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UNIT 7 WATER LOGGING AND DRAINAGE

Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.2 Quality of higation Water
7.3 Soil Classification Based on EC, ESP a@ pH Value
7.4 Water Logging
7.5 Land Drainage
7.6 Summary
7.7 Key Words
7.8 Answers to SAQs

.7.1 INTRODUCTION
Water is a scarce commodity; quality water is rare. Just as any water is not fit for
human consumption similarly any water is not suitable for plant growth. Water
-comprising impurities to the extent which are injurious to plant growth, is not
suitable for irrigation, and is called the unsatisfactory. Water whatever may be the
source of water, surface water sources like river, canal, tank or ground water
sources like open well or tube well, some soluble salts are always dissolved in it.
The main soluble constituent in water is calcium, magnesium sodium and'
potassium as cation and sulphides, bicarbonates and sometimes carbonates as
anion. The above soluble constituents along with boron are of prime importance
in determining the quality of irrigation water and its suitability for irrigation
purpose. However, the quality of irrigation water is much influenced by the
constituents of soil, its texture, structure, drainage characteristics, nature of crop
grown and climatical conditions. A particular water may be harmful for irrigation
on a particular soil, but the same water may be tolerable or even usehl for
irrigation in some other soil conditions. . Thus, the suitability of water for
irrigation will be determined by the amount and kind of salt present. Keeping in
t
ri view the extent of ground water and surface water pollution in India, it becomes
imperative to find out techniques and methods to arrest water pollution and make
arrangement to mitigate its adverse effect on crop. Plants need air as well as
i moisture.in their root zones for their survival. Excess irrigation farm water is free
1 tamove into the underground tile drains, if provided. This water, if not removed,
retards the plant growth, because it fills the soil voids and restricts proper
I
aei-ation. Surface drains are, therefore, needed for removing the excess farm
water, for most of the cultivated crops on flat or undulating topography. Sub-
surface draiiis, on the other hand, are required for soils with poor internal drainage
and a high water table. If no impervious layer occurs below the farm land and the
water table iq lower than about 3 m from the ground, internal soil drainage may be
sufficient anq no tile drains needed. But, many a times natural drainage is not
I
adequate and water table is high so much so it enters root zone, under these
circumstances proper drainage system is must for maximum crop productivity.
Irrigation Engineering Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
understand various types of impurities in water their classification and
remedies,
classify soil based on impurities,
learn causes and effect of water logging and suggest remedies,
explain need and importance of surface and sub-surface drainage, and
learn ways of maintenance of drainage.

7.2 QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER

Quality of irrigation water is a major concern world over due to possible threat of
non-point contamination of ground water and mixing of impurities in surface
water due to poor management of domestic and industrial waste. It is imperative
lo learn different types of impurities and suggest ways and means to save crop
from adverse effect.
7.2.1 Various Type of Impurities
The various type of impurities which make water unsuitable for irrigation are :
(a) Sediment concentration in water.
(b) Total concentration of soluble salts in water.
(c) Proportion of sodium ions to other cations.
(d) Concentration of potentially toxic elements present in water.
(e). Bicarbonate concentration as related to the concentration of calcium
plus magnesium.
(0 Bacterial contamination.
These impurities affect crops to different degree depending upon the soil
conditions and crop type. The effects of these impurities are discussed below :
Sediment
Run off water from basins carry with it a lot of sediments. Water loaded
with sediment creates problem in irrigation canal as it increases their
siltation resulting into frequent floods, increased maintenance cost and other
maintenance related problems. As for as crop land is concerned, the effect
depends upon type of irrigated land. For example, when fine sediment from
impure water is deposited on sandy soil, it enhances fertility. In contrast, if
the sediment is derived from erodible land it adversely affects fertility and
permeability. Normally ground water or surface water from reservoirs do
not cause serious problem in irrigation as it does not have suff~cient
sediment.
The effect of sediment present in the irrigation water depends upon the type
of irrigated land. When fine sediment from water is deposited on sandy
soils, the fertility is improved. On the other hand, if the sediment has been
derived from the eroded areas, it may reduce the fertility or decrease the soil
permeability. Sediment water creates trpubles in irrigation canals, as it
increases.
 Water togglng
Remedies nnd Drninnge
As such this is beyond the control of use. However, care may be taken
in selecting sources of water. In general, ground water or surface
water from reservoirs, etc. does not have sufficient sediment to cause
any serious problems in irrigation.
Total Concentration of Soluble Salts
Soluble salts are main culprit in impure irrigation water. Salts of calcium,
magnesium sodium and potassium, present in the irrigation water may prove
injurious to plants if present in large quantities. Their excess quantity may
reduce the osmotic activities of the plants, and may create problem in
adequate aeration, causing injuries to plant growth. The adverse effects of
salts on the plant growth depend upon the concentration of salts left in the
soil.
The concentration of salts in water, may not appear to be harmful to the
plants. But the concentration of salts which remain in the soil after the
saline water is used up by the plants is much more than the first, and may
prove to be harmful. So it is possible that at the beginning of irrigation with
undesirable water, no harm may be evident, but over a period of time, the
salt concentration in the soil may increase to a harmful level, as the soil
solution gets concentrated by evaporation. Hence, the effects of salts on
plant growth depend largely upon the total amount of salts present in the
soil solution.
Salinity Concentration of Soil
The salinity concentration of the soil solution (C,) after the
consumptive water (Cu) has been extracted from the soil, is given by :

where, Cj = Salinity concentration,

@ = The quantity of water applied,
Cu= Consumptive use of water,
P,ff = Useful rainfall,
Cu-Per = Used up irrigation water,
C = Concentration of salt in water, and
C @ = Total salt applied to soil with @ amount of
irrigation water.
Units and Critical Limits of Concentration
The salt concentration is generally expressed by ppm (parts per
million) or by mg/l (milligram per litre), both units being equal. The
critical salt concentration in the irrigation water depends upon many
factors, yet however, amounts in excess of 700 ppm are harmful to
some plants, and more than 2000 ppm are injurious to all crops.
The salt concentration is generally measured by determining the
electrical conductivity of water as both are directly proportional to
each other. Electrical conductivity is expressed in micro mhos per
centimetre.
 Classz>cation of Water Based on Salinity
Low Conductivity Water (Cl)
When conductivity value is up to 250 micro mhoslcm at 25OC, it
is called low conductivity water.
Medium Conductivity Water (C2)
When its value is between 250 to 750, it is called medium
conductivity water.
High Conductivity Water (C3)
When its value is between 750 to 2250, it is called high
conductiviq water.
Very High Conductivity Water (C4)
When the conductivity value is above 2250, the saline water is
classified as very high conductivity water.
Suitability of Saline Waterfor Irrigation Purpose
The suitabilities o f above four types of waters for irrigation supplies
are presented in Table 7.1. This classification is based on U.S.D.A.
Handbook No. 60 (1954). Engineers are advised to fojlow these
recommendations while working in the field.
Table 7.1 : Extent of Salinity and Use of Water

S1. No. Type of Water Use in Irrigation

1. Low salinity water (C 1). Such water can be used for irrigation
Conductivity between 100 to for almost all crops and for almost all
250 micro mhosicm at 25OC. kinds of soils. Very little salinity may
develop, which may require slight
leaching; but it is permissible under
normal irrigation practices except in
soils of extremely low permeabilities.
--
Medium salinity water (C2). Such water can be used, provided that
Conductivity between 250 to a moderate amount of leaching occurs.
750 micro mhoslcm at 25OC However, normal salt-tolerant plants
can be grown without much salinity
control.
-

High salinity water (C3) Such water cannot be used on soils

conductivity between 750 to with insufficient drainage. Special
2250 micro mhoslcm at 25°C. precautions and measures are
necessary for salinity control and only
high-salt tolerant plants can be grown.
- - - -

Very high salinity water Such water is harmful and generally

(C4). Conductivity more than not suitable for irrigation. Use as
2250 micro mhoslcm at 25OC. irrigation water must not be allowed.

Remedies
Care may be taken in selecting sources of water. The recommendation
given in the Table 7.1 may be adhered to for safe use of saline water.
 Water Logging
Proportion of Sodium Ions to Other Cations and Drainage

Salt cations are common in many soils. Their percentage varies depending -
upon location. Sodium ion availability defines soil characteristics. Normally
it is available in small quantity. Most of the soils contain calcium and
magnesium ions and small quantities of sodium ions. The percentage of the
sodium ions is generally less than 5% of the total exchangeable cations. If
this percentage increases to about 10% or more, it affects soil structure. The
aggregation of soil grains breaks down. The soil becomes less permeable
and of poorer tilth. It starts crusting when dry and its pH increases towards
that of an alkaline soil.It has been observed that high sodium soils are
plastic, sticky when wet and are prone to form clods, and tend to make
crust on drying.
Sodium-Absorption Ratio (SAR)
The proportion of sodium ions present in the soils is generally
measured by a factor called Sodium-Absorption Ratio (SAR).It
represents the sodium hazards of water.
SAR is defined as :

NU+
SAR =

, and M ~ *are concentration of the respective ions in

Where, ~ a +caff
equivalent per million. The epm is determined by directly atomic
weight the salts by their respective values. The SAR value can be
reduced by adding gypsum to the water or to the soil.
Classification of Water Based on Sodium Hazard
Low Sodium Water (Sl)
When the value of SAR lies between 0 to 10, it is called Low
Sodium Water (S I).
Medium Sodium Water (S2)
When SAR lies between 10 to 18, it is called Medium Sodium
Water (S2).
High Sodium Water (S3)
When SAR lies between 18 to 26, it is called High Sodium
Water (S3).
Very High Sodium Water (S4)
When values of SAR are more than 26, it is called Very high
sodium water.
Suitabilityfor Irrigation
The suitabilities of these four kinds of water for irrigation is presented
in rable 7.2.
Irrigation Engineering Table 7.2 : SAR Value and Recommended Use of Water
SI. No. Type of water Use in irrigation
1. Low sodium water This type of water can be used for
(Sl). SAKvalue lying irrigation on almost all soils and for almost
between 0 to 10. all crops. However, crop which are highly
sensitive to sodium, such as stone-fruit tree
may not be irrigated with such water.
2. Medium sodium This type of water is appreciably hazardous
water (S2). SAR in fine textured soils, which may require
value lying between gypsum treatment. However, it may be used
10 to 18 on coarse-textured or with good humus soils
with good permeability.
3. High sodium water' Such water may prove harmful on almost
(S3). SAR value lying all the soils, and do require good drainage,
between 18 to 26. high leaching and gypsum addition for
proper irrigation.
4. Very high sodium Very harmful to crops. Generally, not
water (S4). SAR suitable for irrigation.
value
above 26.
Remedies and Care
Care may be taken in selecting sources of water. The recommendation
given in the Table 7.2 may be adhered to for safe use of water high
sodium concentration.
Concentration of Potentially Toxic Elements
A large number of elements such as boron, selenium, etc. may be toxic to
plants. Traces of Boron are essential to plant growth, but its concentrations
above 0.3 ppm may prove toxic to certain plants. The concentration above
0.5 ppm is dangerous to nuts, citrus fruits and deciduous fruits. Cotton,
Cereals and certain other crops are moderately tolerant to boron, while
Dates, Beets, Asparagus', etc. are quite tolerant. Even for the most tolerant
crops, the boron concentration should not exceed 4 ppm.
Remedies and Care
The waste water containing soap, etc. should not be used with great
care in irrigation. Selenium, even in low concentration, is toxic, and
must be avoided.
Bicarbonate Concentration as Related to Concentration of Calcium Plus
Magnesium
High concentration of bicarbonate ions may result in precipitation of
calcium and magnesium bicarbonates from the soil-solution, increasing the
relative proportion of sodium ions and causing sodium hazards.
Bacterial Contamination
Bacterial contamination of irrigation water is not a serious prQblem, unless
the crops irrigated with highly contaminated water are directly eaten,
without being cooked. Cash crops like cotton, nursery stock, etc. which are
'
processed after harvesting, can, therefore, use contaminated waste waters,
without any trouble.
 Water Logging
7.3 SOIL CLASSIFICATION BASED ON EC, ESP AND and Drainage
pH VALUE
Based on the different chemical properties soil can be classified in different
categories. These problemsoul needs treatment for amending their characteristics

I to make them usable. A large chunk of land in India is under these categories and
different techniques have been evolved to counter their effect on plant growth.
Depending upon the Electrical conductivity EC (representing salt content) of
water, the exchangeable sodium percentage ESP (representingpercentage of
sodium w.r.t. total exchangeable cations), and the pH value of the soil, the soils
are classified as :

i
I
(a) Saline or white alkali soil
(b) Alkaline or Sodic soil
(c) Saline- alkali
The limits of three different parameters is furnished in the Table 7.3 below.
Table 7.3 : Classification of Soil Based on EC, ESP and pH Value

Exchangeable
Electrical
SI. Sodium
Classification ConductiviW (EC) pH Value
No. Percentage
in Micro-rnholcrn
(ESP)
1. Saline soil or white alkali > 4000 < 15 8.5

Alkaline soil or Non-

2. saline alkali or Sodic soil < 4000 > 15 8.5 to 10.0
or Black alkali
3. Saline-alkali soil > 4000 > 15 < 8.5

Remedies
Different remedial measures are available for reclaiming saline alkaline and
saline alkaline soil. The important one are listed below :
(a) For reducing SAR, i.e. alkalinity addition of gypsum to the
water or to the s6il work well.
(b) For controlling soil salinity leaching works well.
(c) Providing adequate drainage facility, including bio-drainage.
(d) Selection of suitable crops and their variety tolerant to sodic and
saline conditions.

What is the SAR value of irrigation water having the characteristics as

concentration of Na, Ca and Mg are 22, 3 and 1.5 milliequivalents per litre
respectively?
Classiij the water if electrical conductivity is 200 mhos per cm at 25OC.
Irrigation Engineering Solution

sAR = JV/y Nu+

=
22
= 141j7

Putting the values of concentrations of Na, Ca and Mg as 22,3 and 1.5 in

the above equation the SAR = 14.67.
Thus, this is medium Sodium water (S2).
If electrical conductivity is 200 micromhos per cm the water is C 1 water.
Hence, the given water is classified as C 1-S2 water.
*

(a) What are the various impurties present in water?

(b) Explain EC, SAR and ESP.

7.4 WATER LOGGING

An agricultural land is said to be water-logged, when its productivity gets affected
by the high water table. The productivity of land in fact, gets affected when the
root zone of the plants gets flooded with water, and thus become ill aerated.
Inadequate aeration reduces crop yield.
7.4.1 Effect of Water Logging
Hampering the Nitrification
The life of a plant, in fact, depends upon the nutrients like nitrates, and the
form in which the nitrates are consumed by the plants is produced by the
bacteria, under a process called nitrification. These bacteria need oxygen for
their survival. The supply of oxygen gets cutoff when the land becomes ill
aerated, resulting in the death of these bacteria, and fall in the production of
plant's food (i.e. nitrates) and consequent reduction in the plant growth,
which reduces the crop yield. Apart from ill aeration of the plants, water
logging creates many other problems.
Delayed Cultural Practices
The normal cultivation operations, such as tilling, ploughing, etc. cannot be
easily carried out in wet soils. In extreme cases, the free water may rise
above the surface of the land, making the cultivation operations impossible.
In ordinary language, such a land is called a swampy land. In general, this
leads to excessive delay in cultural practices and delayed sowing of crop,
less or very poor yield.
Overgrowth of Weeds
Certain water loving plants like grasses, weeds, etc. grow profusely and
luxuriantly in waterlogged lands, thus affecting and interfering with the
growth of the crops.
 Water Logging
A Major Cause of Salinity and Drainage
With the rise of the water table, the plant roots happen to come within the
capillary fringe, and water get continuously evaporated by capillarity. Thus,
a continuous upward flow of water from the water table to the land-surface
gets established. Due to this upward flow of water, the salts, present in the
water, also rise towards the surface, resulting in the deposition of salts in the
root zone of the crops. The concentration of these alkali salts in the root
zone of the crops has a corroding effect on the roots, which reduces the
osmotic activity of the plants and checks the plant growth. The plant
ultimately fades away. Such soils are called saline soils. Thus, water logging
ultimately leads to salinity, resulting into reduced crop yield. Salinity and
water logging are treated as a twin problem as salinity and
water logging occurs together. Water logging is followed by salinity.
7.4.2 Causes of Water Logging
Basically, water logging is the rise of water table unto root zone level leading to
various problem to crop growth. This may occur due to the following reasons.
Over and Intensive Irrigation
Under the practice of intensive irrigation, the maximum irrigable area of a
small region is irrigated. This leads to, too much of irrigation, in that region,
resulting in heavy percolation and subsequent rise of water table. 'This can
be overcome by a policy of extensive irrigation, i.e. irrigation spread over
wider regions. Thus, to avoid water logging extensive irrigation should
supersede the policy of intensive irrigation.
Seepage of Water from Nearby Areas
Water from the adjoining high lands may seep into the sub-soil of the
affected land and may raise the water table. This occurs generally when land
surface is not flat and adjoining area is moisture ~ich.
Seepage of Water Through the Canals/Reservoirs
This is major cause ofwater logging in canal command areas. This has
reached an arming stage in many areas. Water may seep through the beds
and sides of the adjoining canals, reservoirs, situated at a higher level than
the affected land. This results into high water table in the affected area. This
seepage is many a times excessive particularly when soil at the site of canals
and reservoirs is very pervious.
Encounter of Impervious Obstruction
We know that water seeping below the soil moves horizontally or laterally.
This may encounter an impervious obstruction, causing the rise of water
table on the upstream side of the obstruction. This may lead to water
logging. Similarly, in ceratin cases it is possible that an impervious stratum
may occur beIow the top layers of pervious soils. In this case also, water
seeping through the pervious soils will not be able to go deep, and hence,
quickly results in high water table rise.
Lack of Natural Drainage System
If sufficient availability of natural drainage is not there in form of slope,
soiIs having less permeabIe sub-stratum such as clay lying below the top
layers of pervious soils, will not be able to drain the water deep into the
ground. This may lead to rise in water level to the extent that it can affect
the root zone and the crop cultivation.
Irrigation Engilleering Inadequate Surface Drainage
Surface drainage system is common passage way for run off water. It
becomes necessary to ensure that storm water falling over the land and the
excess irrigation water should be removed from the area. It should not be
allowed to percolate below. In absence of proper surface drainage, the water
will constantly percolate and will raise the level of the water table leading to
water logging.
Excessively High Rain Fall
This is common source water logging is cities. Even in farm land heavy
down pouring may cause water logging. However, excessive rainfall may
create temporary water logging, but in the absence of good drainage, it may
lead to continued water logging over the area.
Overgrowth of Weeds and Aquatic Plant
During rainy seasons weeds and grasses grow excessively obstructing the
passage of water in natural waterways. If a land is continuously submerged
by floods, aquatic plants like hyacinths, grasses and weed may grow. They
may obstruct the natural surface drainage of the soil, and thus, increasing
the chances of water logging.
Irregular or Flat Topography
Topography also affects natural drainage and thus lead to water logging. In
steep terrain, the water is drained out quickly. On flat or irregular terrain
having depressions, the drainage is very poor. These factors lead to greater
detention of water on the land, causing more percolation and water logging,
if infiltration of soil is not proper.
7.4.3 Control Measures of Water Logging
It is evident that water logging can be controlled only if the passage and quantity
of water into the sub soil below the surface is controlled and reduced. For this first
of all, the inflow of water into the underground reservoir should be reduced and
the outflow from this reservoir should be increased simultaneously. It is necessary
to keep the highest position of water-table at least about 3 m below the ground
surface. The various measures adopted for controlling water logging are given
below.
Lining of Canals and Water courses
Control measures must try to check the causes of water logging. As seepage
is one of the main culprits of rise of water table, attempts should be made to
reduce the seepage of water from the canals and watercourses. This can be
achieved by lining them. It is a very effective method of controlling water
logging.
Reduced Intensity of Irrigation
The areas where there is a possibility of water logging, intensity of irrigation
should be reduced. Efficient water supply should be ensured. Only a specific
portion of irrigable land should receive canal water in one particular season.
The remaining areas can receive water in the next season, by rotation. This
can be achieved by crop rotation. This would help controlling water logging
in the region.
 Water Logging
and Drainage
Crop rotation is also an effective means of controlling water supply to sub
surface zone. As certain crops require more water and others require less
water. If a field is always sown with a crop requiring more water, the
chances of water logging are more. In order to avoid this, a high water
requiring crop should be followed by one requiring less water. We may
choose next crop one requiring almost no water. For example, rice may be
followed by wheat. and a dry crop such as cotton may follow wheat. This
will ensure break in continuous excess irrigation.
Optimum Use of Water
Excess of anything is harmhl wq know that only a certain fixed amount of
irrigation water is required for be t productivity. Any major deviation
k
reduces the yield and empties the pocket of the farmer. But there is
ignorance in some areas that using more water can increase crop yield. This
happens more in the areas where water charges are less or where there is
uncertain supply of canal water and electricity in case of tube well
irrigation. Educating the farmers by proper extension method can bring
improvement. As a policy matter, the revenue should not be charged on the
basis of irrigated area but should be charged on the basis of the quantity of
water utilised.

I Intercepting Drains
These drains are to check the canal water seepage. Intercepting drains along
the canals should be constructed, wherever necessary. They would help
intercepting seepage water and prevent the water from reaching the area and
i thus water logging may be prevented.
Improved Natural Drainage
The worn out natural drainage systems in the cropped area should be
revived. This would reduce the percolation by, not allowing water to stand
for a longer period. At community level, some relief in this direction can be
obtained by removing the obstructions from the path of natural flow. This
can be achieved by removing bushes and other obstructions and improving
the slopes of the natural drainage lines.
Efficient Drainage System
An efficient drainage system should be provided in order to drain away the
storm water and the excess irrigation water. A good drainage system
consists of surface drains as well as sub-surface drains.
Consumptive Use of Surface and Subsurface Water
Conjunctive use is a combined use of sub-surface dvater or ground water and
the surface water or canal water in a judicious manner to derive maximum
benefits. The introduction of lift irrigation to utilize ground water helps in
lowering the water table in a canal irrigated area, where water table tends to
go up. This system ensures use of the ground water in conjunction with
canal water for irrigation. The continuous use of ground water will not
allow any appreciable rise in the level of water table, even due to continuous
seepage of canal water. Thus, consumptive use should be adopted to control
water logging.
Irrigation Engineering

(a) Discuss the effect and causes of water logging.

(b) What are the remedial measures of water logging?

7.5 LAND DRAINAGE

Irrigation and drainage are two face of the same coin. Surface irrigation is a boon
only if it is practiced with great care. As stated earlier, only optimum amount of
water should be applied to the crop, as per the requirement of the crop and the
properties ofthe soil., In fact, the root zone ofthe soil fails to absorb excess water
which may percolate and help in raising the water table. If this gravity water
encounter an impervious stratum and is not drained up properly. This excess
water is harmful to crop yield. It becomes necessary to remove excess water by
draining it out from below the soil. The drained water may be discharged back
either into a river or a canal or some other safe place. Hence, while designing a
canal irrigation network, it is desirable to provide a suitable drainage system, for
removing the excess irrigation water. Thus irrigation and drainage go together.
Drainage system is also required for draining out the rain water and ensure its
easy disposal to prevent its percolation.
Drainage Coefficient (D. C.)
The rate at which the water is removed by a drain is called the drainage
coeficient. It is expressed as the depth of water in cm or metres, to be
removed in 24 hours from the drainage area. The drainage coefficient
largely depends upon the rainfall but varies with the soil type, crop, and
degree of surface drainage. Its recommended value is 1 % of the average
annual rainfall to be removed per day.
Values of Drainage Coefficient
A suitable value of drainage coefficient (DC) may be taken for the
calculations, depending upon the local recommendations. Values of 1 to
2.5 cmlday for mineral soils and 1.25 to 10 cmlday for organic soils for
different crops, have been suggested for humid regions, by U.S. Soil
Conservation Service.

Example 7.2
-
A drainage channel discharge 0.5 cubic meters of water per second and
drains 300 hectares. What is drainage coefficient of this land.
Solution
Drainage coefficient is depth of water intended to be removed from
drainage area in a 24 hour period.
 Water Logging
Total water discharge from channel in 24 hours = 0.5 x 60 x 60 x 24 m3 and Drainage

Total area = 3 ha = 300 x 104 m2

Drainage coefficient = 0.5 60 60 24 = 0.0144 rn = 14.4 mrn

3.0 x lo6

7.5.1 Types of Drainage System

Drainage system can be classified as :
(a) Surface drainage
(b) Sub-surface drainage
Surface drainage is also called open drainage system while sub-surface drainage
as tile- drainage or underground drainage.
Surface Drainage or Open Drainage
Surface drainage is the removal of excess rainwater falling on the fields or
the excess irrigation water applied to the fields, by constructing open
ditches, field drains, and other related structures. In this process the land is
sloped towards these ditches or drains, as to make the excess water flow in
to these drains. In fact, land grading, which results in a continuous land
slope towards the field drains, is an important part of a surface drainage
system. Land grading or land leveling is also necessary for surface irrigation
Types of Surface Drain
Surface drains are needed for removing the storm water and excess
farm water, for most of the cultivated crops on .flat or undulating
topography However, if no impervious layer occurs below the farm
land and the water table is sufficiently lower, internal soil drainage are
sufficient and no additional drainage facility is required. But for
maximum productivity of most of the crops drainage facility becomes
essential, particularly in waterlogged areas. Surface drains are two
types shallow and deep surface drains.
Shallow Surface Drains
The open drains, which are constructed to remove the excess
irrigation water collected in the depressions on the fields, as
well as the storm (rain) water, are broad and shallow, and are
called shallow surface drains. These drains carry the runoff to
the outlet drains. They are trapezoidal in cross-section. If
designed properly, they should carry the normal storm water
from the fields, plus the excess irrigation water. Many a times,
the excess irrigation water is neglected and these drains are
designed only for the runoff resulting from the average storms
which is neither economical nor desirable. Manning's equations
may be used to obtain design velocity of these drains, keeping
the velocity within the critical velocity, and thereby avoiding
silting or scouring. Proper shape is selected based on available
information. Manning's equation may however be used for the
design of shallow as well as deep surface drains.
Irrigation Engineering Deep Surface Drains
The drains, which are large enough to carry the flood water of
the catchment area from the shallow surface drains, and are of
sufficient depths to provide outlets even for the underground tile
drains, if provided are called deep surface drains. These drains
carry the storm water discharge, drains, shallow surface drains,
and the seepage water coming from the underground tile drains.
They are, therefore, designed for the combined discharge of the
shallow surface drains as well as that of the tile drains.
Sub-surface drains are required for soils with poor internal
drainage and a high water table Generally, a cunnette of about
0.6 m depth with steeper slope is provided in the center of the
drain bed, so as to carry the seepage water of the underground
tile drains. Cunnette is lined so as to withstand higher flow
velocities. The full section of drain is used only during the rainy
season when the cunnette is not able to handle the flow will
Manning's equation may be used for estimating velocity and
based on that flow capacity can be determined while designing
of deep surface drains. Different forms of sub-surface drains are
described below.
Surface Inlet
A surface inlet is intake structure constructed to carry the pit
water into the sub-surface or tile drain. A cast iron pipe or a
manhole constructed of brick or monolithic concrete, is
sufficient and satisfactory. Basically, it is the facility to remove
the surface water from the pot holes depressions, road ditches,
farmstead. This may also be accomplished by connecting them
with the shallow surface drains called random field drains
French Drain
When the quantity of water to be removed from the pits or
depression is small, a blind inlet may be installed over the tile
drain which is also called French drain. These are constructed
by back filling the trench of the tile drain with graded materials,
such as gravel and coarse sand, or with corn cobs, straw and
similar substances, as shown in Figure 7.1.

Pit water

----

of trench \ 'I
Z
Bottom
Figure 7.1 : French Drain

Such inlets are not permanently effective. The voids in the

backfill of the blind inlet become filled up with the passage of
time, thereby reducing its effectiveness. Even though they are
not permanently effective, they are economical to be installed
and do not interfere with the farming operations.
 Bedding Water Logging
and Drainage
Bedding is a method of surface drainage which makes use of
dead hrrows, as shown in Figure 7.2 The area between the two
adjacent hrrows is known as a bed. The depth of the bed
depends on the soil characteristics and tillage practices. In the
bedded area, the direction of fanning may be parallel or normal
to dead hrrows. Tillage practices, parallel to the beds, retard
water movement to the dead furrows.

Figure 7.2 :Bedding

Ploughing is always parallel to the dead furrows. Bedding is

most practicable on flat slopes of less than 15%, where the soils
are slowly permeable and the drainage IS not economical.
Sub-surface Drainage or Tile Drainage
Tile drains are required for high water table conditions in the areas where
the soils are having poor internal drainage ability. If no impervious layer
occurs below the farm land and the water table is low (lower than about 3m
from the ground), internal soil drainage may be sufficient and no tile drains
needed. For maximum productivity of most of the crops, both surface as
well as sub-surface drains may sometimes, however, become, essential,
particularly in areas of higher water table.
Advantages of Tile Drains
Tile drainage helps in increasing crop yields by draining the water or by
lowering the water table in the following manner :
(a) Removes the free gravity water, not available directly to the
plants, thus, increases the volume of root zone soil from which
roots can obtain nutrient.
(b) Increases air circulation and bacterial activity in the soil, thus
improving soil structure and making the plant food more readily
available.
(c) Reduces soil erosion as a well drained soil has more capacity to
hold rainfall, resulting in reduced runoff and soil erosion.
(d) Helps removing toxic substances such as sodium, their excess
amount may retard plant growth.
(e) Lowering the water table during rainy seasons thus checking
water logging and salinity and other soil and water problems.

(f) Easy and timely cultural practices.

Irrightion Engineering Limitations
(a) Providing underground tile drains is a costly affair and may be
required only in areas of high water table, and where the ground soil
has a poor internal drainage capacity. In other words where it is
absolutely desired.
(b) Without proper maintenance and care it becomes un-functional.
Laying Tile Drains
Tile drains are usually, pipe drains made up of porous earthenware and are
circular in section. The diameters may vary from 10 to 30 cm or so. These
drains are laid below the ground level, butting each other with open joints.
The trenches in which they are laid are back filled with sand and excavated
material to form an envelop.
Envelope Filters
It facilitates flow of drained water to tile drainage system Tile drains are laid
below the ground level in the trenches. The trenches in which they are laid
are back filled with porous material, as shown in Figure 7.3. As far as
possible, the tile dtains should not be placed below less pervious strata
without envelop filter as the water will not be able to reach the drain. Thus,
in absence of filter they may remain dry even-though the land above the
impervious strata may be waterlogged.
,- Back filling with

Figure 7.3 : Envelop Filter

Formation and Functions of ~ n v e l Filters
o~
When tile drains are placed in less pervious soils, they are generally
surrounded by graded gravel filters, called envelope filters The filter
consists of different gradations, such as gravel, coarse sand, bajri, and other
coarse material. The coarsest material is placed immediately over the tile,
and the size is gradually reduced towards the surface. The minimum
thickness of the filter is about 7.5 cm. The graded filter may sometimes be
substituted by a single gradation, depending upon the availability and cost
considerations. Corrugated metal pipe with a flap shutter to prevent entry of
rodents and back flow fiom the outlet into the tile drain, is generally
provided at the outfall point, as shown in Figure 7.4.

Flood or f l a ~
Gate
\ J concrete collar

Tile drain
Metal pipe, minimum length

I Outlet
Drain
pmrrrmn(
4.5117 8 Diameter 5cm more
Than that of tile

Figure 7.4 : Laying tile Drains

 We can summarise the function of envelop filters as follows : Water Logging
and Drainage
(a) It prevents the inflow of the soil into the drain.
(b) It increases the effective tile diameter, and thus increases the
inflow rate.
Provision of Pump Outlet
A pump outlet system needs to be installed, if the bed level of the outlet
drain is higher than that of the discharging tile drain. It consists of an
automatic controlled pump with a small sump for storage as shown in
Figure 7.5. However, pump outlets are costly and require technical expertise
in installation and operation. We should collate the cost of deepening the
outlet drain with the cost of installing and maintaining a pump outlet before
finally deciding the course of action.

Figure 7.5 : Pump Outlet

Movement of Water into the Tile Drains

After proper installation the tile drains starts removing water movement of
water can be summarised as follows :
(a) If soil is fully saturated, water flows into the tile drain along the
path shown in Figure 7.6. Water as farther distance has to travel
more to get drained.
G.L.

I
Between drains I

/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / ////7
l m p e ~ o u slayer

Figure 7.6 : Movement of Water in Fully Saturated Soil

(b) The falling of water table, i.e. draw down will be more near the
tile than at the points farther away Since the quantity of water
moving between any two flow lines is the same.
Irrigation Engineering (c) Once the saturated soil has drained for a day or two, the
resulting water table will be, as shown in Figure 7.7. With the
passage of time, the water level goes on lowering down.
(d) With series of tile drains, the sub soil water level directly over
the drains, is lower than the level midway between them as
* shown in Figure 7.7.

(e) When a filter is provided around the tile drains to surround the
drains with more pervious soil, then the overall draw down will

1 f~::~~"~i:~g~O/--
1
be more.

-\.,.---./----
.Me-- /4----
Original
Water
Table

\ '
Drains

' Water tales after drainage

(Lower water table aft&
more drainage)
Figure 7.7 : Pattern of the Draw Down

Depth and Spacing of the Tile Drains

The rate of drop of water table mainly depends upon the soil permeability
and spacing of the drains. Here, horizontal permeability of the soil is more
important as the water has to travel more distance horizontally than
vertically before it reaches the drain. As the permeabilities of most of the
$oils decrease with depth which affects the shape of the flow lines and the
rate of the fall of water table.
Consider the Figure 7.8 for determinihg the tile spacing. Let S be spacing
between the drains, and a be the depth of impervious stratum from he centre
of the drains, as shown in Figure 7.8. Other parameters areas given.
The tile spacing (S) is given by the following formula

where, K = Hydraulic conductivity,

i = Drainage coefficient m/day,
b = Difference between center of drain and minimum level of
water level,
d, = Equivalent depth of water conducting layer below the drain. It
can be determined using Nomograpf given in Figure 7.9, and
b = Height of water table above impervious layer.
The closed drains are generally spaced at such a distance as to be capable of
lowering the water table sufficiently below the root zone of the plants. For
most of the plants, the top point of the water table must be at least 1.0 to
1.5 metres below the ground level; although this distance may vary from
0.7 to 2.5 m, depending upon the soil and the crop.
 The tile drains may be placed at about 0.3 metre below the desired highest Water Logging
and Drainage
level of the water table. A fair idea of the spacing between the tile drains
can be obtained based on the above theory as follows :

ty Soil surface

Drains = -b - LG~nzrg

7/ / / / / / / / / . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Impervious Stratum

Figure 7.8 : Depth and Spacing o f Tile Drains

Calculate the drain spacing for an irrigated area, assuming the depth to the
center of drain is 1.8 rn and the minimum depth of the water table is 1.5 m.
Given that hydraulic conductivity K = 0.5 mlday above an impervious layer
at a depth of 6.7 m. The excess irrigation rate if equivalent to drainage
coefficient of 1.3 mmlday.
Solution
(a) Depth of impervious layer below the center of tile
(4= 6.7 - 1.8 = 4.9 m.
(b) Compute equivalent depth for the water conducting layer below the
drain for d = 4.9 m. From Nomograph (Figure 7.9) for equivalent
depth d, = 2.9 m.
(c) For tiles flowing half filled, H = 1.8 - 1,5 = 0.3 m.
(d) b = H + d e = 2 . 9 + 0 . 3 =3.2m.
(e) To find the spacing, L

where, K = 0.5 mlday, and

1.3
i = Drainage coefficient mlday = -
1000
Therefore, the design value of spacing of tile drains is 53.06 m.
Maintenance of the Drainage System
For work reliability and long life the drainage system should be periodically
maintained. The following need to be done :
(a) In case of surface drainage regular cleaning and removal of
weed, etc. mu'st be taken care of. Particularly before start of
rainy season special care should be taken.
(b) Any damage to the sidewall should be corrected as and when
required.
Irrigation Engineering (c) In case of subsurface drain all different parts should be
maintained periodically.
(d) All the damaged components should be replaced as and when
required,
Depth d (rn)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Depth d (ft)

Figure 7.9 : Nomograph for Equivalent Depth (Source : Schwab et. al.)

(a) Explain various types of drainage system. Discuss the merits and
demerits of each.
(b) How are depth and spacing of tile drains are decided.

7.5 SUMMARY
This unit discusses the quality of irrigation water. The various parameters for
checking the quality of water are electrical conductivity, sodium absorption ratio,
exchangeable sodium percentage, etc. When the productivity of crop is affected
due to rise in water table, land is said to be water logged. The effect, causes and
remedial measures of water logging are discussed in detail. The types of drainage
system are explained with examples.
 Water Logging
7.6 KEY WORDS and Drainage

SAR : Sodium absorption ratio is denoted as

Water Logging : An agricultural land is said to be water logged

when its productivity gets attached by the high
water table.
Drainage Coefficient : The rate at which the water is removed by a
drain is called the drainage coefficient.
Bedding : It is a method of surface drainage which
makes use of dead furrow.

7.8 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(a) Refer Section 7.2.
(b) Refer Section 7.3.
SAQ 2
(a) Refer Section 7.4.
(b) Refer Section 7.4.
SAQ 3
(a) Refer Section 7.5.
(b) Refer Section 7.5.
Irrigation Engiheering
FURTHER READING
Asawa, G. L. (1993), Irrigation Engineering, Wiley Eastern Limited.
Chow, V. I. (1988), Applied Hydrology, McGraw Hill Int. Edn.
Karanth, K. R., Ground Water Assessment, Development and Management.
Michall, A. M., Irrigation Theory and Practice, Vikas Publishing House Private
Limited.
Raghunath, H. M. (1980), Ground Water Hydrology, John Wiley and Sons.
Punmia, B. C. and Pande, B. B. Lal, Irrigation and Water Power Engineering,
Laxmi Publication, New Delhi.
Arora, K. R., Irrigation Water Power and Wafer Resources Engineering,
Standard publication, New Delhi.