PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING | CHAPTER 1: THE TEACHER AND TEACHING PROFESSION

by: Cristine Joy M. Alcabale | BS Psychology 3-Y2-5

and challenges in education through various in-service
education programs.
THE TEACHER AND TEACHING PROFESSION

o Teaching has always been thought of as one of the noblest of professions,

and a teacher, likewise, one of the noblest human beings. The Effective Teacher
o The school is very much alive when the teachers are dynamic, alert and
o Teacher is one of the most rewarding of professions.
zealous of their teaching, research and service functions.
o Teaching, is an exquisite art since teachers are tasked to mold the minds of
o The teacher is not just a cog in the wheel, he is the wheel in the total
pupils/students in the classroom.
complex of the educational system.
o Effective teachers must have the mastery of the subject matter. Mastery of
o Teaching may also be viewed in different perspectives. Some people view
the subject calls for the teachers expertise in their own field. It also needs
that teaching is both art and a science.
their ability to let concepts be understandable to the learners.
o It is an art because it calls for the exercise of talent such as creativity and
o This means that the teachers are able to present the lesson logically.
resourcefulness to deal skillfully and promptly with new situations and
difficulties. Systematically, and Analytically.
o It is also a science for it involves a systematic and organized system of
o Teachers should encourage their pupils/students to ask questions, to give
procedures, strategies, techniques and mental skills in the attainment of
knowledge and information that will equip the learners for a better quality their views, reactions or comments.
of life. o The classroom atmosphere would be dynamic. Dynamism is achieved if the
o Its ultimate purpose is to direct and facilitate learning. teachers are able to relate the lessons with effective use of the language.
o Teachers are models. What the pupils see, they emulate. If teachers
o The teacher’s job is not only confined solely to the transmission of
demand punctuality from the students, then, punctuality should be
knowledge and information but also important in his personal influence in
exercised in deeds not only in words.
promoting the development of basic skills, desirable work habits and
o Teachers are the best visual aids for the students to see, so teachers should
attitudes, values, judgement and adjustment of the individual learner to
his environment. make it a point to be dressed neatly and appropriately. Teachers who are
o The results of the studies generally attribute to two major categories in dignifies and well-mannered are appealing to the eyes of the students.
Even the way the teachers move their hands, head, and body are parts of
which the distinguishing characteristics of an effective teacher may be
the pupil/student meticulous observation. Teachers should bear in mind
grouped: (1) personal qualities and (2) professional qualities.
that respect is earned.
Personal Qualities – refer to the teacher’s personality. This includes his philosophy, o An outstanding philosopher, Bertrand Russell, emphasized the supreme
interests, attitudes, beliefs, emotional maturity and his interrelations with his function of teachers when he said: “Teachers are, more than any other
students, co-teachers, school administrations, non-teaching personnel in the class, the guardians of civilization. They should be intimately aware of
manner he responds to various situations and how these people respond to their what civilization is, and desirous of imparting a civilized attitude to their
behavior. pupils/students”
 These personal characteristics and traits are related to the five dimensions Professional Ethics and the Teacher
of the teacher’s personality. These are intellectual, physical, social,
emotional, and ethical or moral. Professional Ethics – embraces a series of statement or criteria which govern the
o These are the desirable characteristics and traits an effective teacher conduct of the member of a particular profession. The objective or intention of any
code of ethics for many professions is to attain the highest possible good for all
should possess:
members so that they may enjoy perfect happiness, camaraderie, and security in
1) pleasing personal appearance
their chosen occupation.
2) good physical health and personal hygiene
3) emotional stability, sound mental health and self-control o Since teaching is a profession, it is necessary for teachers to have a code of
4) superior intelligence ethics, like other professionals. The teacher’s conduct is covered by his
5) pleasant modulated voice relationship with the state, pupils/students, his associated, school
6) sympathy, kindness, helpfulness, patience, diligence administrators and support service staff, the parents and the general
7) integrity, trustworthiness, honesty, sincerity public.
8) flexibility, creativity, resourcefulness
9) fairness, firmness, impartiality, tolerance, patience The Teacher and The State
10) sociability, friendliness, cooperativeness a) The teacher should consider it in an obligation to see it that the national
11) refinement in words, tact and courtesy, civility objectives of education is achieved by the school he serves.
12) sense of humor, cheerfulness, enthusiasm b) The teacher should consider himself a trustee of the cultural and
13) positive outlook, encouraging attitude educational heritage of the nation, hence he should uphold moral
14) promptness, efficiency principles, promote a sense of nationhood, deepen love of country, instill
Professional Qualities – refer to the teacher’s knowledge of the subject matter to respect for constituted authority, and foster obedience of the law of the
be taught, his understanding of psychological and educational principles, theories land.
and concepts the pedagogical methods and strategies as well as high regard and The Teacher and the Pupils/Students
appreciation to the teaching profession.
a) The teacher should always act in the best interest of his students.
 There are several researches made to identify this matter, and the b) The teacher should not divulge private confidential matters information he
following findings have a correlation to teaching competence: knows about the pupils/students.
1) Mastery of the subject matter – This is the first essential c) The teacher should not give a pupil/student special tutoring during his free
requisite of effective teaching. The teacher must have a period and accept pay or any kind of gift as payment for extra service to
thorough grasp of the subject he teaches. He must possess a add to his meager salary.
wide range of knowledge and information of the subject. d) The teacher should not insult a pupil/student in class because of his
2) Understanding the learner – The second essential requisite of inability to give the correct answer.
effective teaching is knowledge of the nature of children. It is e) He should be firm but gentle in matters of discipline.
important to understand the basic principles of human growth f) He should never allow himself to be influenced by any consideration other
and development. The teacher should be aware of the than merit in the evaluation of the pupils/students work.
different levels of intellectual and emotional maturity of the g) He should always maintain his dignity and self-respect when dealing with
children. pupils/students and should refrain from receiving favors directly or
3) Understanding the principles and methods of teaching and skill indirectly from any of his pupils/students or their parents.
in the use of strategies and techniques for proper h) The teacher should never enter the class under the influence of liquor.
implementation – the teacher should be able to promote i) The teacher should make the learning experiences of the pupils/students
learning effectivity by knowing what to teach (subject matter), enjoyable, fruitful and meaningful.
how to teach (method) and the skill appropriate for effective
teaching. The Teacher and His Colleagues
4) General understanding of other branches/field of knowledge –
a) The Teacher should never criticize another teacher about his academic,
Teaching demands that a teacher should possess a general
teaching methods and his personality.
knowledge and understanding of other fields or branches of
b) The teacher should not spend his official time and his colleagues in cheap
knowledge. He must keep abreast with the explosion of
talk or gossip related to other members of the faculty.
knowledge and be able to show how his subject relates with
c) The teacher, before leaving his position, should coordinate with his
other areas of knowledge particularly in providing alternative
successor all records and other important information that are necessary
solutions of societal problems.
to carry out the work.
5) Understanding and taking pride of teaching as a profession –
d) The teacher should make due acknowledgement of assistance received
Foremost, the teacher must understand his task and the
from his co-teachers.
corresponding responsibility. The degree of the teacher’s
e) The teacher should exercise discretion and prudence in confidential
success will depend to a great extent on his attitude and
information concerning his co-teachers and the school.
positive out-look towards his job. He must know how to work
f) The teacher should not write fabricated accusations and anonymous letters
effectively with students and other persons involved in the
to criticize his associates.
school. He must value and uphold ethical professional
g) The teacher should not criticize an associate in front of the student and the
relationships with other people at all times. He must also be
fellow teachers or school personnel
aware of the importance of professional organization of
h) The teacher should maintain wholesome and cordial relationship with his
teachers and be an active member. Finally, he must be aware
colleagues. His relationship should be based on the principle of democratic
of the need of keeping abreast with the demands, changes,
cooperation, action, and mutual respect.
 i) The teacher should be willing to share his professional knowledge and o The only way to make the child conscious of his social heritage is to enable
experience with fellow members of the teaching profession. him to perform those fundamental types of activities which make
civilization what is.
o The study of Science is educational in so far as it brings out the materials
and process which make social life what is.
o At present, we lose much of the value of literature and language studies
The Teacher and the School Administration
because of our elimination of the social element. Language is almost
a) The teacher should support the legitimate policies of the school and the always treated in the books of pedagogy simply as expressions of thought.
administration. It is true that Language is a logical instrument, but it is primarily a social
b) The teacher should make an honest and determined effort to understand instrument.
fully the policies of the school and to carry them out. o Language is the device for communication; It is the tool through which one
c) The teacher should not make false accusations or charge against superiors individual comes to share the ideas and feelings of others. When treated
especially under an anonymous or fictitious name. simply as a way of getting individual information, or as means of showing
d) Teachers should transact all official communications through channels off what one has learned, it loses its social motive and end.
except when a special condition warrants a different procedure, as when o Education must be conceived as a continuing reconstruction of experience;
certain reforms advocated which are virtually opposed by the immediate that the goals and process of education are one and the same thing.
superior, in which case, the teacher concerned can go directly to the next
The Nature of Strategy
higher administrative authority.
e) The teacher should realize, the appointments, promotions and transfers o A teacher believes that the question of strategy is reducible to the order of
are made only on the basis of merit and in the interest of the services. development of the child’s powers and interests.
f) The teacher should never borrow money from his pupils/students. o The active side precedes in the development of the child-nature; the
g) The teacher should never take advantage of his position to court or expression comes before conscious expression, that sensory, that
advance his sexual desire to his pupils/students. intellectual and rational processes also result from action and devolve for
h) The teacher should never inflict corporal punishment on offending the sake of the better control of action.
pupils/students. o The image is the great instrument of instruction. What a child gets out of
i) The teacher should not make deductions in pupils/student scholastic any subject presented to him is simply the images which he himself forms
ratings for acts or behaviors that are not direct manifestations of poor with regard to it.
scholarship. o Interests are the signs and symptoms of growing power. He believes that
j) The teacher should devote official time fully, faithfully and honestly in the they represent dawning capacities.
performance of his functions and responsibilities.
k) The teacher-administrator relationship should be a partnership The School and Social Progress
characterized by mutual cooperation and sharing, imbued with frankness, o A teacher believes that all reforms which rest simply upon the enactment
honesty, professionalism, and loyalty to the ideas of the school. of law, or the threatening of certain penalties or upon changes in
The Teacher and The Parents mechanical or outward arrangements, are transitory and futile.
o Education is a regulation of the process of coming to share in the social
a) The teacher should establish and maintain cordial relations, with parents of consciousness and that the adjustment of individual activity on the basis of
the pupils/students. this social consciousness is the only sure method of social reconstruction.
b) The teacher should exercise due prudence, utmost candor and tact in o It is the business of everyone interested in education to insist upon the
communicating with parents, especially on matters concerning their school as the primary and most effective interest of social progress and
children’s faults and shortcomings. reform in order that the society may be awakened to realize what the
c) The teacher should hear parent’s complaints with sympathy and school stands for; and arouse the necessity of endowing the educator with
understanding. sufficient equipment properly to perform his task.
d) The teacher should point out the children’s deficiencies, unknown or o Education thus conceived marks the most perfect and intimate union of
overlooked by the parents, and seek their cooperation for the proper
science and art conceivable in human experience in giving shape to human
guidance and improvement of the children.
powers and shaping them to social realities.
e) He should keep in confidence all information gathered during visits and
o When science and art thus join hands, the most commanding motive for
interview with parents.
human action will be reached; the most genuine springs of human conduct
The Teacher and the Community aroused; and the best service that human nature is capable of guaranteed.
o The teacher is engaged; not simply in the training of the individuals, but in
a) The teacher should actively participate in community work, social, the formation of the proper social life.
educational, and civic development. o Every teacher should realize the dignity of his calling, that he is a social
b) The teacher, in order to merit an acceptable social recognition, should
servant set apart from the maintenance of proper social order and the
refrain from gambling, drunkenness and other immoral practices.
securing of the right social growth.
The Teacher’s Pedagogic Creed
Teacher’s Code of Professional Ethics
What education is…
1) Relate justly and impartially with pupils/students regardless of their
o A teacher believes all education proceeds by the participation of the physical, mental, political, economical, social, racial, or religious
individual in the social consciousness of the race. This process begins the background.
unconsciousness almost at birth, and is continually shaping the individual’s 2) Recognize the differences among pupils/students and seek to meet their
powers, saturating his feelings and emotions. individual needs.
o The only true education comes through the stimulation of the child’s 3) Encourage pupils/students to aspire for lofty, individual goals in the
powers by the demand of the social conditions in which he finds himself. development of their physical, intellectual, creative and spiritual
Through these demands, he is stimulated to act as a member of society endowments.
and always considers the welfare of the group to which he belongs. 4) Assist pupils/students to develop an understanding and appreciation, not
o The educational process has two sides, one psychological and the other only of opportunities and benefits of Philippine democracy, but also of
sociological, and neither can be subordinated to the other, or neglected, their obligations to preserve it.
without evil results. Of these sides, psychological is the basis. 5) Respect the right of every pupil/student to have confidential information
o Knowledge of social conditions of the present state of civilization is about himself withheld, except when its release to authorize agencies is
necessary in order to interpret properly the child’s powers. with his consent.
o The psychological and social sides are organically related, and that 6) Adhere to appropriate behavior expected of professionals. Acts of
education cannot be regarded as compromise between the two, or as a immorality of any kind are subject to sanctions and are grounds for
superimposition of one upon the other. The social definition of education is dismissal.
getting adjusted to civilizations; makes of it a force and external process; 7) Submit documents and records that are accurate and correct. Gross
and results in subordinating the freedom of the individual to preconceived misinterpretation of facts pertaining to personal and professional data is
social and political status. subject to appropriate sanctions.
8) Discuss controversial issues in class from an objective point of view
What the School is… allowing students to make their own decisions.
9) Conduct official business through proper channels.
o Education, being a social process, The School is that form of community life
10) Speak constructively of other members of the community.
in which all these agencies concentrated that will be most effective in
11) Be a good steward of time. Be punctual in meeting classes, submission of
bringing the child to share in the inherited resources of the race, and to
grades and reports, and keeping appointments and attendance and
use his own powers for social ends.
functions.
o The school life should grow gradually, out of the home life; that it should
12) Reflect the Christian values in personal and professional dealings.
take up and continue the activities with which the child is already familiar
13) Make professional and personal growth a strong priority in life.
in the home.
o The school as a mode of social life, is the center upon which moral and The Filipino Teacher as a Professional
social education and responsibility are developed.
o The enactment of Republic Act No. 7836 known as Philippine Teachers
The Subject Matter of Education Professionalization of 1994, is laudable piece of legislation giving
recognition to the teaching profession.
o A teacher believes that the social life of the child is the basis of
o Since teaching is a profession, the responsibility of the teacher is to
concentration, or correlation in all his training or growth.
maintain a high standard of personal and professional conduct.
o The subject matter of the school curriculum should mark a gradual
o The professional teacher does not require close supervision from his
differentiation out of the primitive unconscious unity of social life.
superiors. He is independent, responsible professional who works without
o The primary basis of education is in the child’s powers at work along the
being told.
same general constructive lines as those which have wrought civilization
into being.
 o The professional teacher takes full responsibility of the results of his efforts 1) Greater emphasis on helping every learner, particularly in Grades 1-3, to
and actions. He is fully aware that the children under his custody in school become a successful reader.
and other related activities are his full responsibility. 2) New focus of Mathematics in the Secondary Level.
o The professional teacher continually seeks self-improvement. 3) Emphasis on interactive learning approaches
o The professional teacher comes to class and leaves it on time. a. Between teachers and students
o The professional teacher avoids rumors and hearsay. b. Between students and self-instructional materials
o The professional teacher meets his sworn duties and obligations. c. Between students (collaborative learning)
o The professional teacher behaves professionally in thought and in word. d. Between students and multi-media assisted instruction
o The professional teacher addresses his grievances through proper 4) A stronger integration of competencies and values within and across the
channels. learning areas through the use of integrative teaching approaches
o The professional teacher should always act in the best interest of his 5) Greater focus on values formation in all the subject areas.
pupils/students. 6) Emphasis on the development of self-reliant and patriotic citizens.
o The professional teacher is always presentable and pleasant. 7) Emphasis on the development of critical and creative thinking.
o The statements explicitly govern the conduct of the teacher. Indeed, the Objectives of Elementary Education (The Education Act of 1982)
Filipino teacher is a professional.
o To provide the knowledge and develop skills, attitudes, and values essential
The 2002 Philippine Education Curriculum for Elementary and High School known to personal development and necessary for living in contributing to a
as Basic Education Curriculum developing and changing social milieu;
o The 2002 Curriculum is not a wholesale change of the NESC (New o To provide learning experiences which increase the child’s awareness of
Elementary School Curriculum, 1983) and the NSEC (1989) but a and responsiveness to the changes in and just demands of society and to
restructuring in order to raise the quality of the Filipino learners and prepare him for constructive and effective involvement;
graduates and empower them for lifelong learning. o To promote and intensify the child’s knowledge of identification with, and
love for the nation and the people to which he belongs and;
What is the need to restructure the curriculum? o To promote work experiences which develop the child’s orientation to the
world of work.
o The curriculum needs restructuring because of the following:
1) The global context of our educational system has changed and Objectives of Elementary School Curriculum
continues to change rapidly since the 1980’s when the NSEC and the
NESC were implemented. Our world is becoming borderless to o Elementary education shall aim to develop the spiritual, moral, mental and
information, commodities, financial investments, crime, terrorism, and physical capabilities of the child, provide him with experiences in the
economical problems. democratic way of life, and inculcate ideas and attitudes necessary for
2) “Half of what students learn today will be obsolete in the next five enlightened, patriotic upright and useful citizenship. To achieve these
years or so, and half of what the students need to know to succeed in objectives, Elementary Education shall provide for:
the future has not even been invented or developed yet.” (Dr. Victor 1) The inculcation of spiritual and civic values and the development of a
Ordonez) good Filipino based on an abiding faith in God and genuine love of
country
What is Functional Literacy? 2) The training of the young citizens in his rights, duties, and
responsibilities in a democratic society for active participation, in a
Functional literacy – refers to a range of cognitive, affective and behavioral skills
progressive and productive home and community life.
which enables individuals to make critical and informed decisions and function
3) The development of basic understanding about Philippine culture, the
effectively in contemporary society. Functional literacy includes linguistic fluency
desirable tradition and virtues of our people as essential requisites in
scientific-numeric competence, computer literacy and ability to think analytically
attaining national consciousness and solidarity
among other essential skills.
4) The teaching of basic health knowledge and the formation of desirable
What do we mean by an overcrowded Curriculum? health habits and practices
5) The development of functional literacy in the vernacular, in Filipino and
o An overcrowded curriculum puts together too many competencies and
in English as basic tools for further learning.
topics in such a way that (1) focus on and time for the mastery of basic
skills is lost, (2) the learners get little opportunity to personally process and Objectives of the Curriculum (Examples)
contextualize the major concepts, and (3) the interconnections among the
o ENGLISH
many competencies are weakly established.
o An overcrowded curriculum can hinder or delay the development of Goal: Access to varied information and critically use them in spoken and
lifelong learning skills, as coverage of the subject matter tends to priority written forms; communicate fluently and accurately orally and in writing, for a
over in-depth learning. variety of purposes and different social and academic contexts at their level
while carrying out activities in everyday life.
Summary of the Philosophy of the 2002 Curriculum
o FILIPINO
1) The ideal Filipino learners are empowered learners, who are competent in
learning how to learn and have “life skills” so that they become self- Mithiin: Nagagamit ang Filipino Sa mabisang pakikipagtalastasan (pasalita at
developed persons who are makabayan (patriotic), makatao (mindful of pasulat); nagpapamalas ng kahusayan sa pagsasa ayos ng iba’t ibang
humanity), makakalikasan (respectful of nature) and maka-Diyos (Godly). impormasyon at mensaheng narinig at nabasa para sa kapakinabangang
2) The ideal teacher of 2002 curriculum is not the authoritarian instructor but pansarili at pangkapwa at sa patuloy na pagkatuto upang makaangkop sa
the trustworthy facilitator or manager of the learning process. He enables mabilis na pagbabagong nagaganap sa daigdig.
the learners to become active makers of meaning and not passive receipts
of information. o SCIENCE AND HEALTH
3) The ideal teacher knows his particular discipline well, but is ready to Goal: Demonstrate understanding of how science, technology and health relate
transcend it, to do collaborative teaching with peers from different to the comprehension of the environment and application of skills, attitudes
disciplines, to share knowledge and resources with them, and to build a and values in solving varied life situations.
community of effective educational practice.
4) Integration works best when teachers of different disciplines plan and o MATHEMATICS
teach together. Thus, collaborative teaching (in tandem or as a team) ought
Goal: Demonstrate understanding and skills in computing with considerable
to be done whenever it is possible and appropriate.
speed and accuracy, estimating, communicating, thinking analytically and
5) Every teacher of the 2002 curriculum is a value educator; he can identify
critically, and in solving problems in daily life using appropriate technology.
and contextualize the value inherent in his discipline; and serve as a role
model of the learners.
6) In the 2002 curriculum, the identification and analysis of values and the
recognition of multiple intelligences permeate all the learning areas.
7) Since the curriculum is interactive, teachers are strongly encouraged to
involve their learners in brainstorming and planning integrated units of
learning tasks.
8) The ideal teaching-learning process is interactive. It promotes reciprocal
interaction between students and teachers, between students themselves
(collaborative learning) between students and instructional material,
between students and multi media sources, and between teachers of
different disciplines.
9) Since the curriculum is interactive, schools have to give the greater
emphasis to computer literacy.

Objectives of the Restructured Curriculum

o The 2002 Basic Education Curriculum aims at raising the quality of the
Filipino learners and graduates and empowering them for lifelong learning.
o Providing more focus on the tool learning areas for an adequate
development of the competencies for learning how-to-learn;
o Providing an experimental learning area where the learner can apply
practical knowledge and life skills demonstrate deeper appreciation of
Filipino culture and heritage; and
o Making values development integral to all learning areas.

Basic Features of the Restructured Curriculum

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING | CHAPTER 2: TEACHING AND LEARNING
by: Cristine Joy M. Alcabale | BS Psychology 3-Y2-5

Teaching and Learning pupils/students except for the left-handed where the light should come
o Teaching is a multi-faceted human activity. It involves a wide range of from the right shoulder.
planning, strategies, interactions, organizational arrangement and material o Displays on the bulletin board should be relevant to the occasion and
resources that take place in teaching-learning process. should be changed from time to time.
o There are important elements of teaching-learning process; e.g. teachers, o Curtains, picture frames and posters can be utilized to make the classroom
learners, instructional methods, curriculum, classroom, materials for beautiful.
instruction and administration. o It is also a good practice to spend a few minutes at the end of every class
instruction to clean chalkboards so that the room is clean and in order for
The Teachers the next class.
o Considered the most important variable in the learner’s educational
environment. The School Administration
o The other related elements of teaching-learning process would be o Administration may be defined as the organization, direction, coordination
ineffective for he motivates, guides and directs the learner’s quest of and control of human and material resources in an environment in which
knowledge. individuals, working together in groups, efficiently accomplish selected
o In the traditional school, the teacher is perceived to be the source of desired objectives.
knowledge. He is viewed as the subject matter excerpt and sees to it that o Other scholars define administration as an act of handling, directing or
he gets the desired results from the learners. exercising control and supervision on the functions of the organization.
o Also, the teacher follows a rigid method and virtually does no allow for o The purpose of organization as a field of study is to achieve certain specific
individual differences among learners. objectives which are ultimately to improve the ability of an organization in
o In the progressive schools, the teacher assumes a variety of roles. its effectiveness and efficiency.
o In the progressive school, the teacher plays a variety of roles. These roles o School administration as a distinct process consisting of planning,
include the following: organizing, actuating, controlling and performing the various activities to
a. As a Manager - the teacher is responsible for the effective accomplish the goals and objectives with the use of human and material
management of the various activities directly related to the resources.
teaching-learning process.
b. As a Motivator - the teacher should set the mood of learning There are certain administrative skills a school administrator should possess.
by way of stimulating the interest of the learners and gets These are:
them more involved in the class activities. 1) Technical Skill - this is the knowledge of and proficiency in activities
c. As a Leader - the teacher should act as a leader in directing, involving instructional methods, procedures and processes.
supervising, regulating, controlling, and supporting the class 2) Human Skill - the ability of the school administrator to work with people; it
activities to realize optimum results. is cooperative effort.
d. As a Model - the teacher demonstrates the good traits of a 3) Conceptual Skill - the ability to see the over-all picture, to identify
person worthy of emulation as a model to his students/pupils. important elements in a situation. The ability to solve problems in different
e. As a Surrogate-Parent - while in school, the teacher are ways that will benefit the organization.
parents of the students/pupils. He is like a good father who
looks ultimately for the welfare of his children. Educational Media Used in the Classroom
f. As a Social Catalyst - the teacher as an agent of change should o Refers to the devices, which have become a normal part of the classroom
make things easy for the process of change. A social catalyst setting such as pictures, charts, maps, globes and other illustrative
creates a group of inter-related and interdependent topics for materials and models used to transmit messages between the teacher and
the pupils/students in the classroom. the learner.
g. As a Facilitator/Instructor - the most important task of a o The conventional educational media do not use expensive and
teacher is to facilitate learning among his students/pupils. sophisticated electronic equipment and devices; but rather, employ various
h. As a Guidance Counselor - every teacher should act as a instructional materials that are not expensive.
guidance teacher. While every school has a guidance o The Flat pictures are opaque representations of the visual images which
counselor, that should help pupils/students acquire insights include the study of prints, paintings, drawings, photographs in books and
and understanding, abilities, attitudes, behavior and magazines.
appreciation necessary to act intelligently. o It has certain advantages and some limitations. It is available and can be
obtained for free or at a low cost. It usually small in size and lack depth
The Learner because they are only two-dimensional; besides, they are motionless.
o Basicall, the most important variable in school system.
o To make effective learning experience wholesome, the learner must clearly Qualities of Good Pictures
perceive the goal. 1) Authentic and clear message - good pictures communicate and give correct
o In as much as the learner is an active biological organism, the teacher information.
should be aware of his motivation, abilities, and needs-biological, social 2) Good composition - pictures can play an effective role when there is an
and emotional. over-all artistry in the arrangement of objects, color, values, balance, and
point of interest.
The Instructional Methods 3) Color dimension - with colored pictures they become more attractive and
o Methodology refers to the orderly, logical and systematic procedure in realistic because of the various colors.
doing something more specifically on the science and art of teaching.
o The teacher should have a definite and comprehensive plan characterized Three-Dimensional Instructional Media
by a series of related and progressive acts she should perform to 1) Models and Mock-ups - a model is a recognizable three-dimensional
accomplish the specific aims of the lesson of the day. representation of a real thing or object. It is a scaled representation of a
real thing or object. A scaled representation which may be equal to,
The Curriculum smaller or bigger than the actual size of the original object.
o The aggregate course of study, the course offered, all planned experiences 2) Specimens - actual objects or things from their normal setting and taken to
provided by the school to assist the pupils/students in attaining selected the classroom for study and analysis.
and desired learning outcomes to the best of their abilities. 3) Dioramas - a three-dimensional-scene in depth incorporating a group of
o Consists of all those experiences, curricular and co-curricular activities, objects and figures in a naturalistic foreground which blend before a
inside and outside of the classroom, which are under the jurisdiction of the painted background.
school and are planned and directed for the purpose of promoting the
growth and development of the learners. Advantages of three-dimensional media as instructional device
o For Auglin and Goldwan (1982), curriculum is planned learning experiences 1) Provide or stimulate first-hand experiences, in effect making learning more
that the school presents to the students/pupils in order to socialize them interesting and meaningful.
into prevailing culture. 2) They can be viewed, handled and examined by students from different
perspectives.
The Classroom 3) Some three-dimensional materials simplify real objects for better study by
o A place where formal-learning occurs. removing some insignificant details and by reducing objects to observable
o A place that offers a wholesome venue for learning activities which can be sizes.
realized only in an atmosphere conducive to both teaching and learning
process. Limitations of the three-dimensional materials:
o An ideal classroom may be considered conducive to teaching-learning if it o Some require a bigger classroom space in relation to use and storage.
has a stimulating and pleasant physical surrounding and healthful o Some of them are generally more expensive than flat visual pictures and
condition, adequate lighting and illumination, the color of the wall shades, graphics.
location and manipulation of blinds.
o The location and size of windows also affect the room lighting.
o Chalk boards should be placed where children will not face the light. The
standard rule is for the light to come from the left shoulder of the
 o Digital Computers - are readily adapted to business data processing
Three groups of Educational Media are: application in as much as they specialize in counting and can provide
1) Audio learning devices and materials – includes radio and recording as well 100% accuracy in arithmetic operations.
as speech laboratories. o Hybrid computers - combination of both the analog and digital
2) Projected media – highlighted both still projection and motion pictures. features and are used in specific types of problems in science and
3) Educational television – includes broadcast TV, closed circuit TV, and engineering.
videocassette materials. C. Capacity
o Microcomputers. Also called “single chip” processor. A digital
computer system under the control of a stored program that uses a
Audio Learning Media - the most common audio-learning media are the radio and
microprocessor, ROM.
recordings while most complex is the speech laboratory.
o Minicomputers. Are products of miniaturization revolution and most
o Advantages of Radio as an Instructional Tool:
talked-about computer system in the industry.
1) Can be used anywhere with or without electricity.
o Medium sized computers. Can provide greater speed and larger
2) One of the means of bringing up-to-date news in the political, social, memory capacity than microcomputers and mini-computers.
economic, and cultural problems and issues which can be the basis of o Large scale computers. Are very expensive but valuable to big firms
classroom discussions. that handle hundreds of thousands of customer’s accounts every day.
3) A convenient, easy and economical way of getting ideas. Has 1.5 million bytes or more of memory and operating speed on the
4) Can provide examples of good and bad speeches. low nanosecond range.
5) Can provide vicarious experiences with travel and daily chores to the
Essential Components of Computer
listeners.
6) Adaptable to either large or small audience in widely separated areas. The computer system basically consists of the Hardware component (physical
o While the radio has its potentials as an instructional medium there are equipment) and Software component (programs) necessary for processing
certain limitations: applications.
1) A one-way communication medium. Teachers and students cannot ask 1) Computers, and their component parts including a monitor, mouse,
the radio teacher or announcer to clarify certain points. processor, keyboard, floppy disc drive and hard disk
2) Programs must be used “on schedule” because the teacher cannot 2) Compact Disk Read-Only Memory (CD ROM)
control the timing lessons. 3) Printers
3) In some cases, radio broadcasts may not be directly related to the 4) Scanners
lesson for the day. 5) Sensors including motors, heaters, lights and falls
4) Requires listening skills on the part of the students since it is solely an
The following hardware would also be useful in extending the breadth and depth of
audio medium.
students’ experiences:
5) Entails some provisions for expenses-equipment maintenance such as
batteries and spare parts. a) Local Area Network and Wide Are Network including hardware for internet
o Recording: Two Types access.
1) Disc recordings – Come in various sizes and pin at different rates and b) Models to demonstrate computer control of washing machines, robots or
have been used for instructional purposes for many years. The disc traffic lights.
c) Teletext televisions with remote control units.
rotates at a certain speed. The long-playing records (LP’s) usually have
d) Tape Recorders and Video equipment.
longer minutes of recording information per side. This depends on the
e) Computers with midi capability for control of synthesizers and drum
spacing and microgrooves engraved on them.
machines.
2) The tape recorder – A plastic tape coated with magnetic iron oxide. The f) Graphic Calculators
recording head of the tape recorder magnetizes the oxide side of the g) Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
tape as it passes over the gap between the poles and the head.
o The advantages of audio recording as instructional medium are: Function of a Personal Computer
1) Ability to capture and store original sound. With the development of A modern PC system usually includes the following component parts:
more sophisticated electronic media, original sounds can now readily
1) A monitor or 2) A Memory (RAM/ROM)
be recorded and stored for easy and instantaneous playback of the
screen
intended materials. 3) A Keyboard 4) A Processor
2) Flexibility in timing, reuse and availability of materials. Recordings are 5) A Floppy Disk 6) A Printer
easier to use than radio, television, and other educational materials. 7) A Hard Disk Drive 8) Connections to other peripherals, e.g.,
They are completely under control of the teacher and even of the Optical Mark Readers
students. 9) CD-ROM Drive 10) A Network Connection

Computers in Education Some Limitation of a Portable Computer

A computer is a mechanical or electronical apparatus capable of carrying out
repetitions and highly complex mathematical operations at higher speed, within its 1) It will have a screen of a significantly lower quality than a desktop
central processing unit, based on a set of program instructions and produces computer that is of the same price and specifications.
results in the form of meaningful and useful output. 2) It is not expandable; that is, only a very restricted number of component
parts can be added after manufacture.
o Essential features of a Computer: 3) The batteries may need recharging every four hours or five when it is in
 A computer is an electronical apparatus and performs its functions use.
and achieves results through electronic impulses and not through 4) The advantage of a portable computer is simply comfortable. This is often
the physical movement of its internal parts. referred to as “laptops” whereas the smaller ones are “palmtops.”
 A computer has an integral storage system and has the ability to
Palmtops do not have full range component parts. They do not usually have a
store simultaneously program instruction and data.
mouse or tracker ball, floppy disk drive, a hand disk drive, a CD-ROM and a
 A computer can store program and follows a pattern of statements
connection to a printer or network. They usually have a small LCD screen and a
in its internal storage which instruct it in detail on specific
very compact keyboard.
operations to perform and the order in which to perform them.
 A computer has a program execution modification and change the It has been observed that current research of the National Council for Educational
course of execution of program statements. Technology (NCET) indicates that students and teachers prefer using portable
o Functions of a Computer: computers because of the following:
 To perform operation in a fast, perfect, reliable, and accurate
1) They are accessible.
manner.
2) They can be continuously available in school and at home.
 To store and recall information.
3) They can be personal learning environment tailored to every student’s
 To perform arithmetic and logical operations.
needs.
 To compare two numbers and decide whether one variable is
4) The use of portable computers in the classroom is increasing.
greater than, equal to or les than the other.
 To handle large volumes of repetitive tasks accurately over long Desktop Computers
periods of time.
o The monitor used with a desktop computer is usually a separate item but
 To communicate with its operators and with other computers.
may be a part of a unit containing, in addition to the monitor, a floppy disk
 To detect errors and perform decisions.
drive, memory and processor.
 To process one job at a time or several jobs almost simultaneously.
o The keyboard of desktop computer is usually a separate component but
Computers are classified according to: may be built into a unit also containing a floppy disk drive, memory and a
processor.
A. Purpose
 A standard keyboard is suitable for use in school; however, if there
o General Purpose Computers - can handle various application jobs. Are
is a need for a high volume of numeric input, a numeric keypad
very versatile but quite slow in speed and less efficient.
may be useful.
o Special Purpose Computers - designed to handle special types of job.
o A mouse is an essential device if software with a Graphic User Interface
Are highly sophisticated and are designed exclusively for a specialized
(GUI) is to be used.
type of task.
o Floppy disks and Hard disks are types of backing storage. Backing storage
B. Type of Data Handle
is used for storing information when the computer is switched off. Floppy
o Analog computers - used in handling and dealing with continuously
disk and Hard disks are both magnetic, non-volatile backing storage.
changing physical data such as current, pressure and temperature.
Information can be both written to and read from them.
 o CD-ROM is a form of audio CD adapted to store information for computers. 12) Communications software, such as e-mail
CD-ROMS are comparable to floppy disks in that they are portable. 13) Multimedia
o RAM and ROM memory is the area inside the computer where software 14) Software for manipulating and controlling sound
and data files are stored while they are being used. ROM is non-volatile 15) Teletext, or an emulator
and the information stored on it can only be read. RAM is volatile and
information can be read from it and written on it.
o The Processor is the heart of the computer and its physical form is a
microchip. The most commonly used processors are the Intel Pentium and
the Motorola 68040. The processor is an important factor in determining
the speed of operation of the computer and the amount of memory the
computer can use.
o Optical Mark Readers (OMR) is a specialized input device that will read
marks on the paper. The marks on the paper are made in a particular
position depending on their meaning, so that the computer is able to work
out what each mark means.
o Hardware is quite expensive and the purchase of IT hardware requires
major capital expenditure. Generally, IT hardware will be technically
obsolete in three to five years.

In order to get the maximum benefit from the most-up-to-date hardware at a

cheaper cost; the following recommendations can help:

1) Buy hardware as cheaply as possible through negotiated discounts

whenever possible.
2) Buy in bulk.
3) Get new computers into use as soon as possible.
4) Make sure that the school’s computers are regularly used.
5) Ensure that computers are repaired as soon as possible when they
malfunction.
6) Sell computers after three to five years and replace them with modern
equipment.

Hardware Care and Maintenance

IT resources should be secured. Some useful general security measures are as

follows:

1) IT room should not be located on the ground floor

2) The windows of IT rooms should be screened and barred
3) Computers should be chained together and clamped to the benches
4) PIR sensors connected to the school’s burglar alarm system should be
installed in IT rooms
5) Each item of equipment should have the name of the school
6) Preventive measures should be taken to avoid damage to computers by
food and drink, dust, damp, heat, fire, smoke and electromagnetic fields.
7) Hardware is often damaged when it is being moved
8) Computers can be affected by smoke from a fire
9) Damp of ingress of water can affect all electrical equipment

The Software and Its Characteristics

The software required by schools so that they can provide students with a
satisfactory experience of IT is very important.

General Purpose of Software

1) An operating system, incorporating a GUI face

2) A word processor
3) Graphics (paint and draw) software
4) Desk top publishing software
5) A spreadsheet with a facility for graph plotting
6) 6. A database
7) 7. Data logging software to measure and record events as they happen at
distance
8) A control of language
9) A general purposes programming language that allows the reaction and
modification of procedures and programs
10) Software for simulation and modeling
11) On-line information and modeling
PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING | CHAPTER 3: THE GOAL AND PRINCIPLE OF TEACHING
by: Cristine Joy M. Alcabale | BS Psychology 3-Y2-5

Principles of Teaching Postulated by Various Authors

 According to Webster, a principle is a comprehensive law or doctrine from  The behaviorist theory postulated either classical conditioning or other
which an accepted or professed rule of action or conduct is derived. complicated mechanism such as the idea of operative conditioning
 The term principle has been adopted from the Latin word “princeps” which developed by Skinner.
means the beginning or the end of all facts, circumstances or state of  Conditioning, punishments and rewards can control motives.
affairs.  The behaviorist believe that science of behavior must be dealt with only
 From the standpoint of teaching, principles are guides to make teaching what is observable.
and learning effective, wholesome, and meaningful. They are the  Another set of theories based on the second concept of man is referred to
fundamental basis of conduct or operation from which one proceeds from as the Organismic, and Gestalt and Field theories.
one situation to another.  The common characteristic of these theories is that they assumed that
cognitive process – insights, intelligence and organizations -- are basic
The teaching principle consists of five areas. These principles are: characteristics of human response.
1) Respect for the individual  Human is marked by the quality of intelligence and capacity to perceive
o all new trends in the teaching emphasize initiative and and to create relationships.
responsibility in the learner’s part, the importance of experiencing
success rather than failure as a fundamental aspect of mental Gauges Conditions of Learning – this learning process is related to the interact
hygiene, and the healthful development of personality. theory wherein the learner’s cognitive processes are integrated with particular
2) Democracy as a way of life events essential for learning different kinds of skills.
o one of the major goals of education in the Philippines is to foster,
promote, and develop democracy as a way of life. This implies a Information Processing Theory
number of things such as: respect for potentialities of each  This learning process theory continuous to support the cognitive
individual; obligation of each individual to contribute to the perspective initiated by Gestalt Psychology.
welfare of the group of which he is a member; participation in  The nature of human thinking is defined in a particular way.
experience which will foster social, economic, intellectual, and  Philosophically, there have been two concepts of man.
physical growth; and the right of each individual to make a choice
commensurate with his intellectual capacity and maturity. 1) The first concept postulates that the human minds are inherently endowed
o Democracy as a way of living is a way of behavior. with natural capacities.
3) Providing suitable condition for the development and maintenance of a 2) The second concept presupposes that man in an energy system – a system
sound personality of dynamic forces attempting to maintain a balance or equilibrium in
o it is generally recognized that school life is of great importance in response to other physical energy to the world which he continuously
determining the present and the future mental health and strength interacts with through his sense organs.
of personality of the learner. Form the first concept of man, the theory of learning is often referred to as the
o it is not only the school environment, school administrators, and theory of mental discipline. The essence of this theory is that the mind inherently
the teachers that may be responsible for the development the contains all the attributes of faculties, and that the primary task of education is to
personality of young learners, but also the objectives of the bring them forth in the exercise of acquiring knowledge.
education, the learning materials and various methods utilized.
4) Improving group living in the classroom The Sequence of Information Processing (Slavin)
o the teacher has a responsibility for creating conditions that will 1) Sensory registers
improve group living and insure effective learning in the classroom. 2) Short-term or working memory
5) Improving the classroom environment 3) Long-term memory
o the concern about improving group living in the classroom is
consideration of improving the classroom environment that Over the years, a number of theories of learning have been device to provide
promotes cooperative group experiences which learners develop theoretical frameworks to explain in a unified manner the various variables
skills and understanding desirable values for living in a democratic affecting learning.
society. 1) The S-R Bond Theory. Assumed that through conditioning specific
responses can be directly linked with a particular stimuli.
Definition of Learning 2) Behaviorism. Assumes that learning is a process of building conditioned
 Learning is defined as modification of behavior through experience. reflexes through the substitution of one stimuli for another.
 Also defined as the acquisition of behavior pattern. 3) Gestalt Theory. Emphasizes use of instinct as basic principle and is
 It is the modification and coordination of the responses of organism. opposed to trial and error.
 Learning is essentially an active process. It is not a passive observation of 4) Functionalism. Assumes that behavior and mental processes are adaptive
knowledge. (functional).
 Learning occupies an important role in the school. It essentially consists in
the modification reactions due to experience or practice. Information Processing Theories as Applied in Classroom Teaching
 Learning, thus, make what appeared dull and difficult at first, easy and 1) Hold learners’ attention and interest in all cognitive tasks.
interested later. 2) Guide learners to assess learning materials considered most important to
 Learning is described as the process of having one’s behavior modified, learn.
more or less permanently, by what happened in the world around him by 3) Establish the basis of new learning materials.
what he observes. 4) Concentrate on important and key concepts and ideas.
 It is any change that results from experience except changes. 5) Organize all important information to be learned.
 Learning is a lifetime process. 6) Confine processing to few information at a time.
 Motivation, goal, readiness, responses, reinforcement and generalization 7) Employ interesting drill strategies and approaches.
characterize the learning process. 8) Develop skills of learners in forming images of information they encounter.
9) Check on the previous experiences of learners to topics under study.
Nature of Learning 10) Supply corrective action.
 Learning like growth expands the possibilities of adaptive behavior. It
includes a wide variety of changes in behavior. It may involve adjustment Behavioral Theories of Learning
with others, or it may involve the learning of use of skills in day-to-day  According to Borich, there are three learning elements such as
work, or inculcation of healthy habits. environment, performances and reinforcement.
 What we learn is learnable only after we have reached an adequate level  Pavlov classical conditioning theory asserts that an individual learns when
of physical growth and motivation. previously neural stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus until
 Motives or Drives are basic types of learning and to the learning process the neural stimulus evokes a conditioned response.
itself.  Some classical conditioning as applied to classrooms are:
 Learning may also necessitate involvement of symbols. Since learning is a 1) facilitate/assist emotional, behavioral and cognitive responses to
comprehensive process, it also involves the use of abstract concepts. neural stimulus through definite association with stimuli.
 Learning curves and their typical contours in the laboratory situations have 2) Establish positive association between teaching and learning
shown that learning activity in a short time is likely to be very crude due to activities.
occurrence of accidental distractions, or temporary increase or decrease in 3) Relate learning activities with pleasant experiences.
motivation. 4) Guide every learner to meaningful activities to experience success.
 For the effective learning, among various psychological factors, motivation 5) Maintain and sustain a wholesome learning environment.
and learning ability are important factors. 6) Develop skills in recognizing differences and similarities on
situations to enable the learners to distinguish and generalize the
Theories of Learning prevailing condition.
 The concept of man hypothesized two theories of behavior and learning.
One is the behaviorist theory, which assumes that man is a collection of B.F Skinner Operant Conditioning Theory
responses to specific stimuli.
  This theory continuous to support the behaviorist tradition of the privacy 2) Problem diagnosis
of environmental conditions and events in bringing about behavioral 3) Goal-setting
change. 4) New behavior
 The fundamental concepts in operant conditioning are: 5) Refreezing
1) Operant conditioning. Refers to using pleasant or unpleasant
consequences to control the behavior of the organism. Basic Concepts in Cognitive Theory of Learning
2) Reinforcers. Refers to consequences that strengthen the behavior. 1) Perception
3) Punishment. Any unpleasant consequence to weaken behavior. 2) Storage
4) Shaping. This is teaching of new skills or behavior by motivating 3) Encoding
and reinforcing learner to help him reach his goals. 4) Rehearsal
5) Extinction. The act or condition of eliminating or decreasing a 5) Retrieval
behavior by withdrawing the reinforcement. 6) Dual coding
6) Cue. The signal as to what behavior will be reinforced or punished. 7) Episodic memory
7) Discrimination. The act in response to stimuli. 8) Semantic memory
8) Generalization. The act or process by generalizing behaviors 9) Procedural memory
learned under one set of conditions can be carried over other
conditions or situations. Cumulative Learning Theory
The types of learning according to level of skills/capabilities are:
Principles of Learning in Operant Conditioning  Signal learning
 There are principles governing learning in operant conditioning. These  Stimulus-response learning
are:  Motor chains/verbal chains learning
1) Principle of Consequences. Behavior changes according to its  Discriminating learning
immediate consequences.  Concept learning
2) Principe of reinforcement. Any action taken following a response  Rule learning
that increases the probability that the response will occur again.  Problem solving
3) Pre mack Principle or “Grandma Rule”. Characterized that less
desire activities can be increased by linking them to more desired Cumulative Learning as Applied in Classroom Teaching
activities. 1) Observe sequence in teaching in terms of level of learning skills and
4) Principle of Extinction. Characterized that when reinforcement for capabilities required of the learner.
a previously learned behavior is withdrawn, the behavior fades 2) Check learner’s capabilities in each level of learning before moving to the
away. next level of the same lesson.
3) Be sure that the prerequisite learning skills are acquired before moving to
Operant Conditioning Theories as Applied to Classroom Teaching the next level.
1) It is important to arrange for adequate practice of behavior learned.
2) Recognize positive behaviors from the earner’s perspectives. Meaningful Learning Theory
3) Reinforcer have different effects to different learners, and therefore, the The characteristics and concepts related to meaningful learning theory are:
utilization of valid reinforcers for different types of learners should be 1) Meaningful learning set
considered. 2) Relevant prior knowledge
4) There should be a continued reinforcing for desirable behaviors. 3) Organization
5) Extend continuous reinforcement to enable the learners to acquire new 4) Elaboration
behavior. 5) Visual imagery
6) It is important to assist learners in making appropriate generalization. 6) Advanced organizers
7) Carefully and systematically praise learners. 7) Cognitive structure
8) Give deserved reinforcers and punishments.
9) Exercise extreme care and diligence in reinforcing undesirable behaviors. Other Related Views of Learning
10) Use negative reinforcement instead of punishments. 1) Meta Cognitive View of Learning
11) Avoid comparing learners’ performances. 2) Constructivist Theories of Learning
12) Be fair and consistent when applying punishments. 3) Reception and Discovery Learning Theory
13) Punishment should be focused on the learner’s behavior and not on his
personality. Meaningful Learning Theory as Applied in Classroom Teaching
1) Guide learners to remember information that provide the basic building
Social Learning Theory blocks for new learning experiences.
 An individual learns through observation and imitation of others. 2) Construct meaning by joining what is to be learned to what has been
 Characteristics of Social Learning Theory: experienced earlier.
1) It is observational learning which consists of four phases – attention, 3) Use meaningful memory strategies.
retention, reproduction, motivation. 4) Present every lesson that makes sense to the learners.
2) It is vicarious learning which is acquired from observing the 5) Build new associated with familiar experiences and vocabulary.
consequences of other behavior. 6) Provide plenty of “wholesome” experiences through casual connections,
3) It is self-regulated which occurs when individuals observe, assess and comparisons, and illustrations.
judge their own behavior against their own standards.
 The components of successful modeling include: Conditions for Learning
1) Motivation a) Motivation
2) Attention o Refers to the internal state or condition that influences behavior and
3) retention gives direction in relation to physical conditions, interests, attitudes
4) motor reproduction and aspirations.
5) self-management o A concept that stands for the underlying force impelling behavior
toward a particular goal
The Field Theory o Involves a complex interaction within the individual and the
 States that behavior is the function of the present life space. environment and the intervening variables in which he loves.
 This theory also extended the concept of “wholeness” of the learning o Involves a number of ideas that direct an individual to act or do
condition by demonstrating the role played by the cultural and social something that energizes, directs and sustains behavior.
environment n determining what man responds to and what meaning he o Has two components – need and drive. Needs arise from some deficits
gives to what he perceives. within the individual. The deficit may be psychological or physiological.
 Field theory views learning as a social process. To learn, an organism must Drives based on needs can be observed in overt behavior.
interact with others in an environment.
 Motivation is central to this theory.

The Learning Process

 Learning constitutes the central theme of educational psychology in
understanding how learners learn and the condition under which they
learn best is the major contribution which psychology makes to an
educational practice.
 Learning is the most universal and important occupation of man.
 It is assumed that, this is the means of achieving progress in any period of
one’s life.
 Learning is an integrated, directed, systematic, purposive and ongoing
process that occurs in the individual.
 Conceptually, as viewed by educators the process of learning involves five
well-defined phases:
1) Unfreezing
 1) Goal
2) Motivation
3) Stimuli
4) Perception
5) Integration
6) Response
Principles of Learning as Applied in Classroom Teaching 7) reinforcement

Characteristics of Learning – Learning is fundamental, interactive, and

developmental.

Factors that Contribute to Learning

1) Drive and motivation
2) Positive transfer of learning
3) Usefulness of materials
4) The number of sense involved
5) Feedback or knowledge of results

Studying Techniques to Improve Performance

1) Motivation to study
2) Distributed vs. mass practice
3) Recitation vs. reading
4) Whole vs. part learning
5) Organized study-routine

Problem solving
 Exists when a goal-oriented task is blocked, or when a need is not satisfied.
 It is adjusting to a situation by acquiring new modes of response.
 It involves new approaches in discovering correct responses to new
situations.
 It requires the necessary information and appropriate combination of
concepts, ideas and skills.
 Requires adequate knowledge and information that are valid and verifiable
for the effective solutions of the problem.

Sense Perception
 It is the inherent capacity of any of the faculties, as sight, hearing, smell
taste or touch by which man perceive stimuli originating from outside and
inside the body.
Intuition
 Is a direct perception of fact and truth which is independent of any
reasoning process and considered one possible source of knowledge.

There are a number of views which men tend to hold with respect to intuition and
these are eloquently articulated by Titus and Smith.
1) The element of intuition in all knowledge may be present in our awareness
of what our senses perceive. According to Titus and smith, this is
acknowledged by George Santayana, a Spanish Philosopher and a noted
writer in Europe after 1912 who understands intuition as our awareness of
the immediate data of consciousness and by William Ernest Hocking, a U.S.
Philosopher, who speaks of knowledge as the “best case of intuition.”
2) Intuition is the result of the accumulation of one’s past experience and
thinking which are shortcuts to the knowledge that the senses and
reflective thinking world reveal. They are the consequences or end-
products of subconscious deduction or induction.
3) Intuition is a higher kind of knowledge that is different from nature and
b) Retention
that is disclosed by the senses. Henri Bergson, a French philosopher and
o Occurs when learning have been incorporated into the learner’s
writer and a Nobel prize winner for literature, distinguished intellect from
behavior pattern, retained and remembered.
intuition by stating that the intellect is the tool science used to deal with
o Conditions that cause forgetting:
matter and relations, while intuition which is instinct becomes self-
1) Disuse conscious, can lead us in to internal introspection.
2) Inference 4) Intuition may enable us to gain a vision of reality and to experience,
3) Retroactive inhibition inspiration and unity with God. This mysticism which is a mode of thought
4) Proactive inhibition of an immediate spiritual intuition of truths believed to transcend ordinary
5) Reorganization (distortion) understanding is strongly believed by followers of great religions whose
6) Motivated forgetting occurs when the individual decides not leaders such as Christ, Buddha and Catholic saints are said to have gained
to remember unique insights and understanding into religious and moral truths.

c) Transfer of Learning Thinking

o The application of knowledge learned in one situation to a new or  Is manipulating the word internally, using modifications of the organism
different learning environment or situation. which represent previous experiences.
o Lateral transfer occurs when the individual is able to perform a new  It is a behavior that uses ideas or symbols which represent things or
task about the same level. events.
o Vertical Transfer occurs when the individual is able to learn more  It is essentially an arousal of images and ideas by which an individual
advanced and complex skills. manipulates and rearranges aspects of the world which have fallen within
o Theories of transfer: his experiences.
1) Formal-discipline theory  A process that is a representative of previous experiences consisting of
2) Identical-elements theory images, minute muscle movements and other activities in the central
3) Generalization theory nervous system.
4) Transposition theory  Creative thinking is Production thinking. It involves the ability to produce
new forms or shapes in art or mathematical solutions to a problem.
Principles of Transfer and Retention as Applied to Classroom Teaching  Aspects that are important during the creative process:
 For Mazur, 1990, learning is a change in an individual caused by 1) Preparation
experience. 2) Incubation
 Learning is a process of acquiring, remembering, and applying knowledge,
skills, attitudes and other modes of response. It refers to the outcomes or Thinking as a process
results of an experience, knowledge and understanding, abilities and skills,  Thinking process has various aspects, but the awareness of what we think
habits and attitudes. is very important.
 According to Kolesnik, the elements of learning are:
  The first, is our experiences of thinking as a flowing, often chaotic, stream b. average learning child
of impression, ideas and fragments of phrases. c. bright learning child
 Dreaming is a form of automatic pilot in which we have little control over 8) The pupils/students learn democracy in democratic environment by
the sequences or sense of what moves through the sleeping brain. practicing and living with it.
 Thinking is an ongoing back and forth between flow and stability, between 9) The pupils/students must put together the parts of a given task and
automatic pilot and concentration. become aware of it as a meaningful whole.
 Certain characteristic patterns of thinking process: 10) The pupils/students increasing independence from adults and ever
1) We think in patterns and sequences. increasing sense of responsibility are clear signposts of a good
2) We think on planes of abstraction and levels of attention. teaching.
11) The pupils/students learn faster when the teacher utilizes their past
experiences because learning is easier when teaching of a lesson starts
Remembering – Is to reinstate a previous experience, to recall or to produce what from what they already know.
was learned previously. 12) The pupils/students can be stimulated to think and to reason through
 Types of remembering include: the teacher’s expression of confidence in their own aptitudes and skills
1) Recall by way of provoking curiosity and through encouraging creative
2) Recognition endeavor.
3) Relearning 13) The pupils/students educational growth depends on the selection of
4) Reintegration subject-matter, activities, experiences that will be included in the
preparation of lesson plan.
Forgetting – is the loss of retention; extinction of what has been learned. This is the 14) The pupils/students should have a curriculum of all experiences,
failure to be able to retrieve previously learned material. curriculum and co-curriculum, inside or outside the classroom which
 Theories of forgetting: are under the jurisdiction of the school.
1) Passive decay through disuse
2) Motivated forgetting Principles of Motivation
3) Systematic distortion of memory trances  In an affective learning environment, pupils/students are working at
purpose that are real to them.
Memory  1.2 Learning is most affective when the pupils/students are motivated by
 The ability to store facts and information so that is can be utilized in the goals which are intrinsic to the learning activity.
future.  The pupils/students overcome frustrations, obstacles, and difficulties when
 Not only confined to human and any other living organism but also in other they see the goal as worthwhile.
electronic devices like the tape recorder, video tape machine, calculator,  Successful experiences are important motivators.
television sets, cell phones and computer.  Reward rather than punishment is a better motivation for learning.
 Types of memory that are commonly used are:  The pupils/students interest is important in classroom learning.
1) Episodic memory  Meaningful instructional devices and materials as well as wholesome tasks
2) Semantic memory serve as good motivators.
3) Procedural memory  Success generally increases the level of aspiration and achievement of the
pupils/students.
Thoughts, Consciousness and Memory  Feedback as a tool about the pupils/students progress can be effective
 Psychologists do not exactly know the neural mechanisms of a thought and motivation.
they know little about the mechanisms of memory.  The pupils/students who recognize the need for acquiring new skills and
 clinical findings reveal that the destruction of large portions of cerebral experiences can be affective motivation.
cortex does not prevent an individual from having thoughts, but it does  A pleasant learning environment can be an affective motivator.
reduce to a certain degree of awareness of the surroundings.  Learning is most effective when the situation has meaning for the
 Each thought certainly involves simultaneous signals in many portions of students/pupils.
the cerebral cortex, thalamus, limbic system, and reticular formation of the  Intrinsic motivation is better than extrinsic motivation.
brain stem.
 A type of thought pattern that requires mainly the cerebral cortex is that of Conditions that Facilitate the Teaching-Learning Process
vision because of visual cortex causes complete inability to perceive visual  The conditions that are indispensable that facilitate the teaching-learning
form or color. process among pupils/students include:
 A thought results from a “pattern” of simulation of many parts of the 1) A pleasant atmosphere of learning environment which encourages
nervous system as the same time and in definite sequence probably them to be actively involve in the learning activity.
involving most importantly the cerebral cortex, thalamus, limbic system 2) A permissive atmosphere which directly promotes pupils/students
and upper reticular formation of the brain stem. This is called the holistic ways of discovering meanings of concepts and ideas in a natural
theory of thoughts. situation.
 Consciousness can perhaps be described as the continuing effort of 3) A congenial atmosphere which recognizes the pupils/students right
awareness of either our surroundings or our sequential thoughts. when errors are committed and accepted as a natural part of the
learning process.
Memory-Roles of Synaptic Facilitation and Synaptic Inhibition 4) A friendly atmosphere which promotes a working-together relationship
 physiologically, memories are caused by changes in the capability of or acting together willingly for a common purpose by way of giving
synaptic transmission from one neuron to the next as a result of previous pupils/students the opportunity to formulate the criteria in measuring
neural activity. their performances and progress.
 the new or facilitated pathways are called memory traces. 5) A respectable atmosphere worthy of esteem where pupils/students
 Experiments in lower animals have demonstrated that memory traces can feel they are respected and accepted – a genuine expression of care on
occur at all levels of the nervous system even in spinal cord reflexes can the part of the teacher.
change at least slightly in response to repetitive cord activation which is
part of the memory process. Methods of Teaching
 A teaching method refers to the organized, orderly and logical procedure in
Principles of Learning imparting knowledge and information among pupils/students.
 Learning is essential part of the teaching-learning process. In every  The teaching method follows a definite plan; an established way of
teaching and learning situation there are certain principles that must be executing the manner in which the conduct of teaching will be carried
observed and considered. effectively.
1) The pupils/students must have a clear idea of the goal. There should  This method is a series of related and progressive acts carefully performed
be a clear communication between the teacher and the learner about by the teacher and the pupils/students to accomplish the expected results
the goals and objectives of instructions. of the lesson.
2) The pupils/students must be physiologically and psychologically ready  It embraces the regular steps to guide the mental processes of the learners
and prepare to respond their new experience. in mastering the subject matter being presented to them through effective
a. law of readiness communication by the teacher.
b. law of effect  A good method is straight forward and promote flexible intellectual
3) The pupils must be motivated to learn. interest, open minded will to learn, integrity of purpose, and acceptance of
a. intrinsic motivation responsibility for the consequences of one’s activity.
b. extrinsic motivation  A teacher’s refined manners, friendly and warm personality and melodious
4) The pupils/students must be active in any teaching-learning process voice, form part of the teacher’s teaching method.
5) The pupils/students must always repeat or practice what they have  Teaching method greatly influences the nature of the educative process.
learned – practice makes perfect
6) The pupils/students must see and feel the significance, meanings, Cognitive Learning
implications and applications to real-life situation of a given  It is important for teachers to understand the ways pupils/students and the
experience. principles of teaching derived from cognitive psychology.
7) The pupils/students have to be taught in different ways because of  The new development in theories about how learners process information
individual differences. is called cognitive psychology.
a. slow learning child  This type of learning has certain implications for teachers today:
 1) Learning by doing is a good advice. 1) The law of readiness
2) One learns to do what one does. 2) The law of exercise
3) The amount of reinforcement necessary for learning relative to the 3) The law of effect
pupils/students needs and abilities.  Other laws of learning with pedagogical relevance:
4) The principle of readiness is related to the learners’ stage of 1) Law of apperception (Herbart)
development and their previous learning. 2) Law of association (Kant)
5) The students/pupils self concept and beliefs about their abilities are 3) Law of belongingness (Thorndike)
extremely important. 4) Law of intensity (Carr)
6) Teachers should provide opportunities for meaningful and appropriate 5) Law of forgetting (Ebbinghaus)
practices.
7) Transfer of learning to new situations can be horizontal or vertical Contemporary Educational Theories
8) Learning should be goal-directed and focused. Education has two main functions: human development and the improvement of
9) Positive feedbacks, realistic praise and encouragement are motivating the society
in the teaching-learning process.  Perennialism. – an educational theory that calls for adherence to absolute
10) Metacognition is an advanced cognitive process whereby learners principles. This is directly in contrast to the progressive theory to
specific learning strategies and also sense when they are not learning. emphasize on change and novelty. In spite of the social and political reality,
there are fundamental principles governing perennialism as a theory,
Learning How to Learn these are:
 Learning new information results in modification of long-turn memory. The 1) Despite the various and diversity in the environment, human
responsibility for engaging in learning, including control, direction and nature remains the same everywhere, and therefore, education
focus belongs to the learner. The teacher can facilitate the process through should be the same for everybody.
explicit or directed instruction and by linking new information with existing 2) Since rationality is the state of being rational, the highest attribute
relevant and related information. that a man posses, he must use it to direct his intransitive nature in
 Seven (7) Comprehension or Thinking Skills: accordance with deliberately chosen ends.
1) Analysis 3) It is education’s noble task to impart knowledge of beauty,
2) Focusing or scanning goodness and truth.
3) Comparative analysis 4) Education is a preparation for life.
4) Narrowing 5) The student should be taught certain basic subjects that will
5) Complex cognitive acquaint and equip him with knowledge to understand the world
6) Sharpening better.
7) Tolerance 6) Students should study the greatest works of literature, history,
 Weinstein and Mayer proposed a cognitive frame-work consisting of eight philosophy, the humanities and science in which men, through the
(8) comprehension or thinking strategies: ages, have revealed their lofty aspirations and achievements.
1) Basic rehearsal strategies  Progressivism – asserts that change, as a process of transformation is
2) Complex rehearsal inevitable and enduring forces, and is the essence of reality. It views that
3) Basic elaboration strategies education is always in the process of development, hence, it must be ready
4) Complex elaboration strategies to modify methods and policies to conform to the new knowledge and
5) Complex organizational strategies changes in the environment.
6) Comprehension monitoring o The basic principles governing progressivism are:
7) Affective strategies 1) Learning should be directly related to the interest and need of
the learner.
Identifying Effective Teaching 2) Education should be it, not a preparation for a living.
 To describe what effective teachers do in the classroom, Levine and 3) Education should be directly related to the interest of the
Ornstein have reviewed 10 years of research and hundred of research child.
studies. The research deals primarily with low-achieving pupils/learners. 4) Learning through problem-solving should take place
1) Classroom management precedence in inculcating the subject.
2) Direct instruction 5) The teacher’s role as an agent of imparting knowledge is not to
3) Time of task direct but to advise.
4) Questioning 6) The school should always encourage cooperation rather than
5) Comprehension instruction competition.
6) Level of cognitive instruction 7) Only democracy permits and encourages the free interplay of
7) Grouping ideas that is necessary condition for growth and development.
 Generally, there is a relationship between effective teachers and effective  Reconstructionism – this theory claims that although the school itself has
schools. Teachers, to be effective, need a supportive and positive climate. not taken a lead in social reform, it could cooperate with movements
This includes the following: already underway that advocated a more thoroughly realization of liberal
1) A manageable class size. educational reforms and cultural values.
2) Available and suitable instructional materials and devices. o The main thrusts of reconstructionism are:
3) High staff expectations for learner’s progress. 1) Education must commit itself to the creation of a new social
4) An orderly and conducive atmosphere for studying. order that will fulfill the basic values for our cultural heritage
5) A system for monitoring the learners performance and progress. and, at the same time, harmonize with the undying social,
6) Dynamic, humane and supportive school administrator. political and economic forces of the local and international
7) An institutional culture imbued with the spirit of identity that is felt community.
in the classroom. 2) The emerging new society must be attuned to a genuine
democracy that’s major institutions and resources are run and
The Functions of Teaching controlled by the people themselves in accordance with law.
1) Initiating, directing and administering class activities. 3) The child, the teacher, and the school are conditionally run by
2) Explaining, informing and showing how the correct method of teaching to social and cultural forces.
be used. 4) The teachers must lay the ground for convincing his students
3) Motivating and unifying the group for a good cause. of the validity and urgency of the reconstructivists solution,
4) Providing security and self-confidence among learners. but he must be circumspect with regard to democratic
5) Clarifying attitudes, beliefs, prejudices and problems affecting the learners. procedures.
6) Diagnosing learning problems of pupils/students.  Essentialism – an educational tenet that describes certain traditional
7) Evaluating, recording and reporting performance of pupils/students. concepts, ideas and skills essential to society and should be taught
8) Selecting and preparing curriculum materials for adoption. methodically to all students regardless of individual abilities, interests and
9) Enriching co-curricular and community activities for development. needs.
10) Participating in school and community activities for social, cultural, moral o Four (4) principles where essentialism hinges:
and civic betterment. 1) Learning in its very nature, involves hard work.
11) Participating actively in professional conferences, work-shops and meeting. 2) The imitative in any educative process should lie on the part of
12) Establishing rapport with parents and other members of the community. the teacher rather than with the student.
3) The heart of educational process is the assimilation of
Other Types of Learning prescribed subject matter.
1) Social learning 4) The school as educational institution should retain the
2) Observational learning traditional methods of mental discipline.
a. attention  Experimentalism – an educational doctrine or practice of relying on
b. retention experimentation using empirical data that are valid and reliable to
c. ability to reproduce the behavior establish the truth. An explicit and systematic theory of education that
d. motivation stems primarily from the work of John Dewey. It emphasizes the
e. reinforcement importance of experimentation, experience and learning by doing.

Laws of Learning
  Pragmatism – a philosophical movement or system having various forms,
but generally stressing practical consequences as constituting the essential
criterion in determining meaning, truth and values.
o The essence of pragmatism as a philosophy is on the meaning,
value and truth of idea, a concept, a belief or a theory that are
determined by practical results and function of thought is to
produce the conceived action.

John Dewey’s Educational Philosophy

 Dewey’s philosophy was an outgrowth or product of (1) Rousseau’s
principles of growth, pupil activity, and individualization, (2) Pestalozzi’s
discipline of sympathy and his principle that learning proceeds from the
known to the unknown, and his doctrine of interest, (3) Froebel’s idea of
learning to do by doing which depended upon self-principled activities or
creative development, which is the basic principle of socialization; and (4)
the findings in studies by G. Stanley Hall which stimulated an interest in
child nature.
 The chief tenets of John Dewey’s philosophy are the following:
1) We learn by doing.
2) Education is life, not preparation for life.
3) Education is a social process.
4) Education is growth and a continuous reconstruction of experience.
5) The school is primarily a social institution.
6) The center of education is the child’s own social activities.

The Basic Principle of Today’s Teaching

1) Out of foregoing tenets have grown, according to Mills, and Douglas, the
basic principles of today’s teaching which are:
2) Children learn by doing.
3) Motivation should be intrinsic and natural, not artificial.
4) Learning should be gradual and continuous, no discrete.
5) Instruction should be adapted to the individual needs.
6) Natural social settings should constitute learning situations.
7) Learning depends upon the child’s ability.
8) Learning comes through sense impressions.
9) The child can best be educated as a whole, as a unit organism.
10) Teacher-pupil and inter-pupil relationships should be cooperative.
11) Education means improving the quality of living.

Learning and Educational Style

 In the process of education, the educators design the environment with
which the student will interact.
 It is the students who does the learning, teachers learn too, but here we
are concerned with the objectives of the whole enterprise, the education
of the young and the adults.
 Three areas of inquiry have particular relevance to the nature and purpose
of the various models of teaching:
1) The study of how the mind creates knowledge has resulted in what are
currently referred as constructivist view of education.
2) The study of how to help the learner gain understanding about how
knowledge is constructed and about the conscious control of tools for
doing so is the study of metacognition.
3) Reflection on learner capacity is resulting in the reassessment of the
nature of the mind, particularly in the redefinition of the nature of
intelligence