC circuit, the current leads the voltage by 90°. The
phasor diagram for current \( I \) leads the voltage \( V \) by 90° (angle = -90° or \( -\frac{\pi}{2} \)
radians).
- Phasor Relationships: The phasors for voltage and current are perpendicular to each other, with the
voltage phasor lagging behind the current phasor.

# Inductors:
- Voltage and Current Relationship: In an inductive AC circuit, the voltage leads the current by 90°. The
phasor diagram for voltage \( V \) leads the current \( I \) by 90° (angle = +90° or \( \frac{\pi}{2} \)
radians).
- Phasor Relationships: Similar to capacitors, the phasors for voltage and current are perpendicular, but
in this case, the voltage phasor leads the current phasor.

Impedance (Combination of Resistors, Capacitors, and Inductors):

- Impedance Phasor: The total impedance \( Z \) of an AC circuit with resistors, capacitors, and inductors
is represented as a phasor sum of individual component impedances.
- Ohm's Law in Phasor Form: \( V = I \cdot Z \), where \( Z \) is the impedance.
- Series and Parallel Impedances: Phasor diagrams help in combining impedances in series (summing
phasors) and parallel (using reciprocal of sum of reciprocals).

Example:
- In a series RC circuit, where a resistor \( R \) and capacitor \( C \) are connected in series with an AC
voltage source \( V \):
- The resistor and capacitor have impedances \( R \) and \( \frac{1}{j\omega C} \) respectively.
- The total impedance \( Z \) is \( R + \frac{1}{j\omega C} \).
- Using phasor diagrams, you can find the total current \( I \) through the circuit and the phase
relationship between voltage \( V \) and current \( I \).

Phasor diagrams thus provide a visual and mathematical tool to analyze AC circuits with different
components (resistors, capacitors, and inductors), helping to determine currents, voltages, phase
differences, and impedances more easily compared to traditional sinusoidal analysis methods.

2. Define the reactance for a resistor, capacitor, and inductor to help understand how current in
the circuit behaves compared to each of these devices
Reactance is a term used in electrical circuits to describe the opposition that components (resistors,
capacitors, and inductors) present to the flow of alternating current (AC) due to their inherent
properties. Reactance is frequency-dependent and differs for each type of component:

Reactance for Each Component:

1. Resistor:
- Definition: Resistors have a property called resistance (\( R \)), which opposes the flow of current
regardless of the frequency of the AC signal.
- Reactance: For resistors, the reactance \( X_R \) is zero because resistance does not change with
frequency in AC circuits. Resistors only have resistance, not reactance.

2. Capacitor:
- Definition: Capacitors consist of two conductive plates separated by an insulating material
(dielectric). They store electrical energy in an electric field and can pass AC current by charging and
discharging through the plates.
- Reactance: Capacitors exhibit capacitive reactance (\( X_C \)), which is inversely proportional to the
frequency (\( f \)) of the AC signal:
\[ X_C = \frac{1}{2 \pi f C} \]
Where:
- \( f \) = Frequency of the AC signal (in Hertz, Hz)
- \( C \) = Capacitance of the capacitor (in Farads, F)
- Behavior: At low frequencies, capacitive reactance is high, meaning capacitors offer significant
impedance to the flow of current. At high frequencies, capacitive reactance decreases, allowing more
current to flow through the capacitor.

3. Inductor:
- Definition: Inductors are coils of wire that resist changes in current flow by storing energy in a
magnetic field when current passes through them.
- Reactance: Inductors exhibit inductive reactance (\( X_L \)), which is directly proportional to the
frequency (\( f \)) of the AC signal:
 \[ X_L = 2 \pi f L \]
Where:
- \( f \) = Frequency of the AC signal (in Hertz, Hz)
- \( L \) = Inductance of the inductor (in Henries, H)
- Behavior: At low frequencies, inductive reactance is low, allowing more current to flow through the
inductor. At high frequencies, inductive reactance increases, opposing the flow of current more
effectively.

Comparison of Current Behavior:

- Resistor: Current through a resistor in an AC circuit is in phase with the voltage across it. Ohm's law (\(
V = I \cdot R \)) governs the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance.

- Capacitor: Current through a capacitor leads the voltage across it by 90 degrees (current leads voltage).
This phase difference is due to the capacitive reactance.

- Inductor: Current through an inductor lags the voltage across it by 90 degrees (current lags voltage).
This phase difference is due to the inductive reactance.

In summary, reactance characterizes how resistors, capacitors, and inductors behave in AC circuits
compared to DC circuits. While resistors have no reactance and provide a constant opposition to current
(resistance), capacitors and inductors exhibit reactance that varies with frequency, affecting the phase
relationship between voltage and current in AC circuits. Understanding reactance is crucial for designing
and analyzing AC circuits, especially those involving reactive components like capacitors and inductors.

RLC SERIES CIRCUITS WITH AC

1. Describe how the current varies in a resistor, a capacitor, and an inductor while in series with
an AC power source
When a resistor, capacitor, and inductor are connected in series with an AC power source, each
component interacts with the alternating current (AC) signal in distinct ways due to their different
electrical properties (resistance, capacitance, and inductance). Here's how the current varies through
each component:

Resistor:

- Behavior: Resistors have a property known as resistance (\( R \)), which opposes the flow of current
and dissipates energy in the form of heat.
- Current Relationship: In a series circuit, the same current flows through all components. For a resistor
in series with an AC source:
- Current Magnitude: The magnitude of the current \( I \) through the resistor is determined by Ohm's
law: \( I = \frac{V}{R} \), where \( V \) is the instantaneous voltage across the resistor and \( R \) is the
resistance.
- Phase Relationship: The current through a resistor is in phase with the voltage across it. This means
that at any instant, the current reaches its maximum (positive or negative) simultaneously with the
voltage reaching its maximum (positive or negative). There is no phase shift between voltage and
current in a resistor.

Capacitor:

- Behavior: Capacitors have a property known as capacitance (\( C \)), which allows them to store and
release electrical energy as the voltage across them changes.
- Current Relationship: In a series circuit with a capacitor and an AC source:
- Current Magnitude: The magnitude of the current \( I \) through the capacitor depends on the
capacitive reactance (\( X_C \)) and the instantaneous voltage across the capacitor: \( I = \frac{V}{X_C} \),
where \( X_C = \frac{1}{2 \pi f C} \) is the capacitive reactance.
- Phase Relationship: The current through a capacitor leads the voltage across it by 90 degrees (current
leads voltage). This means that at any given time, the current through the capacitor is ahead of the
voltage across it by a quarter cycle. When the voltage is increasing, the current is flowing into the
capacitor (charging it), and when the voltage is decreasing, the current is flowing out of the capacitor
(discharging it).

Inductor:

- Behavior: Inductors have a property known as inductance (\( L \)), which opposes changes in current by
storing energy in a magnetic field.
- Current Relationship: In a series circuit with an inductor and an AC source:
- Current Magnitude: The magnitude of the current \( I \) through the inductor depends on the
inductive reactance (\( X_L \)) and the instantaneous voltage across the inductor: \( I = \frac{V}{X_L} \),
where \( X_L = 2 \pi f L \) is the inductive reactance.
- Phase Relationship: The current through an inductor lags the voltage across it by 90 degrees (current
lags voltage). This means that at any given time, the current through the inductor is behind the voltage
across it by a quarter cycle. When the voltage is increasing, the current is ramping up (building the
magnetic field), and when the voltage is decreasing, the current is ramping down (collapsing the
magnetic field).

Summary:

- Resistor: Current is in phase with voltage (\( I \) and \( V \) peak and trough together).
- Capacitor: Current leads voltage by 90 degrees (\( I \) peak leads \( V \) peak).
- Inductor: Current lags voltage by 90 degrees (\( I \) peak lags \( V \) peak).

Understanding how current varies through resistors, capacitors, and inductors in AC circuits is crucial for
designing and analyzing circuits, as it determines the power consumption, voltage distribution, and
phase relationships within the circuit.
 2. Use phasors to understand the phase angle of a resistor, capacitor, and inductor ac circuit and
to understand what that phase angle means
Phasors are used in AC circuit analysis to represent sinusoidal voltages and currents as vectors rotating
in a complex plane. They simplify the understanding of phase relationships between different
components (resistors, capacitors, and inductors) in AC circuits.

Phase Angle of Resistor, Capacitor, and Inductor AC Circuits:

1. Resistor:

- Phasor Representation: For a resistor in an AC circuit, the voltage (\( V_R \)) and current (\( I_R \))
phasors are aligned along the same axis.
- Phase Angle: The phase angle (\( \theta_R \)) between voltage and current is 0 degrees (or 0 radians).
- Meaning: This indicates that the current through a resistor is in phase with the voltage across it. They
reach their peak values (positive or negative) simultaneously in each cycle of the AC waveform.

![Resistor Phasor
Diagram](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Resistor_Phasor_Diagram.svg
/300px-Resistor_Phasor_Diagram.svg.png)

2. Capacitor:

- Phasor Representation: For a capacitor in an AC circuit, the voltage (\( V_C \)) and current (\( I_C \))
phasors are perpendicular to each other.
- Phase Angle: The phase angle (\( \theta_C \)) between voltage and current is -90 degrees (or \( -
\frac{\pi}{2} \) radians).
- Meaning: This indicates that the current through a capacitor leads the voltage across it by 90
degrees. When the voltage is at its peak (positive or negative), the current is zero. When the voltage is
changing most rapidly (crossing zero), the current is at its peak (positive or negative).

![Capacitor Phasor
Diagram](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Capacitor_Phasor_Diagram.s
vg/300px-Capacitor_Phasor_Diagram.svg.png)

3. Inductor:

- Phasor Representation: For an inductor in an AC circuit, the voltage (\( V_L \)) and current (\( I_L \))
phasors are also perpendicular to each other.
- Phase Angle: The phase angle (\( \theta_L \)) between voltage and current is +90 degrees (or \(
\frac{\pi}{2} \) radians).
- Meaning: This indicates that the current through an inductor lags the voltage across it by 90 degrees.
When the voltage is at its peak (positive or negative), the current is zero. When the voltage is changing
most rapidly (crossing zero), the current is at its peak (positive or negative).
 ![Inductor Phasor
Diagram](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Inductor_Phasor_Diagram.sv
g/300px-Inductor_Phasor_Diagram.svg.png)

Understanding Phase Angle:

- Phase angle represents the angular displacement between the voltage and current phasors in an AC
circuit.
- Physical Meaning: It indicates how much the current leads or lags behind the voltage in time.
- Implications:
- In resistive circuits (zero phase angle), current and voltage are in sync, meaning the power is
dissipated directly as heat without any reactive power.
- In capacitive circuits (negative phase angle), current leads voltage, indicating that the capacitor
absorbs reactive power (energy storage).
- In inductive circuits (positive phase angle), current lags voltage, indicating that the inductor provides
reactive power (energy storage in the magnetic field).

Conclusion:

Phasor diagrams and phase angles provide a concise way to visualize and understand the relationships
between voltage and current in AC circuits with resistors, capacitors, and inductors. They help in
analyzing power flows, designing efficient circuits, and understanding the behavior of reactive
components in alternating current systems.

3. Calculate the impedance of a circuit

To calculate the impedance (\( Z \)) of a circuit, you need to consider the combined effect of resistors,
capacitors, and inductors in series or parallel. Impedance is the total opposition to the flow of
alternating current (AC) and is represented as a complex number because it has both magnitude
(resistance) and phase (reactance). Here's how you calculate impedance for different configurations:

Series Circuit:

In a series circuit, where components are connected end-to-end:

1. Resistor (R):
- Impedance is purely resistive and is equal to the resistance: \( Z_R = R \).

2. Capacitor (C):
- Impedance is capacitive reactance: \( Z_C = \frac{1}{j \omega C} \), where \( j \) is the imaginary unit
(\( j = \sqrt{-1} \)) and \( \omega = 2 \pi f \) is the angular frequency of the AC signal (\( f \) is the
frequency in Hz, and \( C \) is the capacitance in Farads).

3. Inductor (L):
- Impedance is inductive reactance: \( Z_L = j \omega L \), where \( L \) is the inductance in Henrys.
To find the total impedance (\( Z_{\text{total}} \)) in a series circuit, simply add the impedances of each
component:

\[ Z_{\text{total}} = R + \frac{1}{j \omega C} + j \omega L \]

Parallel Circuit:

In a parallel circuit, where components share common nodes:

1. Resistor (R):
- The impedance is the same as the resistance: \( Z_R = R \).

2. Capacitor (C):
- The impedance is the reciprocal of the capacitive reactance: \( Z_C = \frac{1}{\frac{1}{j \omega C}} =
\frac{j}{\omega C} \).

3. Inductor (L):
- The impedance is the reciprocal of the inductive reactance: \( Z_L = \frac{1}{\frac{1}{j \omega L}} =
\frac{j \omega L}{1} = j \omega L \).

To find the total impedance (\( Z_{\text{total}} \)) in a parallel circuit, use the reciprocal of the sum of
the reciprocals of the impedances of each component:

\[ \frac{1}{Z_{\text{total}}} = \frac{1}{Z_R} + \frac{1}{Z_C} + \frac{1}{Z_L} \]

Example Calculation:

Let's say you have a series circuit with a resistor \( R = 10 \) ohms, a capacitor \( C = 100 \) microfarads,
and an inductor \( L = 0.5 \) henrys, connected to an AC source with frequency \( f = 50 \) Hz.

1. Calculate Capacitive Reactance (\( X_C \)):

\[ X_C = \frac{1}{2 \pi f C} = \frac{1}{2 \pi \times 50 \times 100 \times 10^{-6}} = 318.3 \text{ ohms} \]

2. Calculate Inductive Reactance (\( X_L \)):

\[ X_L = 2 \pi f L = 2 \pi \times 50 \times 0.5 = 157.1 \text{ ohms} \]

3. Calculate Total Impedance (\( Z_{\text{total}} \)):

\[ Z_{\text{total}} = R + jX_C + jX_L = 10 + j318.3 + j157.1 \]

Combine the real and imaginary parts:

\[ Z_{\text{total}} = 10 + j(318.3 + 157.1) \]
\[ Z_{\text{total}} = 10 + j475.4 \]
Therefore, the impedance of the circuit is \( Z_{\text{total}} = 10 + j475.4 \) ohms.

Calculating impedance involves understanding the frequency of the AC signal and the properties of each
component in the circuit (resistor, capacitor, and inductor). The impedance dictates how current and
voltage interact in the circuit, crucial for designing and analyzing AC circuits accurately.

POWER IN AN AC CIRCUIT
1. Describe how average power from an AC circuit can be written in terms of peak current and
voltage and of rms current and voltage
The average power \( P \) delivered by an AC circuit can be expressed in terms of peak values and root
mean square (rms) values of current (\( I \)) and voltage (\( V \)). Let's outline how this is done:

Average Power in Terms of Peak Values:

1. Peak Current (\( I_{\text{peak}} \)) and Peak Voltage (\( V_{\text{peak}} \)):
- Peak values refer to the maximum instantaneous values of current and voltage over one cycle of the
AC waveform.

2. Average Power Formula:

- The average power \( P \) delivered by an AC circuit can be expressed as:
\[ P = \frac{1}{2} V_{\text{peak}} I_{\text{peak}} \cos(\theta) \]
Where:
- \( V_{\text{peak}} \) is the peak voltage.
- \( I_{\text{peak}} \) is the peak current.
- \( \cos(\theta) \) is the power factor angle, which represents the phase angle between voltage and
current.

Average Power in Terms of rms Values:

1. rms Current (\( I_{\text{rms}} \)) and rms Voltage (\( V_{\text{rms}} \)) :
- rms values are the root mean square values, which are effective values of AC quantities that are
equivalent to the DC quantities that would produce the same amount of heating effect.

2. Relationship between Peak and rms Values:

- For sinusoidal AC signals, the rms values are related to the peak values by:
\[ V_{\text{rms}} = \frac{V_{\text{peak}}}{\sqrt{2}} \]
\[ I_{\text{rms}} = \frac{I_{\text{peak}}}{\sqrt{2}} \]

3. Average Power Formula:

- Using rms values, the average power \( P \) can be expressed as:
\[ P = V_{\text{rms}} I_{\text{rms}} \cos(\theta) \]
Where:
- \( V_{\text{rms}} \) is the rms voltage.
- \( I_{\text{rms}} \) is the rms current.
 - \( \cos(\theta) \) is the power factor angle.

Summary:

- Peak Values: Average power is calculated using peak voltage and peak current, multiplied by the power
factor cosine of the phase angle.
- rms Values: Average power is also calculated using rms voltage and rms current, multiplied by the
power factor cosine of the phase angle.
- Power Factor (Cosine of \( \theta \)): The power factor angle \( \theta \) represents the phase
difference between voltage and current. It affects the real power delivered to the load.

Importance:

Understanding how average power is calculated in AC circuits is crucial for designing efficient electrical
systems and measuring power consumption accurately. The choice between using peak values or rms
values depends on the context and the type of measurements or calculations being performed in the AC
circuit analysis.

2. Determine the relationship between the phase angle of the current and voltage and the
average power, known as the power factor
The phase angle between the current (\( I \)) and voltage (\( V \)) in an AC circuit directly influences the
average power delivered to the load. This relationship is quantified by the power factor, which is the
cosine of the phase angle (\( \theta \)) between the voltage and current waveforms. Let's explore how
the phase angle affects the power factor and consequently, the average power in an AC circuit:

Phase Angle and Power Factor:

1. Phase Angle (\( \theta \)):

- In an AC circuit, the voltage and current waveforms are sinusoidal.
- \( \theta \) represents the angle by which the current waveform lags or leads the voltage waveform.

2. Power Factor (PF):

- The power factor is defined as the cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current:
\[ \text{Power Factor (PF)} = \cos(\theta) \]
- Power factor ranges between 0 and 1. A higher power factor indicates a more efficient use of
electrical power.

Relationship with Average Power:

1. Average Power (\( P \)):

- The average power delivered to the load in an AC circuit is given by:
\[ P = V_{\text{rms}} I_{\text{rms}} \cos(\theta) \]
Where:
- \( V_{\text{rms}} \) is the rms voltage.
 - \( I_{\text{rms}} \) is the rms current.
- \( \theta \) is the phase angle between voltage and current.

2. Interpretation:
- When \( \theta = 0^\circ \) (current in phase with voltage), \( \cos(0^\circ) = 1 \), indicating maximum
power delivery without any reactive power.
- When \( \theta = \pm 90^\circ \) (current lags or leads voltage by 90 degrees), \( \cos(\pm 90^\circ) =
0 \), indicating zero average power (purely reactive power).
- When \( 0^\circ < \theta < 90^\circ \) (current lags voltage), \( \cos(\theta) \) is positive, indicating
some average power delivery with a leading power factor.
- When \( -90^\circ < \theta < 0^\circ \) (current leads voltage), \( \cos(\theta) \) is negative, indicating
some average power delivery with a lagging power factor.

Importance of Power Factor:

- Efficiency: A high power factor (close to 1) means less reactive power and more efficient utilization of
electrical power.
- Utility Costs: Utilities may charge penalties for low power factor because it requires them to supply
more current to deliver the same amount of real power.
- Equipment Performance: Motors, transformers, and other inductive loads operate more efficiently
with a high power factor.

Conclusion:

The phase angle between current and voltage in an AC circuit directly influences the power factor, which
in turn affects the average power delivered to the load. Understanding and controlling the power factor
is essential for optimizing energy usage, reducing costs, and ensuring efficient operation of electrical
systems and equipment.

RESONANCE IN AN AC CIRCUIT
1. Determine the peak AC resonant angular frequency for a RLC circuit
To determine the peak AC resonant angular frequency (\( \omega_0 \)) for a series RLC circuit, you can
use the following formula:

\[ \omega_0 = \frac{1}{\sqrt{LC}} \]

where:
- \( L \) is the inductance of the inductor in Henrys (H),
- \( C \) is the capacitance of the capacitor in Farads (F).

Steps to Determine \( \omega_0 \):

1. Identify the Components:

- Determine the values of inductance (\( L \)) and capacitance (\( C \)) in the RLC circuit.
2. Calculate the Resonant Frequency:
- Calculate \( \omega_0 \) using the formula \( \omega_0 = \frac{1}{\sqrt{LC}} \).

Example Calculation:

Let's say you have an RLC circuit with the following components:
- Inductance \( L = 0.1 \) H (Henry),
- Capacitance \( C = 100 \) μF (microfarads = \( 100 \times 10^{-6} \) F).

1. Convert Capacitance to Farads:

- \( C = 100 \times 10^{-6} \) F = \( 0.0001 \) F.

2. Calculate \( \omega_0 \):

\[ \omega_0 = \frac{1}{\sqrt{L \cdot C}} \]
\[ \omega_0 = \frac{1}{\sqrt{0.1 \cdot 0.0001}} \]
\[ \omega_0 = \frac{1}{\sqrt{0.00001}} \]
\[ \omega_0 = \frac{1}{0.01} \]
\[ \omega_0 = 100 \text{ radians per second (rad/s)} \]

Conclusion:

The peak AC resonant angular frequency (\( \omega_0 \)) for a series RLC circuit is determined by the
reciprocal of the square root of the product of the inductance (\( L \)) and capacitance (\( C \)). This
frequency indicates the point where the circuit's reactive components (inductor and capacitor)
resonate, resulting in a purely resistive impedance and maximum current amplitude in the circuit.

2. Explain the width of the average power versus angular frequency curve and its significance
using terms bandwidth and quality factor
The width of the average power versus angular frequency curve in an AC circuit, and its significance, can
be understood through the concepts of bandwidth and quality factor (Q-factor).

Bandwidth:

Bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies over which a circuit or a device can operate effectively. In
the context of average power versus angular frequency (\( \omega \)) curve:

- Curve Shape: The average power (\( P \)) versus angular frequency (\( \omega \)) curve typically has a
peak at the resonant frequency \( \omega_0 \).
- Bandwidth Definition: The bandwidth of the curve is defined as the range of frequencies around the
resonant frequency \( \omega_0 \) within which the average power \( P \) remains above a specified
fraction (usually 50%) of its maximum value.

Quality Factor (Q-factor):

Quality factor (Q) is a dimensionless parameter that characterizes the resonance behavior of a circuit:

- Definition: Q-factor quantifies how sharply the circuit resonates at its resonant frequency \( \omega_0
\).
- Mathematical Expression: It is defined as the ratio of the resonant frequency \( \omega_0 \) to the
bandwidth \( \Delta \omega \):
\[ Q = \frac{\omega_0}{\Delta \omega} \]

- Significance:
- High-Q Circuit: A high-Q circuit has a narrow bandwidth. This means that it can resonate strongly at \(
\omega_0 \) and efficiently filter out frequencies that are not close to \( \omega_0 \).
- Low-Q Circuit: A low-Q circuit has a wide bandwidth. This indicates a less sharp resonance and the
ability to respond to a broader range of frequencies.

Significance of Bandwidth and Q-factor:

1. Bandwidth:
- Transmission Characteristics: Determines the range of frequencies over which the circuit can
efficiently transmit or attenuate signals.
- Filtering Capabilities: Wider bandwidth circuits are used for applications requiring broader frequency
response (e.g., communication systems).
- Resonance Characteristics: Bandwidth affects how sharply or broadly the circuit resonates around \(
\omega_0 \).

2. Quality Factor (Q):

- Resonance Sharpness: Indicates how "sharp" the resonance peak is at \( \omega_0 \).
- Losses: Higher Q-factor circuits have lower losses because they store energy more efficiently near \(
\omega_0 \).
- Selectivity: Determines the selectivity of the circuit in frequency applications (e.g., filters in radio
receivers).

Relationship Between Bandwidth and Q-factor:

- Inverse Relationship: Bandwidth (\( \Delta \omega \)) and Q-factor (\( Q \)) are inversely related:
\[ Q = \frac{\omega_0}{\Delta \omega} \]
- A high-Q circuit has a narrow bandwidth, indicating strong resonance.
- A low-Q circuit has a wide bandwidth, indicating weak resonance.

Conclusion:

Understanding the width of the average power versus angular frequency curve in terms of bandwidth
and quality factor provides insights into the resonance behavior and frequency response characteristics
of AC circuits. The bandwidth defines the range of frequencies over which the circuit operates
effectively, while the quality factor quantifies how sharply the circuit resonates at its resonant
frequency. These parameters are crucial in designing and analyzing resonant circuits, filters, and other
AC applications where frequency selectivity and efficiency are key considerations.

TRANSFORMERS
1. Explain why power plants transmit electricity at high voltages and how they do this
Power plants transmit electricity at high voltages primarily to reduce energy loss during transmission
and distribution. This practice is based on fundamental principles of electrical engineering and has
significant economic and practical advantages. Here’s an explanation of why power plants use high
voltages for transmission and how they achieve this:

Reasons for Transmitting Electricity at High Voltages:

1. Reduced I²R Losses:

- Electrical power is transmitted over long distances through conductors (wires). According to Ohm's
law (\( P = I^2 R \)), where \( P \) is power loss, \( I \) is current, and \( R \) is resistance, power loss in a
conductor increases with the square of the current flowing through it.
- By increasing voltage (\( V \)), for a given power (\( P \)), the current (\( I = \frac{P}{V} \)) decreases.
Therefore, higher voltage results in lower current for the same amount of power transmitted.
- Lower current reduces the resistive losses (\( I^2 R \)) in the transmission lines, as power loss is
directly proportional to current squared.

2. Efficiency:
- High-voltage transmission reduces energy losses, making the overall transmission system more
efficient.
- Efficient transmission means more of the generated electrical energy reaches consumers without
being lost as heat in the transmission lines.

3. Economic Considerations:
- Lower losses mean that power plants can generate less additional electricity to compensate for
transmission losses, resulting in cost savings.
- High-voltage transmission reduces the need for costly infrastructure upgrades and maintenance
compared to low-voltage transmission systems.

4. Voltage Drop:
- Higher voltages help maintain adequate voltage levels at the end of the transmission line (at
consumers' locations). This ensures that voltage drop, which can affect the quality of electrical service, is
minimized.

How Power Plants Achieve High Voltage Transmission:

1. Step-up Transformers:
- Electricity generated at power plants is typically produced at a relatively low voltage (e.g., 11 kV to 33
kV).
 - Step-up transformers are used to increase the voltage to very high levels (e.g., 220 kV, 400 kV, or
even higher) suitable for long-distance transmission.
- Transformers work on the principle of electromagnetic induction to step up (or step down) voltages
efficiently.

2. Transmission Lines:
- Once voltage is stepped up, electricity is transmitted over high-voltage transmission lines.
- These lines are designed with materials and configurations optimized for high voltage and low losses,
such as using conductors with minimal resistance and insulators to prevent leakage.

3. Substations:
- Near the consumer end, step-down transformers at substations reduce the high voltage back down
to levels suitable for distribution (e.g., 11 kV, 33 kV).
- This lower voltage is then distributed to residential, commercial, and industrial customers through
distribution lines.

Conclusion:

Power plants transmit electricity at high voltages primarily to minimize energy losses during
transmission and distribution, thereby improving efficiency and reducing costs. This is achieved through
the use of step-up transformers at the generation end to increase voltage and step-down transformers
at substations near consumers to reduce voltage to usable levels. High-voltage transmission lines are
crucial in efficiently transporting electricity over long distances with minimal losses, ensuring reliable
and cost-effective delivery of electrical power to end-users.

2. Develop relationships among current, voltage, and the number of windings in step-up and
step-down transformers
In transformers, the relationships among current, voltage, and the number of windings are fundamental
to understanding how these devices step up or step down voltage levels. Transformers operate on the
principle of electromagnetic induction, where varying current in one coil induces a voltage in another
coil through mutual induction. Here’s how the relationships can be developed for both step-up and step-
down transformers:

Step-Up Transformer:

In a step-up transformer, the secondary voltage \( V_s \) is greater than the primary voltage \( V_p \).

1. Voltage Relationship:

The ratio of primary to secondary voltage (\( \frac{V_p}{V_s} \)) is inversely proportional to the turns
ratio (\( \frac{N_s}{N_p} \)), where \( N_p \) is the number of turns in the primary coil and \( N_s \) is the
number of turns in the secondary coil.

\[ \frac{V_p}{V_s} = \frac{N_p}{N_s} \]
 This means that the voltage ratio is equal to the turns ratio. If the number of turns in the secondary
coil (\( N_s \)) is greater than the number of turns in the primary coil (\( N_p \)), the secondary voltage
(\( V_s \)) will be greater than the primary voltage (\( V_p \)).

2. Current Relationship:

The current relationship is inversely proportional to the turns ratio as well, assuming ideal conditions
where power is conserved (neglecting losses):

\[ \frac{I_p}{I_s} = \frac{N_s}{N_p} \]

Here, \( I_p \) is the primary current and \( I_s \) is the secondary current. A step-up transformer
decreases the current in the secondary coil compared to the primary coil, inversely proportional to the
turns ratio.

Step-Down Transformer:

In a step-down transformer, the secondary voltage \( V_s \) is less than the primary voltage \( V_p \).

1. Voltage Relationship:

Similarly, the ratio of primary to secondary voltage (\( \frac{V_p}{V_s} \)) is equal to the turns ratio (\(
\frac{N_p}{N_s} \)):

\[ \frac{V_p}{V_s} = \frac{N_p}{N_s} \]

If \( N_s \) is greater than \( N_p \), \( V_s \) will be less than \( V_p \).

2. Current Relationship:

The current relationship is directly proportional to the turns ratio for a step-down transformer:

\[ \frac{I_p}{I_s} = \frac{N_s}{N_p} \]

Here, \( I_p \) is the primary current and \( I_s \) is the secondary current. A step-down transformer
increases the current in the secondary coil compared to the primary coil, directly proportional to the
turns ratio.

Conclusion:

Transformers provide a means to adjust voltage levels while maintaining power (assuming ideal
conditions). The relationships among current, voltage, and the number of windings (turns) are governed
by the turns ratio (\( \frac{N_s}{N_p} \)). Step-up transformers increase voltage and decrease current,
while step-down transformers decrease voltage and increase current, in accordance with these
fundamental relationships derived from the principles of electromagnetic induction. These relationships
are crucial in transformer design and operation, ensuring efficient and effective voltage transformation
in electrical power systems.