SYSTEMATICS LABORATORY ACTIVITY 2
CLADOGRAM
CLADOGRAM ANALYSIS
A cladogram is a diagram that shows evolutionary relationships among groups. It is
based on phylogeny, which is the study of evolutionary relationships. In the past,
biologists would group organisms based solely on their physical appearance. Today,
with the advances in genetics and biochemistry, biologists can look more closely at
individuals to discover their pattern of evolution, and group them accordingly - this
strategy is called EVOLUTIONARY CLASSIFICATION. Cladistics is a form of analysis
that looks at features of organisms that are considered "innovations", or newer features
that serve some kind of purpose. These characteristics appear in later organisms but
not earlier ones and are called derived characters.
Constructed cladograms all typically share certain key features:
▪ Root – The initial ancestor common to all organisms within the cladogram
(incoming line shows it originates from a larger clade)
▪ Nodes – Each node corresponds to a hypothetical common ancestor
that speciated to give rise to two (or more) daughter taxa
▪ Outgroup – The most distantly related species in the cladogram which functions
as a point of comparison and reference group
▪ Clades – A common ancestor and all of its descendants (i.e. a node and all of its
connected branches)
Constructing Cladograms
Cladograms can be constructed based on either a comparison of morphological
(structural) features or molecular evidence
▪ Historically, structural features were used to construct cladograms, but molecular
evidence is now more commonly used
1. Using Structural Evidence
Step 1: Organise selected organisms according to defined characteristics
▪ Use characteristics that are developmentally fixed (i.e. innate) and not influenced
by environmental pressures
Step 2: Sequentially order organisms according to shared characteristics to construct a
cladogram
▪ Grouping of organisms may be facilitated by constructing a Venn diagram prior to
developing a cladogram
▪ Each characteristic will be represented by a node, with more common
characteristics representing earlier nodes
▪ The species with the least number of characteristics in common will represent the
outgroup (establishes baseline properties)
2. Using Molecular Evidence
Step 1: Select a gene or protein common to a range of selected organisms
▪ Examples of molecules which are ubiquitously found in many animals include
haemoglobin and cytochrome c
Step 2: Copy the molecular sequence (DNA or amino acid) for each of the selected
organisms
▪ Use online databases such as Genbank or Ensembl to identify relevant DNA or
amino acid sequences
▪ Sequences can be collated in a Word document and then saved as a document
in plain text format (.txt)
▪ Before each sequence, designate a species name preceded by a forward arrow
(e.g. '>Human’ or ‘>Chimpanzee’)
Step 3: Run a multiple alignment to compare molecular sequences (DNA or amino
acid)
▪ Multiple alignment software compares DNA or protein sequences for similarities
and differences
▪ Closely related species are expected to have a higher degree of similarity in their
molecular sequence
▪ Clustal Omega is a free online tool that will align multiple DNA or amino acid
sequences for comparison
Step 4: Generate a phylogeny tree (cladogram) from multiple alignment data
▪ Clustal Omega can generate branched phylograms after a sequence alignment is
completed (select ‘Phylogenetic Tree’)
▪ Below is a plain text file that can be uploaded to compare amino acid sequences
from different species:
▪ HBA – Haemoglobin alpha chain (amino acid sequence) from various
species
NAME: ASHWIKA SANJAY SEC.: D3
KUSHVAHA
DATE SUBMITTED: 30 NOV 2023 TEACHER: MR.MADEJA CHRISTIAN
DAVE
REMINNDER: ALL ANSWERS MUST BE IN CAPITAL LETTERS.
Fill out the following character matrix. Mark an “X” if an organism has the trait.
Cells Legs Antenna Wings 2 Set of Wings
WORM X
SPIDER X X
CARPENTER X X X X X
ANT
HOUSE X X X X X
FLY
DRAGONFLY X X X X X
In the box below, create a cladogram based off your matrix.
CELLS - WORM , SPIDER , CARPENTER ANT , HOUSEFLY , DRAGONFLY.
LEGS - SPIDER , CARPENTER ANT , HOUSEFLY , DRAGONFLY.
ANTENNA , WINGS , 2 SETS OF WINGS – CARPENTER ANT , DRAGONFLY ,
JUNE BUG.
1. According to your cladogram, which two species are more closely related:
worms and spiders or worms and ants? How do you know? - WORM AND SPIDER.
2. According to your cladogram, what species are dragonflies most closely related
to? How do you know? - HOUSEFLY AND CARPENTER ANT BECAUSE THEY ALSO HAVE
SAME CHARACTERISTICS AS OF DRAGONFLY.
3. In a different colored writing utensil, add a June Bug to your cladogram based on
its characteristics. - ANTENNAE , WINGS , 2 SETS OF WINGS.
Use the following cladogram to answer the questions below.
4. What trait separates lampreys from tuna on this cladogram? - ABSENCE OF JAW.
5. What separates a salamander from a turtle? - AMNIOTIC EGG.
6. Which organism is most related to the leopard? - TURTLE.
7. Which organism’s DNA will differ the most from the leopard? Why? - LANCELET
DNA WILL DIFFER THE MOST FROM LEAPARD BECAUSE IT’S THE INVERTEBRATE THAT
LACKS PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL TRAITS OF THE LEPORD.
Use the following cladogram to answer the questions below.
8. What separates rabbits/primate from the crocodiles on this cladogram? - HAIR.
9. Which organism is most related to the rodents and rabbits on this cladogram? -
PRIMATE.
10. What 5 traits do the bird and its closest relative share?
A. EGG WITH SHELL
B. HAIR
C. BONY SKELETON
D. VERTEBRAE
E. FOUR LIMBS.
11. Which organism will have DNA most similar to the bird? Why? - CROCODILE
BECAUSE THEY LAY EGG WITH SHELL.
12. Which organism’s DNA will differ the most from the bird? Why? - PRIMATES DNA
DIFFERS THE MOST FROM THE BIRDS BECAUSE THEY GIVE BIRTH TO YOUNG ONES.
