Chapter 1

Microwave Devices mks allotted 25

Q1.Define microwave signal and explain frequency bands with application.
• A1.Microwaves are types of electromagnetic radiations with frequencies in the range of
300Mhz to 300Ghz.
• Their range is in between the radio waves and infrared waves. They travel in straight line
and they will be lightly affected by troposphere. They don’t require any medium to travel.
• Metals will reflect these waves totally.Non metals such as glass and particles are partially
transparent to these waves.
• TABLE OF RF SPECTRUM
Radio freqyency wavelength class application
range
10-30Khz 3x10^4—10^4 Very low Point to point
frequency communication
30-300Khz 10^4—10^3 Low Point to point
frequency communication and
navigation
300-3000Khz 10^3—10^2 Medium Radio broadcasting
frequency
3—30 Mhz 10^2--10 High Overseas radio
frequeny broadcasting ,point to
point radio telegraphy
and telephony.
30—300Mhz 10—1.0 Ultra high FM broadcast,TV,Radar
frequency
300-3000Mhz 1.0—0.1 Ultra high TV and Navigation
frequency
3000-30,000 0.1—0.001 Super high Radar navigation and
Mhz frequency Radio relays

Q2. Write the advantages and disadvantages of Microwave

A2.(1)It supports large bandwidth and hence used for point to point communication.
(2)Higher data rates are transmitted as bandwidth is more.(3)Antenna size gets reduced as
frequencies are higher.(3)More antenna gain is possible.(4)Low power
consumption.(5)Provides effective reflection area in the radar system(6)Satellite and
terrestrial communication with high capacities are possible.(7) Effect of fading is reduced by
using Line of sight propagation
(8 )Effective spectrum usage with wide variety of application.

Q3.Disadvantages of Microwaves
A3.(1)Cost of equipment or installation cost is high.(2)They are hefty and occupy more
space.(3)Electromagnetic interference occurs.(4) Variations in dielectric properties occurs with
temperature.(5)Inefficiency of electric power.

Q4.Explain the applications of Microwaves.

A4.1.Used in Wireless communications such as long distance telephone calls.Bluetooth,Wi-
MAX,,DBS(Direct broadcasting satellite),WLANs etc
2. Telecom: Mobile communication and Satellite communication
3. Space and remote sensing technology.
4. Medical diagnostics ,imaging and treatment applications
5. Defence equipments
6. Radar communication and target tracking.
7. Sensing/Spectroscopy, communication, radio astronomy
8. GPS, Car avoidance radar, Traffic surveillance and air traffic security.
9. Security and surveillances
10.Food processing, Industrial and home applications

Q5.Define Waveguide and explain the need of waveguides

A5.A hollow metallic tube of uniform cross section for transmitting electromagnetic waves by
successive reflections from the inner walls of the tube is called waveguide .Generally
waveguides are constructed of brass, copper and aluminum.
The main characteristics of waveguide are :(i)The tube wall provides distributed
inductance.(ii) The empty space between the tube walls provide distributed
capacitance.(iii)They are bulky and expensive
The different types of waveguides are: 1.Rectangular waveguide.2.Circular
waveguide.3.Elliptical waveguide.4.Single ridged waveguide.5.Double –ridged waveguide.
Q6.What is the need of waveguides
A6.1.Waveguides offer large bandwidth and lower signal attenuation.
2. Microwave signals travel through waveguides with lesser radiation losses than in a co-axial
cable.
3. Waveguides can handle larger power.4.They are easy to manufacture
5. Waveguides are used for transmitting EM waves in UHF and Microwave frequency.

Q7.What is energy coupling and what are different types of energy coupling methods.
A7.Waveguide operates differently from an ordinary transmission line. In order to produce field
intensities of desired mode in the waveguide a probe or loop coupling device is commonly used.
The waveguides are excited from microwave signal source through a co-axial cable. Thus energy
coupling is transferring micro wave signal in a waveguide.
Types of energy coupling: Probe coupling, Loop coupling and aperture coupling.

Q8.Explain probe coupling and Loop coupling.

• A8.In this type of coupling a small probe is inserted into waveguide and supplied with
microwave energy, it acts as a quarter –wave antenna.
• Current flows in the probe and sets up an E field as shown in figure. These E lines detach
themselves from the probe.
• When the probe is located at the point of highest efficiency, the E lines set up an E field
of considerable intensity.
• The most efficient place to locate the probe is at the centre of the “a” wall, parallel to the
“b” wall, and one quarter –wave length from the shorted end of the waveguide. This is
the point at which the E field is maximum in the dominant mode.
• The size and shape of the probe determines its frequency, bandwidth and power handling
capability.
• As the diameter of the probe increases the bandwidth increases.
• Removal of energy from a waveguide is simply reversal of injection process using the
same type of probe.
Loop coupling: This is a method of injecting energy into waveguide is by setting up an H field in
the waveguide.
• This can be possible by inserting a small loop which carries a high current into the
waveguide.
• A magnetic field builds up around the loop and expands to fit the guide .If the frequency
of the current in the loop is within the bandwidth of wave guide, energy will be
transferred to the waveguide.
• For efficient coupling to the waveguide, the loop is inserted at one of the several points
where the magnetic field will be greatest strength. Four of these points are shown in the
diagram below.
• When the diameter of the loop is increased, its power- handling capability also increases.
• The bandwidth can be increased by increasing the size of the wire used to make the loop.
Q9.Explain Slot/Aperture coupling
• A9.Slots or apertures are sometimes used when very loose coupling is desired. In this
method energy enters through a small slot in the waveguide and the E field expands into
waveguides.
• The E lines expand first across the interior of the waveguide. When the size of the slot is
properly proportioned to the frequency of the energy.
• Minimum reflections occur when energy is injected or removed if the size of the slot is
properly proportioned to the frequency of energy.

Q10.Explain working of rectangular waveguides

• A10.Rectungular waveguides: It is characterized by its wide dimension “a “and narrow
dimension “b”.
• The conducting walls are made of usually brass, or aluminum and the dielectric medium
is usually air.
• The EM waves to be transmitted travel longitudinally down the length of the waveguide
i.e. in z-direction.
• The conducting walls of the waveguide keep electromagnetic field within limits and guide
the wave.
 • The EM waves get reflected between the walls. Due to multiple reflections, a number of
distinct field configurations exist in waveguides. Each of these field configurations is
known as MODE.
• The waveguide structure is a single conductor; therefore a DC voltage cannot be applied
in the usual manner across two terminals.
• The whole waveguide can be held at a voltage with respect to the ground but the voltage
does not appear across the waveguide.
• Rectangular waveguide can carry high frequency signals only

Q11.Define modes of operation in waveguide transmission. What are the different modes of
wave guide propagation?
A11. A wave has both electric and magnetic fields. All the transverse components of electric and
magnetic field are determined from axial components electricand magnetic field in “Z”
direction. This allows mode formations such as TE, TM, TEM and Hybrid in microwave.
Types of Modes:
TEM Transverse Electromagnetic wave:
In this mode, both the electric and magnetic fields are purely transverse to the direction of
propagation. There are no components in”Z” direction .
E z=0 and Hz=0;
Transverse Electric mode (TE) :
In this mode, the electric field is purely transverse to the direction of propagation, whereas,the
magnetic field is not.
Ez=0 and Hz≠ 0;
Transverse Magnetic mode(TM ):
In this mode, the magnetic field is purely transverse to the direction of propagation, whereas,
the electric field is not.
Ez≠0 and Hz= 0;
Hybrid wave HE:
In this mode neither the electric nor the magnetic field is purely transverse to the direction of
propagation.
Ez≠0 and Hz≠ 0;
Q12. What is the dominant mode in rectangular waveguides?
A12.The dominant mode in a particular waveguide is the mode having the lowest cutoff
frequency. The cut off frequency of rectangular waveguide is fc. The cut off frequency of
waveguide is the lowest frequency for which a mode will propagate in it. A rectangular
waveguide with dimension” a, b “ is
 𝑐 𝑚2 𝑛 2
Fc= √ 2 + 2 m,n are modes of propagation.
2 𝑎 𝑏

The TE10 Mode is the dominant mode .Here the E fields are perpendicular to “a” wall and no E
field across “b” dimension. It propagates voltage waveform. In the diagram below the “E” fields
are perpendicular to the “a” walls and no E-fields across the “b” dimensions. It is represented
asTE10 where the first subscript is along “a” dimension and second subscript is along “b”.As
electric field is perpendicular to “a “walls for half sine wave, and no electric field along “b” it is
denoted as TE10 dominant mode.

• In circular waveguide TE mode of propagation takes place.E field is perpendicular to the

length of the waveguide with no E lines parallel to direction of propagation.
• The TE11 is dominant mode in circular waveguide.
• The signal travels with minimum degradation .The cut off frequency is inversely
proportional to its radius. Fc=1.8412xC/(2𝜋r).
• It has more interference in dominant mode.
• TM01 andTE01 modes are rotationally symmetrical.
 • TM01 mode has lowest attenuation. Only TE and TM mode is possible. It is used for long
distance
• In circular waveguides the subscripts have different meaning. The first subscript indicates
the no of full wave patterns around the circumference and second subscript indicates
number of half sine wave patterns across diameter.

Q13 . Compare TE and TM mode.

TE mode TM mode
It is transverse electric mode It is transverse magnetic mode.

Electric field in Z direction is “0” Magnetic field in Z direction is “0”

Electromagnetic energy is transmitted Electromagnetic energy is transmitted by Ez

by Hz component. component.
The TE01 and TE10 modes exist and TE11 The TM01 and TM10 mode do not exist and
mode also.TE10 is dominant mode. only TM11 is valid

Cut-off frequency is 2a 2𝑎𝑏

Cut –off frequency is
√𝑎2+𝑏2

Q14.Explain the construction and working of TRAPATT diode.

1. A14.TRAPATT diode is made of two junction and has a lightly doped “n or p” type material
sandwiched between two heavily doped “ n+ and p+ material.
2. It is known as TRApped Plasma Avalanche Trigger Transit diode, which works at operating
frequency of( 1to 3)GHz.
3. It has low power dissipation, and works with plasma avalanche trigger.
4. The silicon and gallium arsenide is used for fabrication of TRAPATT diode.

Working:
• This diode works in reverse bias condition, and the doping concentration of “ n” region
is such that the depletion in this region is just at breakdown.
• A current pulse is used to excite TRAPATT diode in reverse bias condition.
 • When the diode is excited the electric field at p+n junction increases .It acts as a
capacitor. When it becomes more than critical value, avalanche breakdown occurs.
• This creates large number of electrons and holes due to which electron hole plasma of
very high density is created.
• This creates large number of electrons and holes due to which electron hole plasma of
very high density is created.
• This increases the conductivity and electric field is reduced. Therefore voltage also
reduces.
• Hence the electron and holes drift very slowly and plasma is trapped.The electrons
travel towards the positive of reverse biased device slowly and the plasma extraction
starts.
• After total extraction of plasma field recovering is completed and original field
recovering is completed and original field is re-established, this cycle repeats to
produce TRAPATT oscillations.

Q15 Write the applications of TRAPATT diode.

A15 Low power Doppler radars
Local oscillators for radar
Microwave beacon landing system
 Radio altimeter
Phased array radar

Q16.Explain the construction and working of IMPATT diode.

• A16.The IMPATT diode is IMPact ionization Avalanche Transit Time diode. It exhibits
negative resistance which can be obtained by a junction diode of any doping profile.
• It is mainly used for generating µW radio frequency signals. It produces negative
resistance region at µW frequency.
• The commonly used semiconductor materials are silicon and Gallium arsenide. Or
germanium and Indium Phosphide.
• Working: The operation of IMPATT diode consists of two areas of working in a)Avalanche
region b)Drift region.
• The functions of these two region are:
i) Avalanche region creates the carriers either electrons or holes by the process of
avalanche breakdown.
ii) The drift region carries the carriers across the diode taking certain amount of time
which is known as Transit Time. This time depends on its thickness of diode.
• For avalanche breakdown the diode is operated in reverse bias condition.
• A DC voltage is applied to impact diode which is just below the breakdown voltage. Then
alternating voltage of high magnitude is superimposed on it.
• At t=0,AC voltage is “0”,as the voltage increases the avalanche process starts. The
generated carriers are accelerated due to high electric field ,and collide each other to
generate more carriers. The breakdown of n+ ,p junction occurs. Now the total voltage
DC+AC is above the critical value for which avalanche breakdown occurs
• But avalanche breakdown occurs due to carrier multiplication process which takes finite
time hence though AC voltage reaches maximum value and starts decreasing ,the
generation of carriers still continues, this creates a time delay which is 90º between
current pulse and applied voltage AC
• As peak increases the AC voltage becomes negative and the Electric field becomes less
than critical value. Now the carriers are drifted to p+ region and external current starts
flowing The drifting of carriers also takes finite time which again introduces a phase shift
of 90° between current and applied voltage.
• Thus there is a phase difference of 180° between applied voltage and external current.
• Thus when voltage is increasing current is decreasing which is nothing but negative
resistance of IMPATT diode.
Q17.Write the applications of IMPATT diode.
A17.Used as Microwave oscillator(ii) Microwave generator.(iii) Used as receiver oscillator.(iv)
used in negative resistance amplifications.(v) Police radar.(vi)FM telecom transmitter.(vii)CW
Doppler radar transmitter.(viii) Low power microwave transmitter.

Q18.Explain the construction and working of two cavity Klystron.

• A18.Two cavity Klystron or multicavity klystron is a“O” type Microwave tube. It
works as amplifier at microwave frequencies.
• In this class of devices both velocity and density modulation takes place creating the
bunching effect.
• Construction: The two cavity klystron consists of a cathode ,focusing electrodes, two
buncher grids separated by very small distance forming a gap of two catcher grids with
small gap B followed by a collector.
• The cavity close to the cathode is known as the buncher cavity ,or input cavity ,which
velocity modulates the electron beam. The input to be amplified is given to this buncher
Cavity.
• The other cavity is called the catcher cavity or output cavity it catches energy from the
bunched electron beam.
• Operation: The Input to be amplified is given to the buncher cavity. The cathode emits
high velocity electrons which are focused by focusing electrodes. These focusing
electrodes are operated at low +ve voltage.
• These electrodes control the number of electrons in the beam.
• This high electron beam moves toward anode which is at high positive potential with
respect to cathode.
• The high velocity electron beam passes a gap A in the first cavity to which the RF signal to
be amplified are applied.
• The electron beam is allowed to drift freely without any influence from RF fields until it
reaches the gap “B” in the capture cavity.
• The amplified output is taken out from the capture cavity.
• Process of amplification: Amplification is carried out due to 3 operations:
1. Velocity modulation
2. Formation of bunches or bunching
3. Density modulation or current density modulation.
The electron beam is made of number of electrons. These when come under the influence of
RFsignal at cavity A they get accelerated and the velocity of electrons changes depending on
the strength of RF signal. This is velocity modulation.
In the figure below the process is shown considering electrons X,Y and Z.

Bunching: It is explained in following steps:

1. When no Rf signal voltage is applied to the gap ,the electrons passing the gap are not
affected and continue to collector with constant velocity.
2. Let a RF input be applied such that it is “0”voltage and + ve going ,when it influences the
“Y” electron in gap A of buncher cavity. As voltage is “0”, the “Y”electron moves to the
anode with constant velocity.
3. In presence of this positive going voltage at gap A, the Z electron which passes later than
Y, gets accelerated and moves faster. It so moves that it catches up with electron Y before
it reaches gap B.
4. The X electron passes the gap A earlier than Y.It comes under the influence of negative
voltage. Thereby it is retarded. Now electron Y catches X before it reaches gap B.
5. Due to above mentioned actions electrons gradually bunch together as they travel down
the drift space. This is known as bunching.
6. It depends on Proper drift space, signal amplitude and Dc anode voltage.
Current density modulation: As moving along the drift region more and more bunching of
electron occurs. This leads to variation of current density in the catch gap. This enables Klystron
to have significant gain. Bunching occurs once in a cycle.
Thus a small RF voltage applied at the input leads to large power at catcher cavity in the two
cavity Klystron. Therefore it acts as an AMPLIFIER.
Q19.Explain the construction and working of Reflex Klystron.
A19.Construction: The Reflex Klystron is a low power efficiency microwave oscillator. It has only
one cavity and small electron gun. The electron beam doesn’t require focusing as the device is
short.
• The electron beam is accelerated towards the cavity which is at high positive potential .
• It consists of an anode cavity resonators, a filament surrounded by cathode, an electron
gun and an electrode also called Reflector electrode.
• The reflector electrode is placed at a short distance from resonator grid and is at negative
potential with respect to the cathode.
• The electron beam is modulated when passed through the anode resonant cavity.
• Working: In the operation three power sources are required:
• Filament power. To emit electrons
• Positive resonator voltage: Used to accelerate electrons through the grid gap of resonant
cavity.
• Negative repeller voltage: This is to push the electrons back to resonator grid(+ve
feedback).
• Operation: It is assumed that oscillations are produced in the resonating cavity which
appear in the gap. The resonating cavity is also known as Anode cavity and is at high +ve
potential.
• The electron gun has high –ve potential applied to it. The gun emits electron beam which
is accelerated towards anode cavity.
• Let us assume that reference electron “y” crosses the anode voltage and voltage across
the gap is “0” voltage. Now this electron travels without change in velocity and it is
repelled back with same velocity.
• Another electron let us say “X” has started earlier than “Y” then this electron is slightly
retarded by negative voltage present across the gap. Though it arrives earlier it reaches
the gap at same time as “Y” electron.
• Now let us consider an electron “Z” which arrives later than “Y”electron.It is accelerated
by positive voltage present in the gap. This electron has shortened stay in repeller
space..It somewhat reaches the gap at the same time as “Y”electron.
• This condition is right for bunching and current density modulation takes place in the
same gap. For sustained oscillations the transit time must have the correct value. The
most suitable departure time is around the reference electron.
• The best time for electrons to return to the gap is with 90° phase shift with voltage in the
gap.
• The Transit time is given by (T=n+3/4) where n is any integer
• Application:
1. Signal source in microwave generator
2. Frequency oscillator in microwave receiver
3. Pump Oscillator for parametric amplifier
4. Local Oscillator for microwave receiver
5. Portable-microwave links.
Q20.Explain construction and working of Magnetron.
1. A20.The Magnetron is high power µW oscillator usually of cylindrical construction.
2. It employs a radial electric field and axial magnetic field. It has an anode structure with
permanent cavities.
3. Cylindrical cathode is surrounded by the anode with cavities .Thus a radial dc electric field
exists.
4. Since the radial electric field is perpendicular to the axial magnetic field the Magnetron is
known as crossed field device.
5. The output is taken from one of the cavities by means of co –axial line or through
waveguide.
 6. The Dc voltage(V0) is applied between anode and cathode.The magnetic flux density B0
is maintained in positive Z direction by an electromagnet
7. If the magnetic flux density B0 and Dc voltage are properly adjusted ,then under the
combined forces the electrons follow cycloidly path between anode and cathode.
8. The space between anode and cathode e is known as interaction space.It is here the
electric and magnetic fields interact to exert force on the electrons.

Operation: The operation can be explained in two modes (0 mode) and (𝜋 mode):
1.When there is no RF field in the cavity :
I. In the above diagram a,b,c and d are four different electrons which exert different electric
and magnetic field.
II. Due to the radial electrical field and the zero magnetic field the electron “a” travels
straight line from cathode to anode.
III. If the magnetic field is further increased the electron “b” slightly takes a curved path to
reach anode.
IV. The radius R of the path is given as R=mV/eB
m=mass of electron and B=magnetic field strength
V. When the magnetic field is increased further, the electron does not reach the anode, it
is shown in path C.Now the anode current becomes zero.
VI. The magnetic field required to return electrons back to cathode is called the critical
magnetic field(Bc)
VII. If the magnetic field is greater than critical field the electron exerts greater force on it and
it returns back to cathode faster than electron “C”,as shown by path of electron “d”
VIII. All such electrons cause back heating of cathode. This can be avoided by switching off the
heater supply after commencement of oscillation

Application:
• Used in radars with high output power
• Used in satellites and missiles for telemetry.
• Industrial heating
• Microwave ovens
• Used in oscillators with great power and pulsed operation at 100GHz and greater.
Q21.Explain the construction and working of Travelling Wave Tube
A21.The TWT is an amplifier which makes use of a distributed interaction between an electron
beam and a travelling wave.
Construction:
• The TWT is an Otype ie the electron beam takes a linear path in the tube.
• Here the RF i/p field and the electron beam interact with each other over the entire length
of active region.
• The TWT has a slow wave structure called the HELIX.The main function of this structure is
to slow down RF wave.The RF wave travels with a speed of light.
• While the electrons travel with lower velocity which is1/13 of velocity of light.
• To see to it that RF wave and electron beam travel with same velocity, the HELIX is made
to reduce RF velocity by 1/13 of normal velocity.
• The RF signal grows exponentially along the travelling wave tube due to high gain.
• If impedance matching is poor it will lead to oscillations. Therefore attenuator is used to
reduce gain.
Operation:
1. The electron beam produced by electron gun is sent through the HELIX.The helix is
positive with respect to cathode.
2. The collector is more positive than helix.The RF signal is applied to the helix by means of
waveguide.This RF signal travels to the collector with same voltage as the electron beam.
3. The axial RF field receives the energy as it interacts continuously with electron beam.
4. As the electron beam progresses further velocity modulation takes place.This leads to
bunching.
5. The process continues and amplified output is obtained at the output end.

Application of TWT:
1. Radar and microwave receivers
2. Power amplifiers in satellite transponders
3. Laboratory instrument
4. Drivers for more powerful tubes
Q19 Write application of two cavity Klystron
• A19.Used ass medium and high power amplifier in UHF and Microwave ranges.
• Used as Power Oscillators in frequency range from 5 to 50 GHz.
• Used in CW Doppler radar for pumping parametric amplifiers
• Produce Oscillations for high power microwave links.