INTRODUCTION TO

RHOTRICES

Project Report
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of
Master of science in Mathematics

Calicut University

Submitted by,

AMARTHYA ANIL ( Reg No. WMAWMMS003 )

Under the guidance of

Ms.Raiza Yusuf
Department of Mathematics
WMO Arts and Science College Muttil

2024

1
 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
Wmo Arts and Science College Muttil

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this is a project report titled ” INTRODUCTION TO

RHOTRICES” is a bonafide project report done independently by Ms.AMARTHYA
ANIL under my guidance and supervision and that it has not previously formed
the basis for the award of any degree, diploma, fellowship or associate ship to
them. This report is worth submitting for the Degree of Master of Science in
Mathematics.

Ms.Raiza Yusuf Prof.Dr. Viji Paul

Supervisor Head of the Department
Assistant Professor Wmo Arts and Science College, Muttil

Mokeri
04/06/2024

2
 DECLARATION

I do here by declare that the project work entitled ” INTRODUCTION TO

RHOTRICES ” is prepared by me under the guidance and supervision of Ms.Raiza
Yusuf Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics, Wmo Arts and Science
College Muttil. I further declare that this project report has been submitted by
me for the award of my post graduate degree of Mathematics and has not pre-
viously formed partly or fully for the award of any degree, diploma, fellowship,
associate ship or other similar title of recognition.

AMARTHYA ANIL

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is a matter of great pleasure and pride for me to express my profound sense of

gratitude and deep sense of obligation to Ms. Raiza Yusuf,Assistant Professor
in Mathematics,Department of Mathematics, Govt. College Mokeri for giving
me excellent guidance and constant encouragement while preparing this project.
I am also grateful to Prof.Dr.Viji Paul , HOD of Department of Mathematics,
for their kind co-operation and valuable suggestions for doing my project work
in LATEX.
I express my heartfelt thanks to all my classmate during the period 2022-2024
for their kind and valuable co-operation, the members of the faculty and non
teaching staffs in the Department for their co-operation and inspiration, which
highly helped me in the successful completion of this work.
I am extremely grateful to my parents who were a source of constant inspiration
to me.
Above all, I place my fervent indebtedness to God, the Almighty for his boun-
tiful blessings.
Wmo Arts and Science College Muttil,
AMARTHYA ANIL
June 4,2024

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 CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1 Rhotrices 7
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO RHOTRICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 REPRESENTATION OF ARBITRARY RHOTRIX . . . . . . . 8
1.3 PROPERTIES OF RHOTRIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 TYPES OF RHOTRICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 OPERATIONS ON RHOTRICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 IDENTITY AND INVERSE OF A RHOTRIX . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.7 CLASSIFICATION OF RHOTRICES OVER NUMBER FIELDS 22

2 Rank and Determinent of a Rhotrix 23

2.1 COUPLED MATRIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 RANK OF A RHOTRIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 DETERMINANT OF A RHOTRIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3 Classification into abstract structures 27

3.1 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

4 APPLICATIONS OF RHOTRICES 30
4.1 RHOMTREE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.1.1 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.1.2 APPLICATION TO REAL WORLD SITUATION . . . . 33
4.1.3 ENERGY RESOURCE DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . 33
4.1.4 OTHER REAL WORLD SITUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . 34
CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

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 INTRODUCTION
Rhotrix theory is a relatively new area of Mathematics, whose goal is central on
representing arrays of numbers in a rhomboidal mathematical form, unlike ma-
trix theory dealing with representing array of numbers in rectangular form.The
concept of Rhotrices of size three, also well known as base Rhotrices was first
introduced by Ajibade in 2003 on the basis of Rhomboidal arrangement of en-
tries, as an extension of the idea suggested by Atanassov and Shannon on 1998.
Ajibade gave the initial definition of Rhotrix as a mathematical Array that is
in some way between 2 × 2 dimensional matrices and 3 × 3 dimensional ma-
trices. Following Ajibade’s work Sani in 2004 proposed an alternative method
of multiplication of Rhotrices of size three, based on their rows and columns
as comparable to matrix multiplication which was considered to be an attempt
to answer the question of whether a transformation can be made to convert a
matrix into rhotrix and vice versa. first chapter includes some basic results,
introducing the definition of Rhotrix, their properties, types, operations and
classification. Second chapter contains coupled matrix which is used to solve
system of an n × n and n − 1 × n − 1 matrix problem simultaneously and is also
discussing about rank, determinant of a Rhotrix. Last chapter gives an idea
about applications of Rhotrices.

6
CHAPTER 1

RHOTRICES

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO RHOTRICES

Definition 1. A Rhotrix is a rhomboidal array of numbers. It is a system of
numbers arranged in rhomboidal shape. A three dimensional rhotrix is of odd
dimension 3 is given by,

a
(* + )
R= b c d : a, b, c, d, e ∈ R
e
The name Rhotrix is the rhomboidal nature of arrangement of its entries.
An n-dimensional Rhotrix is denoted by Rn and is defined by

a11
a21 c11 a12
* .. .. .. .. .. +
Rn = at1 .. .. .. .. .. a1t
.. .. .. .. ..
att−1 ct−1t−1 at−1t
att

where aij , ckl ∈ R, 1 ≤ i, j ≤ t and 1 ≤ l, k ≤ t − 1; t = n+1

2
2
Number of entries in an n- dimensional Rhotrix is n 2+1 , where n ∈ 2Z+ + 1

7
Definition 2. The element at the perpendicular intersection of the two diag-
onals of a rhotrix R is called the heart of the Rhotrix R and is denoted by
h(R).
Example: Consider the Rhotrix,
* a +
R3 = b c d
e

Here the heart of the rhotrix R3 is the element ‘c’. It is denoted by h(R3).

1.2 REPRESENTATION OF ARBITRARY RHOTRIX

There are various ways of representing the entries of an arbitrary Rhotrix.
1. One way of representing an arbitrary Rhotrix is the use of a single index
for each entry. This method is called Single Index Method of Ordinary
Rhotrix Representation.

a1
* a6 a4 a2 +
a11 a9 a7 a6 a3
a12 a10 a8
a13

2. Another way is to use two indices, the first indicates the row in which the
entry lies and the second indicates column in which the entry lies. This
method is called the Row Column Method of Representing the entries
of an Arbitrary Rhotrix.

a11
a31 a22 a13
* +
a51 a42 a33 a24 a15
a53 a44 a35
a55

3. Third method use two indices for each entry, where the first indicates the
row in which the entry lies, however second index does not indicates the
column in which the entry lies in the rhotrix. This method is called a
Row Wise Representation of an Arbitrary Rhotrix.

a11
* a31 a21 a12 +
a51 a41 a31 a22 a13
a52 a42 a33
a53

8
 Example
 
a b c
1. Given Matrix A=d e f  by
g h i
(
0, if i+j is odd
aij =
aij , if i+j is even
* a +
Then the corresponding rhotrix is,R3 = g e c
i

1.3 PROPERTIES OF RHOTRIX

1. Axes of Rhotrix
(a) The vertical axis of a Rhotrix is an array of entries from the top to
the bottom of the rhotrix.
(b) The horizontal axis of a Rhotrix is an array of entries from left to
the right of the rhotrix.
(c) Every Rhotrix has a major vertical axis and a major horizontal axis.
a
f d b
* +
Example: R5 = k i g e c
i j h
m
• The Vertical axis of R5 : k, f-i-l, a-d-g-j-m, b-e-h, c
• Major Vertical axis of R5 : a-d-g-j-m
• The Horizontal axis of R5 : a, f-d-b, k-i-g-e-c, l-j-h, m
• Major Horizontal axis of R5 : k-i-g-e-c
2. Dimension of a Rhotrix

It is the number of entries in the major axis of the Rhotrix.

Example: Consider the rhotrix,

a
* f d b +
R5 = k i g e c
i j h
m

The dimension of R5 is 5

9
3. Cardinality of a Rhotrix

It is the number of elements in a Rhotrix. Cardinality of a Rhotrix of

2
dimension n is |Rn | = (n 2+1) where n ∈ 2Z+ + 1

Example: Consider the rhotrix,

a
* f d b +
R5 = k i g e c
i j h
m

Here the dimension of R5 is 5. That is, n=5. Therefore the cardinality of

R5 is

52 + 1 26
t= = = 13
2 2
4. Rows and Columns of a Rhotrix

(a) A Row of a rhotrix is an array of entries running from the top left to
the right bottom side of the Rhotrix.
(b) A Column of a rhotrix is an array of entries running from the top
right to the left bottom side of the Rhotrix.
Example:
a
f d b
* +
R5 = k i g e c
i j h
m

• First Row : a-b-c

• Second Row : d-e
• First Column : a-f-k
• Second Column: d-i

5. Boundary Entries and the Boundary of a Rhotrix

(a) An entry at the first row, last row, first column, last column of a
rhotrix are called boundary entries of a Rhotrix.
(b) The set of all boundary entries are called boundary of a Rhotrix.

10
 Example:
a
f d b
* +
R5 = k i g e c
i j h
m

• Boundary of R5 = a,b,c,h,m,l,k,f
6. Vertex of a Rhotrix

A Vertex of a Rhotrix is an entry at any of the four corners of the Rhotrix.

Example:
a
* f d b +
R5 = k i g e c
i j h
m

• Vertices of R5 are a,c,m and k

1.4 TYPES OF RHOTRICES

1. Zero Rhotrix

A Zero Rhotrix of dimension three is denoted as O3 and is given by

* 0 +
R3 = 0 0 0
0
2. Zero Heart Rhotrix

A Rhotrix R3 such that h(R3 ) = 0 is called a zero heart rhotrix.

a
* +
Example: R3 = b 0 d
e
3. Unit Heart Rhotrix

A Rhotrix R3 such that h(R3 ) = 1 is called Unit heart Rhotrix

* a +
Example: R3 = b 1 d
e

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4. Odd Heart Rhotrix

A Rhotrix R3 such that h(R3 ) = 2n + 1 where n ∈ Z is called Odd heart

Rhotrix

a
* +
Example: R3 = b 2n + 1 d Where a, b, d, e ∈ R is an Odd heart
e
Rhotrix.
5. Even Heart Rhotrix

A Rhotrix R3 such that h(R3 ) = 2n where n ∈ Z is called an Even heart

Rhotrix

a
* +
Example: R3 = b 2n d Where a, b, d, e ∈ R is an Even heart
e
Rhotrix.
6. Non Zero Heart Rhotrix

A Rhotrix R3 over R, whose heart h(R3 ) is non zero is called a Non zero
heart Rhotrix.

a
* +
Example: R3 = b c d where c ̸= 0 is a Non zero heart Rhotrix
e
7. Hearty Rhotrix

A Rhotrix R3 over R having all its entries zero except its heart h(R3 ) is
called a Hearty Rhotrix.
* 0 +
Example: R3 = 0 c 0 is a hearty Rhotrix.
0
8. Even Rhotrix

A Rhotrix R3 all of whose entries including the heart are all even numbers
is called an Even Rhotrix
9. Odd Rhotrix

A Rhotrix R3 all of whose entries including the heart are all Odd numbers
is called an Odd Rhotrix.

12
 10. Binary Rhotrix

A Rhotrix R3 whose all entries are either 0 or 1 is called Binary Rhotrix.

Any Binary Rhotrix with Unit Heart is invertible

1.5 OPERATIONS ON RHOTRICES

The basic operations over the set of all 3-dimensional Real Rhotrices are defined
as follows:
1. Addition on Rhotrices

Two rhotrices can be added up only if they have same dimension. The
addition of two rhotrices is defined as the sum of their corresponding ele-
ments.
* a + * p +
If R3 = b c d and Q3 = q r s
e t
be any 3-dimensional Rhotrices, then their addition is defined as,

a+p
* +
R3 + Q3 = b+q c+r d+s
e+t
2. Scalar Multiplication of a Rhotrix

In scalar multiplication, each entry of a rhotrix is multiplied by the given

scalar.
* a +
Let, R3 = b c d and α be a scalar,then the scalar multiplication of
e
a Rhotrix R3 is defined as,

a αa
* + * +
αR3 = α b c d = αb αc αd
e αe
3. Multiplication of a Rhotrix

Multiplication between Rhotrices can be done in two ways. They are

heartoriented multiplication and row-column multiplication. Heart-oriented
multiplication is related with the heart of a rhotrix whereas; row-column
multiplication is similar to that of matrix multiplication.

13
(a) As the name denotes, in this multiplication we multiply each element
of the first rhotrix with the heart of the second rhotrix and add it
with the product of the corresponding element of the second rhotrix
and heart of the first rhotrix.

a p
* + * +
Let, R3 = b c d and Q3 = q r s
e t
be any 3-dimensional Rhotrices, where h(R3 ) = c and h(Q3 )= r,
then their heart oriented multiplication is defined as,

ar + pc
* +
R3 ◦ Q3 = br + qc cr dr + sc
er + tc
Remark 1

Multiplication of Rhotrices under heart oriented multiplication is

commutative, associative and distributive with respect to addition.

Remark 2

The Product of two non-zero Rhotrices under heart oriented multi-

plication need not be a non-zero Rhotrix.
* a + * f +
Let, P = b 0 d and Q = g 0 k be non zero Rhotrices,
e l
then
* a + * f + * 0 +
P ◦Q= b 0 d ◦ g 0 k = 0 0 0
e l 0
(b) Row Column Multiplication

B. Sani discussed an alternative method of rhotrices multiplication

known as row-column multiplication of rhotrices. In this method,
each element is obtained by multiplying each row of the first rhotrix
with each column of the second rhotrix.
* a + * p +
Let, R3 = b c d and Q3 = q r s
e t
be any 3-dimensional Rhotrices, where h(R3 ) = c and h(Q3) = r,
then the row column product of R3 and Q3 is defined as

14
 a p ap + dq
* + * + * +
R3 ◦ Q = b c d ◦ q r s = bp + eq cr as + dt
e t bs + et

Transpose of a Rhotrix

Rhotrix obtained by interchanging the row and column of the given

Rhotrix Rn is called the transpose of Rn and is denoted by RnT

Example:
x1
* x4 y1 x2 +
If R5 = x7 y3 x5 y2 x3
x8 y4 x6
x9
Then,

x1
x2 y1 x4
* +
R5T = x3 y2 x5 y3 x7
x6 y4 x8
x9
Result

The entries of the vertical diagonal remains unchanged, where as the

entries of the horizontal diagonal get arranged in the reverse order.

4. Symmetric Rhotrix

A Rhotrix Rn is called symmetric if RnT = Rn

Example:
1
−2 3 −2
* +
P5 = 5 4 3 4 5
−7 6 −7
−4

5. Skew Symmetric Rhotrix

A Rhotrix Rn is called Skew-symmetric if RnT = −Rn

15
 Example:
0
5 0 −5
* +
P5 = −6 3 0 −3 6
7 0 −7
0
then the transpose of P5 is

0
−5 0 5
* +
P5T = 6 −3 0 3 −6
−7 0 7
0

Hence P5T =−P5

1.6 IDENTITY AND INVERSE OF A RHOTRIX

1. Identity of a Rhotrix

(a) Identity of a Rhotrix under Heart oriented Multiplication

The Identity Rhotrix of three dimension is defined as

* 0 +
I3 = 0 1 0
0
I3 is obtained as follows,
Let,
* l +
I3 = m p q
r
be the identity Rhotrix and
* a +
R3 = b c d
e
be the Rhotrix such that h(R3 ) = c ̸= 0

Therefore

R3 ◦ I3 = I3 ◦ R3 = R3

16
 Thus we have,
* a + * l + * a +
b c d ◦ m p q = b c d
e r e
That is,
* ap + lc + * a +
bp + mc cp dp + qc = b c d
ep + rc e

By definition of equality of Rhotrices, we get,

ap+lc = a
bp+mc = b
cp = c
dp+qc = d
ep+rc = e
Implies,
p=1
and,
q=r=m=l=0
So we obtain,

0
* +
I3 = 0 1 0
0
Result

The set of all unit heart Rhotrices of dimension three is a commuta-

tive group under multiplication with Rhotrix I3 .

(b) Identity of a Rhotrix under Row-Column Multiplication

The Identity Rhotrix of three dimension is defined as

* 1 +
I3 = 0 1 0
1
I3 is obtained as follows:
Let,

17
 * p +
I3 = q r s
t
be the identity Rhotrix under the row column multiplication. Then
for any Rhotrix
a
* +
R3 = b c d
e
Therefore

R3 ◦ I3 = I3 ◦ R3 = R3
Thus we have,

a p a
* + * + * +
b c d ◦ q r s = b c d
e t e
That is,
* ap + dq + * a +
bp + eq cr as + dt = b c d
bs + et e

By definition of equality of Rhotrices, we get,

ap+dq = a
bp+eq = b
cr = c
as+dt = d
bs+et = e
Implies,
r=1
p=t=1
and,
q=s=0
Provided c(ae-bd)neq0 So we obtain,

1
* +
I3 = 0 1 0
1

2. Inverse of a Rhotrix

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(a) Inverse of a Rhotrix under Heart oriented Multiplication

Let P3 be a three dimensional Rhotrix and h(P3 ) ̸= 0. If there exist

a Rhotrix Q3 such that

P3 ◦ Q3 = Q3 ◦ P3 = I3

Then Q3 is called the inverse of P3

Now we obtain the inverse of a Rhotrix as follows:

Let * a +
P3 = b c d
e
be a three dimensional Rhotrix such that c ̸= 0
If
* p +
Q3 = q r s
t
is the inverse of P3 ,then we have P3 ◦ Q3 = I3
Thus we have,

a p 0
* + * + * +
b c d ◦ q r s = 0 1 0
e t 0

That is,
* ar + pc + * 0 +
br + qc cr dr + sc = 0 1 0
er + tc 0

By definition of equality of Rhotrices, we get,

ar+pc = 0
br+qc = 0
cr = 1
dr+sc = 0
er+tc = 0
Implies,
1
r= c
−a
p= c2
−b
q= c2

19
 −d
s= c2
−e
t= c2

So we obtain,
−a
a
* + * +
c2
Q3 = P3−1 −b
c2
1
c
−d
c2
= −1
c2
b −c d
−e
c2
e

Example The Inverse of a unit heart Rhotrix

* a +
b 1 d
e
is given by
* a + * −a +
R3−1 = (−1) b −1 d = −b 1 −d
e −e
Remark

Any Rhotrix with non-zero heart is invertible.

(b) Inverse of a Rhotrix Under Row-Column Multiplication

A Rhotrix Q3 is called the inverse of a Rhotrix R3 if

R3 ◦ Q3 = Q3 ◦ R3 = I3
Now we obtain the inverse of a Rhotrix as follows:
Let,
* a +
R3 = b c d
e
be a three dimensional Rhotrix and let
* f +
Q3 = g h j
k
be its inverse. Then R3 ◦ Q3 = I3

20
 Thus we get,
* a + * f + * 1 +
b c d ◦ g h j = 0 1 0
e k 1
That is,
af + dg 1
* + * +
bf + eg ch aj + dk = 0 1 0
bj + ek 1
By definition of equality of Rhotrices, we get
af + dg = 1
bf + eg = 0
ch = 1
aj + kc = 0
bj + ek = 1
Implies,
1
h= c
e
f= ae−bd
−b
g= ae−bd
−d
j= ae−bd
a
k= ae−bd
So we obtain
e
*
ae−bd
+ * e +
1
Q3 = R3−1 = −b
ae−bd
1
c
−d
ae−bd = −b ae−bd
c −d
a ae − bd
ae−bd
a
Provided that ae-bd ̸= 0
Theorem 1. A Rhotrix R is invertible if h(R) ̸= 0
Proof. Suppose Rhotrix R is invertible.
Then there exist a Rhotrix Q such that

R◦Q=I
which implies

h(R ◦ Q) = I
=⇒ h(R)h(Q) = 1
1
=⇒ h(Q) = h(R)

=⇒ h(R) ̸= 0

21
1.7 CLASSIFICATION OF RHOTRICES OVER
NUMBER FIELDS
• A Rhotrix is called a Natural Rhotrix if all its entries belongs to the
set of natural numbers.

• A Rhotrix is called a Integer Rhotrix if all its entries belongs to the set
of integers.
• A Rhotrix is called a Rational Rhotrix if all its entries belongs to the
set of rational numbers.
• A Rhotrix is called a Irrational Rhotrix if all its entries belongs to the
set of Irrational numbers.
• A Rhotrix is called a Real Rhotrix if all its entries belongs to the set of
Real numbers.
• A Rhotrix is called a Complex Rhotrix if all its entries belongs to the
set of Complex numbers.

22
CHAPTER 2

RANK AND
DETERMINENT OF A
RHOTRIX

2.1 COUPLED MATRIX

Conversion of a Rhotrix to a special matrix is called coupled matrix. This idea
is used to solve system n × n and (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix problems simulta-
neously.

Transposition of any Rhotrix is equivalent to rotating its columns through a

right angle anticlockwise. In some way, if the columns of a Rhotrix are rotated
through 45◦ C (represented by half transpose T/2) we get a matrix with missing
values, called a coupled matrix.

Example:
For a 5-dimensional Rhotrix, we have

a11
a21 c11 a12
* +
R5 = a31 c21 a22 c12 a13
a32 c22 aa3
a33

23
  
a11 a12 a13
 c11 c12 
(T /2) 
a21

R5  a22 a23 
 = [AC]5
 c21 c22 
a31 a32 a33
is a coupled matrix. This is coupling of n × n and (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix,
where n × n matrix

 
a11 a12 a13
A = a21 a22 a23 
a31 a22 a23
and (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix

 
c c12
C = 11
c21 c22
Here C is the complementary component matrix of the coupled matrix [AC]5 .
If a coupled matrix is completed by filling zeros at the missing places, we get
n × n matrix. Thus the coupled matrix [AC]5 above when completed becomes
a 5 × 5 matrix.
 
a11 0 a12 0 a13
 0 c11 0 c12 0 
 
a21 0 a22 0 a23 
 
 0 c21 0 c22 0 
a31 0 a32 0 a33

2.2 RANK OF A RHOTRIX

• Let Rn =< aij, ckl > be an n-dimensional Rhotrix. Then aij is the
(i, j) entries is called the Major entries of Rn and ckl is the (k, l) entries
is called the Minor entries of Rn .
• An n-dimensional Rhotrix Rn =< aij , ckl > is a coupled of two matrices
(aij ) and (ckl ) consisting of its major and minor matrices respectively. So
(aij ) and (ckl ) are the major and minor matrices of Rn .
• Let Rn =< aij, ckl > be an n-dimensional Rhotrix. Then rows and
columns of (aij )(or(ckl )) will be called the major (or minor) rows and
columns of Rn respectively.
• For any odd integer n, an n × n matrix (aij ) is called a filled coupled
matrix if aij = 0 for all i, j whose sum i+j is odd. These are called the
null entries of the filled coupled matrix.

24
 • There is a one-one correspondence between the set of all n-dimensional
Rhotrices over F and the set of all n × n filled coupled matrices over F.
• Let Rn =< aij , ckl >, the entries arr(1 ≤ r ≤ t) and cs s(1 ≤ s ≤ t − 1)
in the main diagonal of the major and minor matrices of R respectively,
formed the main diagonal of Rn . If all the entries to the left(right) of
the main diagonal in Rn are zeros, Rn is called a right(left) triangular
Rhotrix.
• Let Rn =< aij , ckl > is a left(right) triangular Rhotrix if and only if
(aij )(and(ckl )) are lower(upper) triangular matrices.
• Any n-dimensional Rhotrix R can be reduce to a right triangulated Rhotrix
by reducing its major and minor matrix to echelon form using the elemen-
tary row operations.
• rank of a Rhotrix A is denoted by rank(A) is the number of non-zero
rows in the reduced echelon form.
• If Rn =< aij , ckl >,we define the rank of R by
rank(R) = rank(aij ) + rank(ckl )
Example:
1
* 0 2 −2 +
Let A = 1 −1 3 1 2
−2 1 1
2
Then the filled coupled matrix of A is given by,
 
1 0 −2 0 2
0 2 0 1 0
 
m(A) =  0 0 3 0 1

0 −1 0 1 0
1 0 −2 0 2
Now reducing m(A) to the row echelon form rref,
 
1 0 −2 0 2
0 2 0 1 0
 
0 0
rref (m(A)) =  3 0 1

0 0 0 3 0
0 0 0 0 0
Which is coupled of 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 matrices.
 
  1 −2 2
2 1
That is,P = and Q = 0 3 1
1 0
0 0 0
So, rank(P ) + rank(Q) = 2 + 2 = 4 = rank(rref(m(A))
Hence rank(A) = 4

25
2.3 DETERMINANT OF A RHOTRIX
Even if the formula for finding the determinant of a n × n matrix is known,
that of n-dimensional Rhotrix when n ∈ 2Z+ + 1 is not yet determined.
a
* +
• The determinant of a three dimensional base Rhotrix is, IfR3 = b c d ,
e
then detR3 = c(ae − bd)
• The n-dimensional Rhotrix Rn is defined as,

Rn =< aij , ckl >=< A, C >

where A = [aij ]t×t and C = [ckl ](t−1)×(t−1) are respectively the major and
minor componennt matrices of Rn . For t = n+1 2 and n=3,5,7,. ,. ,. The
Rhotrix Rn is invertible if and only if Rn is non-singular.
• The determinant of Rn is defined as

detRn = detA × detC

Let
* a +
R3 = b c d
e

be a given Rhotrix, then coupled matrix of the given Rhotrix is

 
a 0 d
[AC] = 0 c 0
b 0 e
 
a d
where A= and C=[c], Then detA = ae - bd and detC = c
b e
Therefore

detA × detC = c(ae − bd) = detR3

So,

detR3 = detA × detC

26
CHAPTER 3

CLASSIFICATION INTO
ABSTRACT
STRUCTURES

3.1 Classification
In this section, we apply the definitions of relevant abstract structures in the
development of the following new abstract structures of rhotrices with respect
to the binary operations of addition (+) and multiplication (◦) given by section
(1.5)

Ring of rhotrices:
Let R∗ = ⟨R, +, ◦⟩ be an abstract structure consisting of the set R of all real
rhotrices of the same dimension together with the operations of addition (+)
and multiplication (◦) then R is a commutative ring of rhotrices.
The unity element of the ring R∗ is the identity rhotrix I, . The zero element
of ring R∗ is the zero rhotrix .
The unit elements in the ring R∗ are the nonzero heart rhotrices (that is the
invertible rhotrices) given by the set:
(* a + )
U1 = b c d : a, b, c, d, e ∈ R and c ̸= 0
e

In addition, to the above properties of the ring R∗ , we define a set ZD, consisting

27
of all non-zero zero divisors in the ring R∗ , by
(* a + )
ZD = b c d : a, b, 0, d, e ∈ R and atleast one of a, b, c, d ̸= 0
e

Further more, the sets

(* a + )
J= b 0 d : a, b, 0, d, e ∈ R
e

and (* 0 +)
k= 0 0 0
0
are some of the ideals of ring R∗ .
However, if R is a ring of integer rhotrices, then the only units in R is given by
the set
a
(* + )
U2 = b c d : a, b, c, d, e ∈ Z and c ∈ {1, −1}
e
The irreducible elements in a ring of integer rhotrices is given by the set of
non-units integer rhotrices

a
(* + )
E2 = b c d : a, b, c, d, e ∈ Z and c ∈
/ {1, −1}
e

ID of rhotrices:
Let R and ZD are as defined above and let D∗ = ⟨(R−ZD), +, ◦⟩ be an abstract
structure consisting of some real rhotrices of the same dimension, together with
the operations of addition (+) and multiplication (◦) then D∗ is an Integral
Domain.

Field of rhotrice:
Let U1 be as given by equation (1.8) and let
* (* 0 +) +
∗
F = U1 ∪ 0 0 0 , +, ◦
0

be an abstract structure consisting of some real rhotrices of the same dimension,

together with the operations of addition (+) and multiplication (◦) then F ∗ is
a Field of real rhotrices.

28
 PID of rhotrices: Let
(* a + ) (* a + ) (* 0 +)
P = b 1 d : a, b, d, e ∈ Z ∪ b −1 d : a, b, d, e ∈ Z ∪ 0 0 0
e e 0

be a set of some integer rhotrices and let P ∗ = ⟨P, +, ◦⟩ be an abstract struc-

ture consisting of the set P, together with the operations of addition (+) and
multiplication (◦) then P ∗ is a Principal Ideal Domain of rhotrices.

UFD of rhotrices: Let

(* a + ) (* 0 +)
U= b c d : a, b, c, d, e ∈ Z and c ̸= 0 ∪ 0 0 0
e 0

be a set of some integer rhotrices and let U ∗ = ⟨U, +, ◦⟩ be an abstract struc-

ture consisting of the set U, together with the operations of addition (+) and
multiplication (◦) then U ∗ is a Unique Factorization Domain.

29
CHAPTER 4

APPLICATIONS OF
RHOTRICES

4.1 RHOMTREE
2
A Rhomtree is a graphical tree T(m) of order m = n 2+1 such that n ∈ 2Z+ + 1,
whose root is incident with four vertices or four components of binary branches.

Examples:

4.1.1 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

Graphical Representation of Rhotrix R3

Let R̂3 be a set consisting of all real Rhotrices of dimension three and R3 be
any element in R̂3 is given by

a
* +
R3 = b c d
e

Clearly if we take each entry in R3 as a node point and then connect all
the entries as network of five vertices using a particular pattern or style for
the construction. In such a way that the heart vertex will serve as the root of
the tree while the non heart vertices will serve as branches. Then we obtain a
Rhomtree T(5) corresponding to the Rhotrix R3 . T(5) has a root labeled as
h(R3 ) = c which branches into four components of vertices a, b, d and e.

30
Graphical Representation of Rhotrix R5

31
 Let R̂5 be a set consisting all real Rhotrices of dimension 5 and
a
f d b
* +
R5 = k i g e c be any element in R̂5 . Now we can construct the
l j h
m
graph of Rhomtree T(13) by extending the graph of Rhomtree T(5). That is,
if we take each entry in R5 as a node point and then connect all the entries as
network of 13 vertices using a particular pattern or style for the construction,
in such a way that the heart vertex is adjacent with four vertices while the non
heart vertices are binary branches of four components connected to the root
vertex then we obtain a rhomtree T(13) corresponding to the Rhotrix R5 . Also
the Rhomtree T(13) has a root labeled as h(R5 ) = g that bridged four connected
components of binary branches.

Graphical Representation of Rhotrix Rn Let Rˆn be a set consisting of

all real Rhotrices of dimension n ∈ 2Z+ +1 and let Rn be any Rhotrix in Rˆn ,then
the graphical representation of Rhotrix Rn is Rhomtree T(m) consisting of m
2 2
= n 2+1 number of vertices and n 2−1 number of edges , having four components
of binary branches and each component is bridged to the root vertex by one
incident edge.

32
 Remark There exists a homeomorphism between any two Rhomtrees of
2
order m = n 2+1 ,n ∈ 2Z+ +1. This is clear since Rhomtrees of order
2
m = n 2+1 ,n ∈ 2Z+ +1 form a chain of composition series,

T (5) ∈ T (13) ∈ T (25)... ∈ T (m)

4.1.2 APPLICATION TO REAL WORLD SITUATION

Computing Network Topological Design
The Rhomtree has strong application in star and high head star network topo-
logical design. In this case, the root become the server or the heart of the
network and the four edges incident on the root vertex are referred to as bridges
other vertices are referred to as destination computers connected to the server to
facilitate communication by means of a connected components of binary network
of computers.

4.1.3 ENERGY RESOURCE DISTRIBUTION

The Rhomtree as a labeled digraph has strong application in energy resource
distribution network. In this case, the root vertex becomes the source vertex
with the network. The four edges incident on the source vertex are referred to
as bridges. Other vertices are referred to as sinks or destination vertices. This
idea can be illustrated for Rhomtree of order 13 as a graphical representation
of Rhotrix of dimension 5.

Figure 3.4: A labeled directed Rhomtree T(m) representing energy distribu-

tion network

33
4.1.4 OTHER REAL WORLD SITUATIONS
The Rhomtree of order 5 depicts a chemical compound called methane. Methane
is one of the smallest saturated hydrocarbons when Cn H2n+2 , when enumerat-
ing their isomers with a given number n of carbon atoms.

Also, the Rhomtree of order 13 represents the cartesian product A × B, of two

sets A = {a1, a2, a3, a4} and B = {b1, b2} such that A should consist of four
elements and the set B should consist of two elements. Thus A × B consists of
all ordered pairs (a, b) where a in A, b ∈ B. These elements of A × B can be
systematically obtained by a graph of Rhomtree T(13).

Observe that the root of Rhomtree T(13) is labeled as A × B. The first gener-
ations of the Rhomtree T(13) are labeled as the elements of the set A and the
second generations are labeled as the elements of the set B. The elements of A
× B are precisely the 8 ordered pairs to the right of the Rhomtree T(13) . In
addition, n(A) = 4 and n(B) = 2, hence n(A × B) = 8 = n(A)n(B).

34
 CONCLUSION
As part of my project i selected the topic Introduction to Rhotrices. A Rhotrix
is a rhomboidal array of numbers. It is a system of numbers arranged in rhom-
boidal shape. In this project i included an introduction and four chapters. In-
troduction gives main idea about Rhotrices with examples. Project introducing
some basic results and definition of Rhotrix and their propeties, types, oper-
ations and classifications. Also it introduce the concept of Coupled matrices,
Rank of Rhotrix, Determinant of Rhotrix, Rhotrix linear transformation and
Application of Rhotrices. Through this project i understood about my topic
Introduction to Rhotrices.

35
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] A. O. Ajibade, The Concept Of Rhotrix in Mathematical Enrichment, In-

ternational Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology,
Volume 34, 2003

[2] B. Sani, Conversion Of Rhotrix to a Coupled Matrix, International Journal

of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 2008
[3] A. Muhammed, A Remark on the Classifications of Rhotrices as Abstract
Structures, International Journal of Physical Sciences, 2009
[4] Ezugwu, E. A. , B. Sani, J. B. Sahalu, The Concept of Heart Oriented
Rhotrix Multiplication, Volume 11, 2011
[5] A. Muhammed and B. Sani, On Construction of Rhomtrees as Graphical
Representation of Rhotrices, 2011

36