Istec Vibration Training Category 1+

Summary module 1 – 8
This summary document is a written version of the summary videos, and covers the
most important takeaways for each module. The explanation of terms in bold can be
found in the Vibration training word-list, which is included in the Appendix of the
training.

Module 1: The principles of vibration

We measure vibration on rotating machinery as it provides valuable information of its
condition. By doing so with a certain interval or even continuous, we can see trends in
the vibration behavior of the machine. We can analyze vibration to determine the root
causes of changing vibration behavior, and to adjust our maintenance schedule
accordingly. Vibration measurements allow us to set up a condition monitoring
program, which is key to predictive maintenance strategies.

Every object is vibrating at a certain frequency, the so-called natural frequency.

Mechanical vibrations are repetitive movements of a mass during a certain

timeframe. A mass-spring-damper system shows how these vibrations works, and
how it will generate a sinusoidal waveform. Rotating machines consist of multiple
mass-spring-damper systems. Refer to chapter 1.1 to watch the animated explanation
of mass-spring-damper systems.

Without damping the motion of the mass will continue forever. In reality damping is
always present.

We distinguish three types of vibration:

• A-periodic vibrations: random vibrations, not repeated over time.

• Transient vibrations: vibrations of short duration, but repeated over time.
• Periodic vibrations: continuously present vibrations, which are repetitive.

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 Amplitude, period and frequency are important parameters for vibration
measurements.

• Amplitude (unit: A) represents the severity of a vibration signal; the higher the
amplitude, the stronger the vibration.
• Period (unit: T) represents the time in which the signal has completed a full
cycle.
• Frequency (unit: Hertz) represents the amount of periods per second and is the
inverse of the period.

The vibration level can be expressed in peak-to-peak, 0-peak or RMS, all of which are
dependent on the amplitude.

Frequency is calculated with this formula:

1 𝑛𝑛
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓[𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻] = =
𝑇𝑇[𝑠𝑠] 𝑡𝑡

Vibration can have many causes, which are known as fault conditions. These are the
most common causes:

• Misalignment
• Unbalance
• Resonance
• Damaged or worn out gears
• Looseness
• Bearing damage

When excessive vibrations can develop undetected, the following effects may occur:

• Safety issues
• Machine damage
• Reduced machine availability
• Unscheduled downtime
• Supply issues due to reduced availability or unscheduled stops
• Unnecessary maintenance

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 • Semi-finished products that may need to be discarded
• Quality issues

We can indicate vibration with the parameters displacement (unit: s), velocity (unit:
v) and acceleration (unit: a). Based on the graph below, we can see that the amplitude
is highest at low frequencies for displacement and highest at high frequencies for
acceleration.

The relation between the parameters can be shown by visualizing the application of a
static force. The reaction can be expressed with simple formulas:

F = k times s, where s is the displacement

F = c times v, where v is the velocity
F = m times a, where a is the acceleration

When we look at a vibration time waveform, it is difficult to recognize the individual

frequencies.

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 To be able to identify potential causes of excessive vibrations, the Fast Fourier
Transformation (FFT) is used.

An FFT makes each frequency within a specified frequency range visible, and allows us
to perform a spectrum analysis. By performing this analysis a vibration analyst can
determine the cause of the deviation from normal vibration behavior.

Operating at critical speeds should be avoided with rotating machines, as this is where
resonance occurs. Resonance has a potentially destructive effect on the machine or
specific machine components. We can determine the natural frequencies of a machine
with a bump test or impact test, or the coast down peak hold method. The natural
frequency can also be calculated, but for that we need to know the parameters
stiffness (unit: k) and mass (unit: m), which is often not the case.

We can change the natural frequency by changing the stiffness or the mass:

• Increasing mass or decreasing stiffness will decrease the natural frequency

• Decreasing mass or increasing stiffness will increase the natural frequency

We can change stiffness by adding dampers to the machine or making changes to its
foundation.

We can change mass by changing the weight of the machine or certain machine
components.

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 Module 2: Data acquisition
There are various vibration measurement instruments:

• Portable data collectors

• Portable multi-channel devices
• Online vibration measurement systems

We distinguish offline and online vibration measurements:

• Offline vibration measurements are carried out with a portable measurement

device. This often involves manual periodic measurements.
• Online vibration measurements are carried out with advanced measurement
equipment. These systems support continuous vibration measurements and
can shut down the machine when vibration thresholds are surpassed.

Module 1 covered the parameters to quantify vibration; displacement, velocity and

acceleration. For each of these parameters we use a specific sensor:

Displacement sensors are typically used for measurements in a frequency range of 0

to 1500 Hz.

Velocity sensor are typically used for measurements in a frequency range of 0 to

1000 Hz.

Accelerometers are the most commonly used vibration sensors. They can be used for
both low and high frequency measurements.

There are multiple factors that should be taken into account when installing a
vibration sensor, which largely determine the most suitable sensor type:

• The targeted measurement frequency

• Whether the sensor is temporarily or permanently installed
• The required cable length
• The temperature the sensor has to be able to withstand
• The required measurement point

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 • The measurement direction; especially for velocity sensors, which can often
only measure in one direction.

Vibration sensors need to be tested and calibrated to ensure proper functioning

throughout their lifespan. We can do so using several methods:

• With a shaker table. This method can be used for any vibration sensor type.
• With a polarity check. This method is used for accelerometers and velocity
sensors.
• Scale factor verification. This method is used for displacement sensors.

The data from the vibration measurements can be analyzed using corresponding
software. A measurement route is followed to perform preset measurements, on
preset machines, and with preset settings.

While performing vibration measurements, it is important to recognize poor data.

Performing an analysis on poor or corrupted data could lead to wrong conclusions
about the condition of the machine.

Two known forms of signal distortion are:

• Signal clipping, which can be caused by an insufficient sensor range or during

the digitization of the signal.
• Ski slope or wash-over, which can occur when the maximum gain of the
amplifier is approached.

Some points of attention when signal distortion occurs are:

• The sensor requires sufficient settling time

• The sensor should be correctly mounted
• The condition of the cable should be checked
• The sensor should be connected correctly

Module 3: Signal processing

To make vibration data more usable and to be able to perform vibration analyses, we
use the Fast Fourier Transform, known as FFT. FFT’s provide a lot of information

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 about the deviations in machine vibration behavior, and help to determine the root
cause. Some important takeaways regarding FFT’s are:

• An FFT helps an analyst with differentiating normal machine vibrations from

deviating vibrations.
• FFT’s allow us to relate vibrations to specific forcing frequencies, and
subsequently, to individual machine components.
• Some fault conditions can relatively easily be recognized by looking at the FFT
spectrum.
• An FFT visualizes different forcing frequencies and their amplitudes within a
specific frequency range.

When looking at an FFT spectrum remember the following:

• The Y-axis shows the amplitudes

• The X-axis shows the frequencies, from 0 to the maximum frequency (or Fmax)
• Each line on the grid of an FFT represents a narrow frequency range, of which
each has an equal distance from each other.
• The line resolution, expressed in Hertz, can be calculated by dividing the
maximum frequency with the total amount of lines in the spectrum.

Spectra can be stored and compared to be able to see changes over time. A waterfall
plot visualizes the comparison of the frequency components over time. The spectra
are plotted behind each other.

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 Module 4: Condition monitoring
Condition monitoring has become an important part of any industrial environment,
as it enables condition-based maintenance, or CBM. Condition monitoring allows us
to identify machine issues at a relatively early stage, before major damages occur.

Vibration monitoring is one of the ways that can be used for a CBM strategy. The P-F
interval graph shows that vibration is one of the first parameters of which changes
are detectable, from the moment a failure starts developing.

We distinguish four different maintenance strategies:

• Reactive maintenance. The machine remains operational until a failure occurs.

• Preventive maintenance. The machine or machine components are replaced
or repaired with a fixed interval or after a certain amount of operational hours.
• Predictive maintenance. The machine or machine components are replaced or
repaired based on their condition.
• Proactive maintenance. Similar as predictive maintenance, but this strategy is
focused on the issue that causes the symptoms.

Which maintenance strategy fits a specific machine best depends on several factors,
such as: risk, costs, safety, and availability.

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 We distinguish three types of vibration monitoring:

• Periodic vibration monitoring: uses a fixed measurement interval to monitor

vibrations.
• Online vibration monitoring: continuous vibration monitoring with a
permanent measurement set-up.
• Remote vibration monitoring: uses monitoring hardware with network access,
to enable remote monitoring and analysis.

Reliable vibration data is very important, as the analysis and the conclusions that are
drawn from it are based on this data. A vibration analyst should be able to recognize
poor data. Whether the data is reliable depends on factors like:

• Correct sensor mounting

• Correct manual measurements
• Ensuring the vibration data is matched to the correct machine or machine
component

When the data is deemed reliable, the data is uploaded to a software program which
allows the analyst to look at the trend or spectral data. Historic data of the same
measurement can be compared to review possible changes.

The following steps can be followed:

1. Identification of excessive vibrations or changes in vibration behavior

2. Diagnosis of the probable cause
3. Analysis of machine for diagnosis confirmation
4. Required corrective actions are determined
5. Corrective actions are executed
6. Effect of corrective actions are reviewed by checking vibration levels

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 Module 5 & 6: Fault analysis & corrective actions
Some fault conditions that occur with rotating machinery are easier to identify than
others. The information FFT spectra provide us with indicate the most probable fault
conditions.

We can use phase measurements to confirm our initial diagnosis. Phase helps us to
locate some fault conditions, such as unbalance and looseness. We can say that phase
is the direction of the vibration signal. With phase measurements we can determine
whether the rotating components are in-phase or out-of-phase, resulting in different
sinusoidal waveforms.

in-phase out-of-phase

When looking at certain FFT spectra we can recognize plot characteristics that are
specific to some fault conditions. This helps us with diagnosing the cause of excessive
vibrations.

When the fault condition has been diagnosed, the ISO vibration severity chart can be
used to indicate the vibration limits of specific machine components. This chart
classifies whether or not a machine is fit for operation, based on the vibration levels.
Aside from the ISO, OEM’s and end-users may have stricter vibration limits.

Some basic maintenance actions are:

• Cleaning the machine or its individual components

• Lubricating machine components
• Observing deviations during inspection rounds

There are some points of attention when dealing with specific fault conditions:

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 • Unbalance: residual unbalance is always present, but the machine should be
within the tolerable range for unbalance.
• Misalignment: the tolerances for misalignments become stricter as the
rotational speed of the shaft increases. Refer to the alignment tolerance table
in the Appendix.
• Looseness: structural looseness and rotating looseness require very different
maintenance actions. However, in both cases the impact of these actions can
both be small and large.
o Small impact: a loose bolt that needs tightening.
o Large impact: the shaft needs to be taken out of the machine for repair.
• Bearing damage: the stage of the bearing damage determines what
maintenance action should be taken. Note that high frequency measurements
are needed to detect bearing damage at an early stage.

Module 7: Equipment knowledge

Electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy and drive machines
like fans, pumps, machine tools, and blowers. There are AC and DC variants.

Electric generators convert mechanical energy into electric power; the opposite of an
electric motor.

On both machines, vibration measurements are performed on:

• The shaft
• The rotor
• The bearings supporting the rotor
• The foundation

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 Centrifugal pumps are the most commonly used pumps. They pump liquid with an
impeller by making use of centrifugal forces.

By mounting vibration sensors on or near the bearing housings of the pump,

preferably in radial and axial direction, we measure vibration of the following
components:

• The impeller
• The shaft
• The bearings

Cavitation can be measured by placing a vibration sensor as close as possible to the

impeller; on the pump housing measuring in radial direction.

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 The most commonly used industrial fans are axial fans and centrifugal fans.

Axial fans are used to move high volumes of air, but with low pressure.
Centrifugal fans are used to move lower volumes of air, but with higher pressure.

By mounting vibration sensors on or near the bearing housings of the fan, preferably
in radial and axial direction, we measure vibration of the following components:

• The impeller
• The shaft
• The bearings

We distinguish dynamic compressors and positive displacement compressors.

Centrifugal compressor Rotary compressor

Dynamic compressor Positive displacement compressor

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 The most commonly used type of dynamic compressor is the centrifugal compressor,
which pressurizes gaseous media by using centrifugal forces.

By mounting vibration sensors on or near the bearing housings of the compressor, we

measure vibration of the following components:

• The impeller
• The foundation
• The bearings

The most commonly used type of positive displacement compressors is the rotary
screw compressor, which pressurizes a gaseous medium by trapping the medium
between two rotors, of which the spacing becomes smaller as it moves down the
screw.

By mounting vibration sensors on or near the bearing housings of the compressor, we

measure vibration of the following components:

• The rotary screws

• The foundation
• The bearings

Paper machines are very complex machines, which can have as many as 200 to 400
bearings. As every process of the machine is connected to each other, a bearing
failure causes standstill of the entire machine.

Paper machines have several sections, consisting of multiple rotating components:

• The sheet forming section consists of feed pumps, pulverizers, mixers and
suction rollers.
• The pressing section consists of press rollers and felt rollers.
• The drying section consists of steam-heated press rollers.
• The calender section consists of multiple hard pressure rollers.

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 Vibration sensors are placed on the bearing housings of the machine, particularly
those that have a history of failing.

Rolling mills are used to decrease the thickness, while increasing the length of the
material. These machines are often used in the steel industry. In the hot rolling
process of a steel plant, rolling mills are found in the roughing mill and the finishing
mill.

Vibration sensors are placed on the bearing housings of the machine, to detect
vibration of the shaft, the bearings, and the foundation.

Machine tools or CNC machines are stationary power-driven machines that are used
to shape or form materials. Examples are:

• Drilling machines
• Milling machines
• Lathes
• Grinding machines

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 The precision that is required from these machines is extremely high. This means that
the vibration level tolerance is very low; the smallest presence of a fault condition can
have a major impact on the process.

Typically, vibration sensors are placed on the drive end and non-drive end of the
machine, as close as possible to the bearings. The sensors should measure in axial and
radial direction to detect vibration on the bearings and gears.

Structures and piping are affected by the vibrations that rotating machinery produce.
Vibration in structures and piping can also be the result of external factors, such as
wind, earth quakes and passing vehicles.

Vibration measurement points for structures and pipelines are typically at or close to
critical components, and if possible in radial and axial direction:

• Close to bends in pipelines

• Close to the piping support
• Between the pipping supports
• Close to mounting brackets
• Between the mounting brackets

Piping and structural vibration can be reduced with several common methods:

• By adding support to the main piping and structure

• By adding damping to the main piping and structure
• By reinforcing small sized branch pipes, such as drains and vents
• By reducing specific forcing frequencies of the machine, if this is possible

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 Gearboxes are used to transmit movement or to change the rotational speed or
direction.

They have unique frequencies at which vibrations occur. The gear mesh frequency,
the input speed and output speed are critical frequencies for vibration measurements
on gearboxes.

Typically, vibration sensors are placed as close as possible to the bearings. The
vibration of the shafts and gears transfers onto the bearings. If possible, the sensors
should measure both in radial and axial direction of each bearing.

Module 8 – Acceptance testing

During an acceptance test vibration measurements are used on new or overhauled
machinery to determine whether the vibration level is within the specified thresholds
of the machine and its individual components. It minimizes the risk of premature
machine failures or defective components.

Acceptance tests are carried out with a test protocol, which includes the test
objectives, procedures, conditions, and an overview of the vibration measurements
that should be performed.

The acceptance criteria are based on the ISO vibration severity chart, and OEM and
end-user requirements.

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 Two acceptance tests are distinguished:

• A factory acceptance test, or FAT

• A site acceptance test, or SAT

Acceptance tests take effort, but are important for the uptime, reliability and safety
of the machines.

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