Classifications of Different Types of Materials

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Use of Materials in different sectors:

Transportation, housing, clothing, communication, recreation, Medical, Military,

food production etc.

Metals

Common Materials Advanced Materials

• Metals • Semiconductors
• Ceramics • Biomaterials
• Polymers • Smart Materials Polymers Ceramics

• Composites • Nano materials Wood is a composite – it is made from long cellulose fibres (a polymer)
held together by a much weaker substance called lignin.
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Courtesy: Google Images
 Engineering Materials
Metals: Ceramics:
Compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most
One or more metallic elements (e.g., iron, aluminum, copper,
frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides
titanium, gold, and nickel), and often also nonmetallic elements
aluminum oxide (or alumina, Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2), silicon
(e.g., carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen) in relatively small amounts
carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4) clay minerals (i.e., porcelain)
as well as cement and glass.
Orderly arranged
Dense
Covalent or ionic bonding
Relatively Stiff and Strong
Ductile(i.e., capable of large amounts of deformation without Relatively stiff and strong—stiffnesses and strengths are comparable to
those of the metals
fracture)
Resistant to fracture Newer ceramics are being engineered to have improved
resistance to fracture; these materials are used for cookware, cutlery,
Large numbers of nonlocalized electrons and even automobile engine parts
Extremely good conductors of electricity and heat
Insulative to the passage of heat and electricity and are
Not transparent to visible light; a polished metal surface has a more resistant to high temperatures and harsh environments than metals
lustrous appearance.
May be transparent, translucent, or opaque, and some of the
oxide ceramics (e.g., Fe3O4) exhibit magnetic behavior

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Polymers Composites
Plastic and rubber materials. A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials

Many of them are organic compounds that are chemically based on carbon, The design goal of a composite is to achieve a combination of properties
hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements (i.e., O, N, and Si). to incorporate the best characteristics of each of the component materials.
large molecular structures,
A large number of composite types are represented by
often chainlike in nature, that often have a backbone of carbon different combinations of metals, ceramics, and polymers.
atoms. Some of the common and familiar polymers are polyethylene (PE), nylon,
poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS) Some naturally occurring materials are composites wood and bone.
and silicone rubber.
Most common and familiar composites is fiberglass, in which
Low densities, not as stiff nor as strong as these other material types Small glass fibers are embedded within a polymeric material
However, on the basis of their low densities, many times their stiffnesses and (normally an epoxy or polyester).
strengths on a per-mass basis are comparable to the metals and ceramics.
The glass fibers are relatively strong and stiff
Extremely ductile and pliable (i.e., plastic), which means they are easily formed (but also brittle), whereas the polymer is more flexible. Thus, fiberglass is relatively
Into complex shapes. In general, they are relatively inert chemically and stiff, strong, and flexible. In addition, it has a low density.
unreactive in a large number of environments.
Another technologically important material is the carbon fiber–reinforced polymer
One major drawback to the polymers is their tendency (CFRP) composite—carbon fibers that are embedded within a polymer. These
to soften and/or decompose at modest temperatures, which, in some instances, materials are stiffer and stronger than glass fiber–reinforced materials
Limits their use. Furthermore, they have low electrical conductivities and are
nonmagnetic.

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Tensile Strength Fracture Toughness

Electrical Conductivity

GFRC: Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete

CFRC: Carbon Fiber Reinforced Concrete
PE:Polyethylene
PC:Polycarbonate
PS:Polystyrene
PVC: Polyvinyl chloride 5
A SUPERALLOY, OR HIGH-PERFORMANCE ALLOY, is an alloy with the ability to operate at a high fraction of its melting point.

excellent mechanical strength, resistance to thermal creep deformation, good surface stability, and resistance to corrosion or oxidation.

The crystal structure is typically face-centered cubic (FCC) .

Examples of such alloys are Hastelloy, Inconel, Waspaloy, Rene alloys, Incoloy.

Superalloy development has relied heavily on both chemical and process innovations.

Superalloys develop high temperature strength through solid solution strengthening and precipitation strengthening from secondary
phase precipitates such as gamma prime and carbides.

Oxidation or corrosion resistance is provided by elements such as aluminium and chromium.

Superalloys are often cast as a single crystal—while grain boundaries may provide strength at low temperatures, they decrease creep
resistance.

The primary application for such alloys is in aerospace and marine turbine engines.

Creep is typically the lifetime-limiting factor in gas turbine blades.

Superalloys are the materials which have made much of very-high-temperature engineering technology possible.

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 Advanced Materials
Semiconductors
Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between the electrical conductors (i.e., metals and metal alloys) and
insulators (i.e., ceramics and polymers). Furthermore, the electrical characteristics of these materials are extremely sensitive to the presence
of minute concentrations of impurity atoms, for which the concentrations may be controlled over very small spatial regions. Semiconductors
have made possible the advent of integrated circuitry that has totally revolutionized the electronics and computer industries (not to mention
our lives) over the past three decades.

Biomaterials
Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human body to replace diseased or damaged body parts. These materials
must not produce toxic substances and must be compatible with body tissues (i.e., must not cause adverse biological reactions). All of the
preceding materials—metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, and semiconductors—may be used as biomaterials..

Smart Materials
Smart (or intelligent) materials are a group of new and state-of-the-art materials now being developed that will have a significant influence on
many of our technologies. The adjective smart implies that these materials are able to sense changes in their environment and then respond to
these changes in predetermined manners—traits that are also found in living organisms. In addition, this “smart” concept is being extended to
rather sophisticated systems that consist of both smart and traditional materials.
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 Advanced Materials A MEMS (micro-electromechanical
system) is a miniature machine
• Piezoelectric Materials that has both mechanical and
electronic components.
• Shape Memory Alloys (SMA)
The physical dimension of
• Micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) a MEMS can range from several
Piezoelectric millimeters to less than one
micrometer, a dimension many
times smaller than the width of a
human hair
SMA MEMS

MEMS
Fig. 1 Direct Effect

Fig. 2 Indirect Effect 8

Nanomaterials (Bottom Up Approach) e.g. Graphene
Nanomaterials may be any one of the four basic types—metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites. However, unlike these
other materials, they are not distinguished on the basis of their chemistry, but rather, size; the nano-prefix denotes that the
dimensions of these structural entities are on the order of a nanometer (10–9 m)—as a rule, less than 100 nanometers
(equivalent to approximately 500 atom diameters).

CNT

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Summary

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Space Lattice and Unit Cells

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 + =

Lattice Motif Crystal

(How to repeat) (What to repeat)

Lattice: 3D periodic arrangements of POINTS in space.

Crystal: 3D periodic arrangements of ATOMS in space.

Motif or Basis: An atom or group of atoms associated with each lattice point.
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Note that not all white discs
within this pattern are exactly
equivalent, and therefore
they are not all lattice points.

The discs marked with a black

spot have different
arrangements around them
than those that are unmarked
(each is surrounded by 3
others in a triangle, but the
orientation of the triangles is
different)
TEM Image

Significance of Studying Crystal Structures

Material properties depend on material crystal structures.

Materials characterization techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) are based
on crystallography 13
 Lattice Crystal
• 3D arrangement of POINTS • 3D arrangement of ATOMS

• Gives underlying periodicity of crystal • Atoms which are repeated periodically

• Geometrical concept • Physical Object

• Have Geometrical properties • Weight, density, electrical conductivity

Amorphous Crystalline
Materials Materials
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Courtesy: Slideshare
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 Types of Arrangement

Random Periodic

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 Atomic arrangement
Solid

Crystalline Amorphous

Crystalline – periodic arrangement of atoms: definite repetitive pattern

Non-crystalline or Amorphous – random arrangement of atoms.
The periodicity of atoms in crystalline solids can be described by a network of points in space called lattice.
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 Space lattice
 Space Lattice: Three dimensional array of points, each of
which has identical surroundings.

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The atomic order in crystalline solids indicates that small groups of atoms form a repetitive pattern.

Unit Cell: The smallest repetitive unit of a crystal.

There are two distinct types of unit

cell: primitive and non-primitive.

Primitive unit cells contain only one

lattice point, which is made up from the
lattice points at each of the corners.

Non-primitive unit cells contain

additional lattice points, either on a face
of the unit cell or within the unit cell,
and so have more than one lattice point
per unit cell.

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 Unit Cell

α = the angle between b and c

β = the angle between a and c
γ = the angle between a and b

Because there are many different possible crystal structures, it is sometimes convenient to divide them
into groups according to unit cell configurations and/or atomic arrangements.

One such scheme is based on the unit cell geometry.

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 Crystal Systems
 The unit vectors a, b and c are called lattice parameters. Based on their length equality or inequality and

their orientation (the angles between them, α, β, γ) a total of 7 crystal systems can be defined.

 With the centering (face, base and body centering) added to these, 14 kinds of 3D lattices, known as Bravais

lattices, can be generated. (Many of several crystal systems have variation in Unit cells. A.J Bravais (1811-

1863), French Crystallographer showed that 14 standard unit cells can describe all possible lattice networks)

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 Example of Dense Metallic Crystal Structure

A hard-sphere A reduced-sphere unit An aggregate of many

unit cell cell atoms
representation

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Crystal Systems (Cont’d…)

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Crystal Systems (Cont’d…)

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Crystal Systems (Cont’d…)

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Crystal Systems (Cont’d…)

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Crystal Systems (Cont’d…)

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Crystal Systems (Cont’d…)

End Centred or
Base Centred

Primitive Unit Cell: Atoms only

at the corners

Non-Primitive Unit Cell: Atoms

are on faces also other than
the corners

I Body-centered Corners + Body centres

F Face-centered Corners + All face centres
C End centered Corners + One pair of parallel face centres
or Base-
centered 29