Session Four: Phonetics and Phonology

Dr. Andi Kaharuddin, M.Hum

THE BENEFITS OF PHONETICS AS A STUDY OF ENGLISH SOUNDS FOR

INDONESIAN LEARNERS OF ENGLISH
In this part, the discussion of the benefits of phonetics as a study of English sound is
initiated by giving information on the problems encountered by the Indonesian learners of
English in producing English sounds. This information is derived from research results of the
context of Indonesian learners. After that, the suggestions of researchers and teachers of English
language are taken into account to learn the benefits of phonetics to learning English sounds.
a. The problems of producing English Consonants
As commonly known that the main goal of learning English for Indonesian learners is
commonly aimed at raising their skills to communicate in English effectively. To gain the
purpose, they must be able to possess knowledge of speaking micro skills i.e. English
pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, coherence, fluency, as well as comprehensibility. This
section doesn’t discuss all the micro skills, but simply focuses on discussing pronunciation. In
terms of mastering pronunciation skill, the learners must be able to utter English sentences (as
words combination) effectively that they are learning. Talking about pronunciation may not be a
part from talking about phonetics as Brown, (1992) as cited in Bowman (2002) states that what
language learners must understand about pronunciation is that essentially ‘any attention to
phonetics’. The question is why phonetics?. It is because phonetics can help the learners to
identify and practice English sounds which do not exist in Indonesian which has made
difficulties for them in English pronunciation. Lanteigne (2006) asserts that difficulties in
learning English occur due to the fact that some of English sounds do not exist in the mother
tongue of the learners. For example, the sounds of English such as [v], [θ], [ð], [ʒ], [dʒ], and [t∫],
cannot be found in Indonesian (Moeliono & Dardjowidjojo, 2003). In this regard, Tiono and
Yostanto (2008) are of the opinion that the sounds of English which are not available in
Indonesian tend to make the learners produce errors in the articulation of the sounds and these
sounds are recognized as problems in producing English sounds. In this book, problems in
English sounds productions are discussed by presenting research results on the problems of
Indonesian learners of English in producing consonant and vowel sounds.
Therefore, it is first of all essential to show data regarding the learners’ problems in
producing English consonants. The data are derived from a scientific research conducted by
Tiono and Yostanto (2008) who investigated six consonantal sounds i.e. [v], [θ], [ð], [ʒ], [dʒ],
and [t∫] made by the Indonesian learners of English. The research was done to observe the
phonological errors done by the Indonesian English learners in order to find out firstly the kinds
of phonological errors made by the students in producing the English consonantal sounds which
do not exist in Indonesian sound system. The results are briefly reported as follows:
The problem in producing sound [v]
According to this study, one problem encountered by the Indonesian learners of English in
producing English sound is to produce sound [v] which is phonetically known as a voiced
labiodental fricative. This sound is one of sounds that cannot be found in Indonesian phonetic
system. In the effort of producing this English sound, the Indonesian learners tend to make errors
by replacing it with [f] which is also known as voiced labiodental fricative since the sound [f]
shares the same place and manner of articulation that is labiodental fricative. The distinction is
only on the state of the vocal cords: [v] is a voiced sound while [f] is a voiceless sound. The
researchers call this tendency as ‘deviation’ and they found that the deviation occurs when the

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[v] sound exists in the initial, medial, as well as in the final position e.g. in the word ‘villa’ [vɪlə]
is pronounced [fɪla] by the learners (v in initial position), in the word ‘clever’ [klevər] is
pronounced [klefər] by the learners (v in medial position), and in the word ‘give’ [ɡɪv] is
pronounced [ɡɪf] by the learners (v in final position).
The problem in producing sound [ð]
Producing sound [ð] is another problem that the learners face in producing English sounds.
Phonetically, the sound is known as voiced dental fricative. As for the learners, this sound is
difficult to produce because it also doesn’t exist in Indonesian’s sound system. When the learners
need to make this sound, errors seem unavoidable. They tend to make deviation when
articulating sound [ð] by substituting it with sound [d], [t], [θ], as well as [th]. These sounds’
replacement is found in the three positions and some could only be noticed in either one or two
positions. In the initial position for example, the learners tend to replace sound [ð] [d] as in the
word ‘they’ [ðeɪ]. The word is pronounced [deɪ] by the learners. Besides, the learners also tend to
replace the sound [ð] to [t] as in the word ‘thou’[ðaʊ]. The word is pronounced [toʊ] by the
learners. In addition, the replacement of sound [ð] to [θ] is sometimes found in the initial
position as well e.g. in the word ‘though’ which should be pronounced [ðoʊ] in English, but is
pronounced [θoʊ] by the learners. The replacement from sound [ð] to [d], [t], [θ] also occurs in
medial position e.g. sound [ð] is replaced by [d] as in the word ‘bother’ which should be
pronounced [bɑːðər] but is pronounced [bɑːdər] by the learners. Another deviation found is the
replacement of sound [ð] to [t] as in the word ‘worthy’ which should be pronounced [wɜːðɪ] in
English, but is pronounced [wɜːtɪ] by the learners. Other deviation is found when the learners’
substitute sound [ð] to [θ] in medial position as in the word ‘writhing’ which should be
pronounced [raɪðɪŋ] but is pronounced [rɪθɪŋ] by the learners. In addition to the deviation of
producing sound [ð] in initial and medial position, the deviation is also found in final position.
However, it is somewhat different from the deviation found in initial and medial. The difference
is identified from the identification of sound [th] which is also used to replace sound [ð] in final
position. The substitution of sound [ð] with [t] can be seen in the word ‘breathe’ which should be
pronounced [briːð] but is pronounced [briːt]. The next, the substitution of sound [ð] with [θ] can
be found in the word ‘soothe’ which should be pronounced [suːð] in English but is pronounced
[suːθ] by the learners. The last, the replacement of sound [ð] with [th] can be seen in the word
‘loathe’ which ought to be pronounced [loʊð] but is pronounced [loth].
The problem in producing sound [θ]
Sound [θ] is one of problems encountered by the Indonesian learners of English in English
pronunciation. This sound is also known as a voiceless dental fricative which typically exists in
the phonetic system of English sound, but does not exist in Indonesian. Therefore, many learners
of English find it difficult to articulate this sound. In the learners’ attempts to articulate sound
[θ], they tend to deviate it into some possible sounds. According to this research, there are five
possible sounds, identified as deviations, produced by the Indonesian learners in their effort to
articulate sound [θ] i.e. the sound is deviated to sound [t], [ð], [d], [th], as well as [s]. The sounds
are found in the initial, medial and final positions. The first deviation made by the learners is to
repalce sound [θ] with sound [t] as in the word ‘thunder’. In English, this word should be
pronounced [θʌndər], but it is then pronounced [tʌndər] by the learners. The second deviation is
to replace sound [θ] with sound [ð] as in the word ‘thigh’ which should be pronounced [θaɪ], but
it is pronounced [ðaɪ] by the learners. The third deviation occurs when the learners replace sound
[θ] with sound [d] as in the word ‘ether’ which should be pronounced [iːθər], but it is

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pronounced [ɜːdər]. The fourth deviation takes place when sound [θ] is replaced by sound [th] as
in the word ‘thought’ that should be pronounced [θɔːt], but it is apparently pronounced [th ɔːt].
The fifth deviation occurs when the learners replace sound [θ] with sound [s] as in the word
‘birthday’ that should be articulated [bɜːrθdeɪ], but it is articulated [bɜːsdeɪ].
The problem in producing sound [ʧ]
In addition to the sounds mentioned earlier, sound [t∫] is also a problem to pronounce in English.
This sound is also called a voiceless palatal affricate sound. Similar to any other sounds
investigated in this paper, [t∫] does not exist in Indonesian phonetic system. Therefore, in the
effort to pronounce it, the Indonesian learners of English tend to produce deviations. This
research reports that there are commonly two deviations done by the learners regarding this
particular sound i.e. the replacements of [t∫] with [c] and [t∫] with [s]. Although the deviations of
[t∫] occur in the initial and the medial positions, but no deviation is found in the final position.
Hence, it is fair to note down that [t∫] does not become a problematic sound as long as it exists in
the final position of a word. The first error occurs when the learners replace sound [t∫] with [c] as
in the word cheap that is pronounced [tʃiːp] in English, but it is incorrectly pronounced as [ciːp]
by the learners. Another example of deviation can be seen when the learners pronounce the word
‘purchase’. This word should be pronounced [pɜrʧəs], but the learners replace sound [t∫] with [c]
by pronouncing it [pɜːrcɪs]. The second error takes place when the learners replace sound [t∫]
with [s] as in the word ‘marching’. This word should be pronounced [mɑːrtʃɪŋ], but the learners
tend to pronounce it as [mɑːrsɪŋ].
The problem in producing sound [dʒ]
The next distinct English sound that cannot be found in Indonesian phonetic system is sound
[dʒ]. This sound is recognized as a voiced palatal affricate. Just like the other nonexistent sounds,
the Indonesian learners of English find it difficult to articulate. Consequently, they frequently
make four kinds of deviations in their effort to pronounce the sound i.e. the replacement of sound
[dʒ] with [g], with [j], with [d], as well as with [t∫]. The first deviation in the pronunciation of
[dʒ] is the replacement of sound [dʒ] with [g] as in the word ‘general’ which should be
pronounced [dʒenrəl], but it is pronounced [gɜnəral]. The second deviation occurs when the
learners replace sound [dʒ] with [j] as in the word ‘ginger’. This word is pronounced [dʒɪndʒər]
in English, but it is pronounced [jɪnjər]. The third deviation is the replacement of sound [dʒ] with
[d] as in the word ‘individual’ that ought to be pronounced [ɪndɪvɪdʒuəl], but it becomes
[ɪndɪvɪdual] when it is pronounced by the learners. The fourth deviation is found when the
learners replace sound [dʒ] with [t∫] as in the word ‘bridge’. In English, this word should be
pronounced [brɪdʒ], but the learners tend to pronounce it [brɪt∫].
The problem in producing sound [ʒ]
Other English consonantal sound which is considered to be a problematic sound for the the
learners is sound [ʒ]. English phonetically regards this sound as a voiced palatal fricative. This
particular sound becomes a problem for the learners in English pronunciation because it does not
exist in Indonesian phonetic system that the learners tend to deviate it in their effort to pronounce
it. Generally, there are ten deviations made by the learners when articulating this sound. The
deviations consist of the replacement of [ʒ] with [∫], [g], ans [s]. The first deviation is identified
when the learners replace sound [ʒ] with [∫] as in the word decision that should be pronounced
[dɪsɪʒn]. However, it is pronounced [dɪsɪ∫n]. The second deviation occurs when the learners
replace sound [ʒ] with [g] as in the word ‘genre’ which should be pronounced [ʒɑːnrə], but it is

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incorrectly articulated as [gɜːnrɜ] by the learners. The third deviation takes place when sound [ʒ]
is replaced by sound [s]. The example of this deviation is in the word ‘unusual’ in which this
word should be pronounced [ʌnjuːʒəl], but it is pronounced [ʌnjuːsuəl] by the learners.
The problem in producing sound [z]
The last consonant which also becomes a problem to the learners is sound [z]. This sound is also
known as voiced alveolar fricative. Many learners make deviations when producing this sound.
They tend to replace sound [z] with sound [s] as in the word ‘result’. In English, this word should
be pronounced [rɪˈzʌlt], but it is pronounced [rɪˈsʌlt]. According to this study, the substitution of
sound [z] with [s] only takes place in the medial position under two phonological environments
i.e. the first; the change of sound [z] to [s] is preceded followed by a vowel as in the word
‘present’. The pronunciation of this word should be [prɛzənt], but it becomes [prɛsənt] in which
sound [z] is replaced by sound [s] because it is preceded by a vowel [ɛ] and is followed by a
vowel [ə], the second; sound [z] is changed to sound [s] when it is preceded by a consonant and
is followed by a vowel or a diphthong e.g. in the word ‘example’, its pronunciation changes from
[ɪgˈzæmpəl] to [ɪgˈsæmpəl] because it is preceded by a consonant [g] and is followed by a
diphthong [æ].
Following the research results, the researchers of this study recommend that both English
learners and teachers, whose mother tongue is Indonesian need to be aware of the pronunciation
of the six observed English consonantal sounds. Therefore, they need to learn the articulation of
the sounds well that they are able to make the sounds correctly. Learning the articulation of the
sounds means to use phonetics as a valuable tool for improving English pronunciation.

b. The problems of producing English Vowels

According to Odden (2005), the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) divides English
sounds into fifty eight consonants and twenty eight vowels. The vowels consist of monophthongs
(pure vowels) and diphthongs. Among those pure vowels that exist in English, there are six pairs
of vowels that also known as Short Vowels and Long Vowels. They are [I], [e], [æ], [ʌ], [ɒ], [ʊ]
known as short vowels and [i], [ɜ], [ɑ], [ɔ], [u], [ɚ] called long vowels (Roach, 2000). Just like
consonants, the Indonesian learners of English also encounter problems regarding vowel sounds
production. In 2013, Riadi carried out a research on Indonesian learners’ problems in
pronouncing vowels. The results of the study indicate that many learners have problems in
pronouncing short and long English vowels. There are at least four problems identified in the
learners’ vowel sound production i.e. the first; the learners tend to pronounce English vowels as
the way they pronounce vowels in their mother tongue, the second; the learners tend to
pronounce the word longer if the word has double same vowels, even though the word should
not be pronounced long, the third; the learners also tend to pronounce a word short if it has only
one vowel. In addition, Habibi, M.W. (2016) also conducted a research on the problems of
Indonesian learners of English in English pronunciation and found that the learners encounter
problems regarding English vowels and diphthongs. The following discussions illustrate how the
learners make deviations in producing vowels and diphthongs of English.

The problem in producing sound [I]

Sound [I] is a short vowel which becomes a problem to the learners. In articulating this sound,
they tend to replace sound [I] with [ɜ] in the initial position and in the medial position. The
replacement of sound [I] with [ɜ] in the initial position can be seen in the word ‘examin’. In

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English, this word should be pronounced [ɪgˈzæmɪn], but the learners replace sound [I] with
sound [ɜ] which results in [ɜgˈzæmɪn]. Besides, the replacement of sound [I] with [ɜ] in the
medial position can be seen in the word ‘perfect’ in which this word ought to be pronounced
[pɜrˌfɪkt], but the learners pronounce it as [pɜrˌfɜkt].

The problem in producing sound [i:]

Sound [i:] is a long vowel which also becomes a problem to the learners. It is called long vowel
because it is pronounced a little bit longer than short vowels. When the learners pronounce this
sound, they tend to make deviations by replacing the sound with sound [e] and []. According to
this research, the replacement only occurs in the medial position. The substitution of sound [i:]
with [e] can be seen in the word ‘these’. In English, this word should be pronounced [ðiːz], but
the learners pronounce it as [ðez]. The replacement of sound [i:] with [] can bee seen in the
word ‘theses’. The learners tend to pronounce it as [t:sis] instead of [θiːsiːz] as the correct
pronunciation.
The problem in producing sound []
Sound [] is another short vowel in English which also becomes a problematic vowel sound to
Indonesian learners of English. In their effort to pronounce this sound, the learners tend to
replace it with sound [ə] and [ei]. The replacement of sound [] with [ə] is found in the
pronunciation of the word ‘general’ in which the learners tend to pronounce it as [ˈʤənərəl]
instead of [ˈʤɛnərəl] as the correct one. In addition, the substitution of sound [] with [ei] is
called diphthongization which means a pure vowel is changed to be a diphthong. This deviation
can be seen in the pronunciation of the word ‘said’ in which the learners tend to pronounce it as
[seid] instead of [sɛd].
The problem in producing sound [ʊ]
This sound seems to be one of problematic vowel sounds to the learners. It becomes problematic
because the learners ten to make deviation when producing this sound by replacing it with sound
[u:]. This study reports that the deviation only occurs in medial position. For example, when the
learners are required to pronounce the word ‘good’, they tend to pronounce it as [gu:d] instead of
[gʊd]. Another example of the deviation can be found as the learners pronounce the word ‘look’.
They tend to pronounce it as [lu:k] instead of [lʊk].
The problem in producing sound [ʌ]
Another vowel sound which is felt problematic to pronounce by the learners is sound [ʌ]. In their
effort to pronounce it, they tend to replace it with sound [a]. This error can be found when the
learners are required to pronounce the word ‘multiple’. In English, this word ought to be
pronounced [ˈmʌltɪpl]. However, the learners tend to pronounce it as [maltipl].
The problem in producing sound [ɜː]
This sound is another long vowel which is also felt difficult to pronounce by the Indonesian
learners of English. When the learners are required to pronounce this sound, they make
deviations by replacing it with sound [i:] and sound [ɒ]. The first deviation occurs when the
learners replace sound [ɜː] with sound [i:] as in the word ‘heard’. This should be pronounced
[hɜːd], but the learners tend to pronounce it as [hiɜːrd]. The second deviation takes place when
the learners replace sound [ɜː] with sound [ɒ]. The example of such deviation can be found in the

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Dr. Andi Kaharuddin, M.Hum

word ‘world’. In English, this word should be pronounced [wɜːld], but the learners tend to
pronounce it as [wɒːrld].

The problem about exchanging sound [ɒ] and [ɔ:]

Sound [ɒ] seems to be a problem of English vowel sounds felt difficult to be articulated by the
learners. When the learners are required to articulate it, many of them deviate the correct
articulation by replacing it with sound [ɔ:] e.g. in articulating the word ‘knowledge’, the learners
commonly pronounce it as [knə:lɪʤ] instead of [ˈnɒlɪʤ]. Another example of the deviation also
occurs in the word ‘apologize’. The correct pronunciation of this word is [əˈpɒləʤaɪz], but the
learners articulate it as [əˈpɔ:ləʤaɪz]. In addition to the replacement of sound [ɒ] with sound
[ə:], the learners also deviate the production of sound [ɔ] by replacing it with sound [ɒ]. This
deviation can be seen when the learners pronounce the word ‘source’. They tend to pronounce it
as [sɒrs] instead of [sɔrs].
The problem in producing sound [ə]
Sound [ə] is also felt as a problematic sound by the learners. In their effort to pronounce the
sound, they tend to replace it with sound [ɔ], [ɒ], [a], [] and [u]. The replacement commonly
occurs in the medial position. The deviation of replacing [ə] with [ɔ] can be found when the
learners are required to pronounce the word ‘promote’. This word is pronounced [prɔˈmoʊt]
instead of [prəˈmoʊt]. The deviation of replacing [ə] with [ɒ] occurs in the pronunciation of the
word ‘produce’ in which this word is sometimes incorrectly pronounced as [ˈprɒdjuːs] instead of
[ˈprədjuːs]. The replacement of sound [ə] with sound [a] can be found in the pronunciation of the
word ‘appropriate’. The learners pronounce it as [aˈproʊpriət] but not [əˈproʊpriət]. The
replacement of sound [ə] with sound [] can be illustrated when the learners are required to
pronounce the word ‘instrument’ in which they tend to pronounce it as [ˈɪnstrəmnt] instead of
[ˈɪnstrəmənt]. The last, the replacement of sound [ə] with sound [u] can be found as the learners
pronounce the word ‘corpus’. The word should be pronounced [kɔrpəs], but it is pronounced
[kɔrpus] by the learners.
The problem in producing diphthong [aɪ]
This research also found that producing diphthong [aɪ] is also a problem in pronouncing English
vowels. In this regard, the learners replace diphthong [aɪ] with [I] as in the word ‘identify’. In
English, this word should be pronounced [aɪˈdɛntəˌfaɪ], but the learners tend to pronounce it as
[ɪˈdɛntiˌfaɪ].
The problem in producing diphthong [eɪ]
In addition to the difficulty of producing diphthong [aɪ], the learners also find it difficult to make
the sound of diphthong [eɪ]. For this sound, the learners tend to replace it with sound [] and
sound [i:]. For example, as the learners are required to pronounce the word ‘make’, they do not
pronounce it as [meɪk], but this word is pronounced [mk] by the learners. Another example of
this diphthong’s deviation can be found in the word ‘break’ in which the learners replace
diphthong [eɪ] with sound [i:]. This word is pronounced [bri:k] by the learners instead of [breɪk].
The problem in producing diphthong [iə]
Producing diphthong [iə] in English seems to be one of problematic sounds to the learners. In the
learners’ effort to pronounce this diphthong, they make deviations by replacing it with sound [ʊ].

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This deviation can be found as the learners are required to pronounce the word ‘obvious’. In
English, this word is pronounced [ɑbviəs], but it is then pronounced [ɑbviʊs] by the learners.
Another example of this deviation is also found in the word ‘previous’ in which this word should
be pronounced [priviəs], but it is pronounced [priviʊs].
The problem in producing diphthong [oʊ]
Diphthong [oʊ] is also felt as a problematic sound to the learners. when the learners should
pronounce this sound as in the word ‘over’ which should be pronounced [oʊvər], they they tend
to deviate the sound production by replacing sound [oʊ] with sound [o:] which has made the
pronunciation of the word become [o:vər]. This deviation is also found in the word ‘spoken’. In
English, it ought to be pronounced [ˈspoʊkən], but the learners tend to pronounce it [ˈspo:kən].
The results of the aforementioned researches indicate that Indonesian learners of English
are really facing a serious problem regarding English vowel sounds’ articulation. The problem
comes out due to the learners’ unfamiliarity with the sounds which then turns into confusion to
distinguish among the vowel sounds and inability to make the sounds correctly. According to
Riadi (2013), this confusion occurs because of two main causal factors. The first, the learners do
not have knowledge of English phonetic system before they learn English pronunciation. The
knowledge of English phonetics is very helpful to make the learners familiar with English vowel
sounds which do not exist in Indonesian e.g. English long vowels. The second, even if some
learners are familiar with the vowels because they have been introduced in the beginning of their
study, they are still unable to pronounce the vowels correctly because they rarely practice to
pronounce the short and long English vowels either inside or outside the classroom. Therefore, as
a researcher, he strongly suggests the learners to learn English phonetics and to practice it more
and more before learning English pronunciation. He believes that these efforts will help them to
gain a good foundation for good English pronunciation.
What Riadi suggests is relevant to Townshend’s (2014) opinion regarding some efforts that
foreign learners of English need to do to improve their English pronunciation. According to Townshend
(2014), learners of English cannot simply copy their teacher to be able to make a specific sound in
English correctly. If a particular phoneme doesn’t exist in the learners’ native language, they
may actually struggle to hear that sound, let alone reproduce it accurately. For the reason, he
further suggests that one way to draw attention to foreign sounds is to show the learners how to
form the English sounds in their mouths. Sounds are formed by using the ‘articulators’ or organs
of the mouth, nose and throat. These include the upper and lower lips, the teeth, the tongue, the
larynx, the pharynx, the hard and soft palates and the uneven tissue positioned behind the top
teeth, called the alveolar ridge. Those things are all about phonetics. When teaching English
pronunciation, English teachers should be able to show exactly how to form the English sounds
by using their speech organs. This will help the learners to minimize or even to avoid
pronunciation errors.
With respect to the above suggestions, Pallawa (2013) also comments that phonetic
system plays a major role in learning to pronounce and to read words, sentences or paragraphs in
a foreign language particularly English. According to him, English sounds to Indonesian learners
create many problems. The problems can be seen obviously in the errors that they make when
producing the sounds both vowels and consonants. In this regard, Pallawa (2013) is one of the
opinion that constant interference of the native language systems of the students on the target
language is the causal factor. In line with Pallawa’s opinion, Brown (2000) also claims that the
principle barrier to second language acquisition is the interference of the first language system
with the second language system, and that a scientific, structural analysis of the two languages in

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questions would yield a taxonomy of linguistic contrasts between them which in turn would
enable the linguist to predict the difficulties a learner would encounter. In addition, Whilst,
Storkel, (2003) confirms that since the learner tends to transfer the habits of his native language
structure to the foreign language, we have here the major source of difficulty or ease in learning
the structure of a foreign language. Those structures that are similar will be easy to learn because
they will be transferred and may function satisfactorily in the foreign language. Those structures
that are different will be difficult because when transferred, they will not function satisfactorily
in the foreign language and will therefore have to be changed. Therefore, to minimize the effect
of the native language, especially in pronunciation, Pallawa further recommends that successful
acquisition of phonological representations needs accurate perception of phonemic because it has
been proved empirically that phonetic system helps in the development of fine reading and
speaking.