INDIA INFRASTRUCTURE REPORT 2006

Managing Editor: ANUPAM RASTOGI

Avinash Agarwal Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, [email protected]

O.P. Agarwal Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, [email protected]
Siddharth Agarwal Environmental Health Project-USAID, [email protected]
P.U. Asnani Centre for Environment Planning & Technology, Ahmedabad, [email protected]
Lee Baker Indo-US Financial Institutions Reform & Expansion Project, New Delhi , [email protected]
Laveesh Bhandari Indicus Analytics, New Delhi, [email protected]
Nabaroon Bhattacharjee U.S. Agency for International Development, New Delhi, [email protected]
Anand Chiplunkar IL&FS Infrastructrue Development Corporation, [email protected]
Shubhagato Dasgupta Water and Sanitation Program—South Asia, New Delhi, [email protected]
Jaisingh Dhumal ICICI Bank Ltd, Mumbai, [email protected]
David Foster U.S. Agency for International Development, New Delhi, [email protected]
S. Gopiprasad SCE-CREOCEAN India, Bangalore, [email protected]
Manraj Guliani TERI, New Delhi, [email protected]
Pragya Jaswal TERI, New Delhi, [email protected]
Prabhat Jha Environmental Health Project-USAID, [email protected]
Pratima Joshi Shelter Associates, Pune, [email protected]
Prem Kalra Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, [email protected]
Pisupati Karthikeya Dhiya Consulting Pvt. Ltd, Bangalore, [email protected]
Sandeep Kumar Environmental Health Project-USAID, [email protected]
Amitabh Kundu Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, [email protected]
Bharat Lal Bangalore Electricity Supply Co. Ltd., [email protected]
Mukesh P. Mathur National Institute of Urban Affairs, New Delhi, [email protected]
Om Prakash Mathur
.
National Institute of Public Finance and Policy, New Delhi, [email protected]
Manoj Nadkarni Centre for Communication and Development Studies, Pune, [email protected]
Ramakrishna Nallathiga Consultant, [email protected]
Suneel Pandey TERI, New Delhi, [email protected]
Mahesh Patankar International Institute for Energy Conservation, Mumbai, [email protected]
Anupam Rastogi Infrastructure Development Finance Company, Mumbai, [email protected]
Salma Sadikha Bangalore Water Supply and Sewrage Board, [email protected]
David Savage Water and Sanitation Program—South Asia, New Delhi, [email protected]
Rajiv Shekhar Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, [email protected]
Shaleen Singhal TERI, New Delhi, [email protected]
Kala S. Sridhar National Institute of Public Finance and Policy, New Delhi, [email protected]
Olivier Toutain SCE-CREOCEAN India, Bangalore, [email protected]
Chetan Vaidya USAID FIRE Project, New Delhi, [email protected]
Hitesh Vaidya USAID FIRE Project, New Delhi, [email protected]
Sri Vasuki Dhiya Consulting Pvt. Ltd, Bangalore, [email protected]
Archana Walia U.S. Agency for International Development, New Delhi, [email protected]
Nutan Zarapkar U.S. Agency for International Development, [email protected]
Marie-Hélène Zérah The Centre de Sciences Humaines, New Delhi, and Indira Gandhi Institute of Development
Research, Mumbai, [email protected]

The views expressed in the report are those of the individual authors and not the institution they are affiliated to or that of
3iNetwork.
INDIA INFRASTRUCTURE REPORT 2006
Urban Infrastructure

3iNetwork
Infrastructure Development Finance Company
Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

1
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 PREFACE
Anupam Rastogi

T
he history of a nation is created by milestone events, which dramatically change the way society is organized, governed,
and bequeathed to the next generation. In the times to come the 74th Constitutional Amendment (74th CAA 1992) of
the Indian Constitution will probably be documented as one such event. It recognized municipalities as constitutional
bodies forming the third tier of the federal polity of India. This decentralization initiative, while offering immense opportunities
also poses formidable challenges. First mooted by the Rural–Urban Relationship Committee constituted by the Government
of India in 1963, and deliberated over for nearly thirty years, this recommendation finally culminated in the constitutional
amendment in 1992. While building blocks such as municipal accounting reforms and e-Governance have gradually emerged,
not much else has changed since then. The Fifth Pay Commission award, in fact, postponed reforms in the governance of
urban local bodies. The Eleventh and the Twelfth Finance Commissions, bound by the Constitution, initiated transfer of
funds from the central government to local bodies—a standard practice followed in all federal forms of governments—to
ensure that ULBs are able to finance the provision of minimum physical infrastructure required for basic civic life.
The constitutional amendment has altered the governance structure of the country though the actual devolution of power
is at various stages of implementation. The central government has taken a path-breaking step in formulating the Jawaharlal
Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), the fruition of which could witness the development of urban infrastructure
at an accelerated pace. This in itself is not sufficient to obliterate the dualism within the urbanization experience of
India. Ambitions of the rural population, the youth, the educated, and the skilled workers cannot even begin to be catalysed
unless all towns with 50,000-plus population get at least clean drinking water, wastewater networks, and proper solid waste
management facilities.
We need to expand physical infrastructure—roads, ports, airports, railways, drinking water and wastewater networks, and
above all electrical power—to satisfy the aspirations and rising expectations of our citizens. Much of the existing infrastructure
is old, worn and, overworked. It needs to be rebuilt, refurbished, and maintained. The implementation of the JNNURM and the
National Urban Transport Policy can usher a silent revolution into the life of even the most marginalized citizen of urban India.
What telecommunication has achieved in the last fifteen years could not have been envisioned way back in July 1991. Though
the changes unfolding in the physical infrastructure space may not be as dramatic, their impact will be even more far-reaching.
I would like to congratulate all the contributors who, under the aegis of the 3iNetwork, have produced this comprehensive
report on urbanization trends, governance of local bodies, and urban planning. The present standards of urban services make
bleak reading. However, this report is not about where we are but, more importantly, about how we can do better.
I trust that readers will find this report as interesting and informative as the previous ones in this series. I earnestly hope that
this report will enrich the dialogue and debate that help us as a nation make choices and decisions that will improve the living
conditions of our citizens and provide greater avenues for employment to the young, educated, skilled, and unskilled workers
of our country.

RAJIV B. LALL
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Anupam Rastogi

W
ritings on urban issues are inevitably influenced by the personal experiences of the authors. This report has benefited
from first hand impressions and experiences of many citizens of urban India apart from the authors who finally
contributed to it. I would like to acknowledge the invaluable inputs from those who helped me in conceptualizing,
planning, writing, and preparing this report without holding them responsible for any errors or omissions.
I would like to thank Nasser Munjee who germinated the idea of looking at infrastructure from an urban perspective and
participated in some of the deliberations. My former colleagues Piyush Tiwari, Shubhagato Dasgupta, and Partha Mukhopadhyay
spent hours preparing the framework for this report. Compared to the earlier issues of the India Infrastructure Report, this
report took much longer to plan out but telecommunication made seamless convergence amongst us, possible. Sebastian
Morris, Ajay Pandey, Prem Kalra, and Partha Mukhopadhyay helped in drawing up the detailed scheme of the report. I
would like to thank Sebastian Morris, especially, for making valuable suggestions on academics, practitioners, and policymakers
who could contribute in writing the theme chapters. I would like to thank Urjit Patel, who entrusted the responsibility of
putting the report together to me.
I would also like to thank Amitabh Kundu, Olivier Toutain, P.U. Asnani, Prem Kalra, Shaleen Singh, Pragya Jaswal, Laveesh
Bhandari, Shubhagato Dasgupta, Lee Baker, Chetan Vaidya, O.P. Mathur, Partha Mukhopadhyay, Kala Sridhar, and Jim Hogan
who participated in a meeting on 26 May 2005 at NIPFP, New Delhi. I am grateful to Professor Om Mathur, who organized
the meeting at a very short notice and extended warm hospitality to all the participants. The Writer’s Workshop held at IIT
Kanpur on 2–3 September 2005 was organized by Prem Kalra who worked tirelessly to manage last minute snafus. I would like
to thank Sandeep, Kundan, Sunil Sharma, and S. K. Khullar, who worked diligently behind the scenes to make the workshop a
success. The workshop at IITK also benefited from the participation of Sanjay Jadhav, Neeraj Gupta, A. K. Saxena, Binayak
Rath, Avinash K. Agarwal, Anil Kumar Sagar, David Foster, and K. Mukundan. Rajiv Shekhar deserves special thanks for
making off-campus dinner arrangements and innocently providing to all participants first hand experience of urban dualism
that exists not only at national level but within a city as well! The pathetic condition of network infrastructures such as
electricity and water has led some enterprising people to build islands of uninterrupted water and power supply within the
city which serve as happy retreats for urban dwellers.
On behalf of 3iNetwork, I would like to thank HUDCO who sponsored the workshop. P.S. Rana and R. Goel of HUDCO
continuously extended their support to the report. We are thankful to Asian Development Bank and USAID for extending
financial support. Alex K. Jorgensen and Debashish Bhattacharjee of Asian Development Bank took keen interest in the
coverage of the report and we are thankful to them for their active support. Rebecca Black of USAID needs special mention
here as she extended full support to us and also helped in getting information on the projects being carried out under the aegis
of USAID in many urban areas.
I am also grateful to all the authors who, despite their busy schedules, participated in the workshop and maintained time
schedules of the many drafts their write-ups had to go through. I would like to be excused for troubling and reminding them
of their commitments using various channels of communication.
viii Acknowledgements

This report could not have seen light of the day without the skilled editing of Shreemoyee Patra. She provided a valuable
link in translating technical writing and some firmly held convictions of authors into simple language accessible to a wider
audience. She braved the acute power cuts of Delhi in the months of September and October 2005 to turn in quality work
within a tight timeline.
Thanks are also due to Gracinda Rodrigues who helped me in preparing this report right from the beginning. As a
versatile executive assistant, she undertook a host of tasks from organizing travel, meetings, and workshops to preparing graphs,
tables, figures, and printing with a ready smile. Almost all authors recognize her voice without having met her even once.
Clearly we have much to thank modern day telecommunications which has taken firm roots in our office lives in a short span
of five years.
Finally, I am thankful to the editors at Oxford University Press, who once again accepted the stiff schedule in bringing this
report in time.

ANUPAM RASTOGI
 CONTENTS
Anupam Rastogi

List of Tables xi
List of Boxes and Figures xiii
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms xvii

1. THE INFRASTRUCTURE SECTOR IN INDIA, 2005 1

Anupam Rastogi
New Institutional Mechanism for PPP 1 • Telecom 2 • Power 6 • Transport 9 • Roads 9 • Urban
Infrastructure 15 • Conclusion 22
Annexe 24
References 26

2. TRENDS AND PATTERNS OF URBANIZATION AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS 27

Amitabh Kundu
Urbanization at the Macro Level 27 • Urbanization Pattern 29 • Urbanization Trend: An Interstate
Analysis 30 • Economic Base of Urban Centres 32 • Access of Cities and Towns to Urban Resources 33
• The Capital Market 36 • A Perspective on Urbanization 37 • Conclusion 38
Annexe 39
References 41

3. GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORK FOR DELIVERY OF URBAN SERVICES 42

David Savage and Shubhagato Dasgupta
Evolution of Local Government 42 • The Role of GOI 46 • Declining Trend in Urban Local Services 50
• Roadblocks Undermining Reform Initiatives 53 • Reforms to Remove the Roadblocks 55 • Conclusion 57
References 58

4. PLANNING FOR URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE 59

Olivier Toutain and S. Gopiprasad
Urban Planning: The Issues Involved 59 • Renewal of the Urban Planning Approach 59 • Guiding
Principles of a Spatial Policy 64 • From Principles to their Spatial Translation 64 • Tool Kit for
Planning 67 • Integrating Planning and Infrastructure Development 78 • Planning as a Tool for Programme
Implementation and Infrastructure Development 79 • Way Forward 79
References 81
x Contents

5. URBAN FINANCE 82
Om Prakash Mathur
Functional Jurisdiction of Municipalities 83 • Revenue Base of Municipalities 84 • Size of the Municipal
Sector 85 • Revenue-based Performance 87 • Transfer-based Performance 89 • Scale and Structure of
Municipal Expenditure 90 • Revenue–Expenditure Balance 91 • Urban Initiatives and Municipal
Performance 93 • Municipal Finances in the Context of SFCs 98 • Devolution by Central Finance
Commissions 100 • Way Forward 102
Annexe 103
References 105

6. URBAN TRANSPORT 106

O. P. Agarwal
Issues in Urban Transport in India 106 • Urban Public Transport in India 110 • Future Scenario for Urban
Transport 115 • Strategies for Urban Transport 116 • Way Forward 123 • Conclusion 128
References 129

7. URBAN WATER AND WASTE WATER 130

Marie-Hélène Zérah
Present Status 130 • The Attempted Path to Reforms and its Assessment 143 • Agenda for the Future 151
• Way Forward 154
References 157

8. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT 160

P. U. Asnani
Quantum and Nature of Solid Waste 160 • Reasons for Inadequacy and Inefficiency in Services 161
• Drawbacks in Present SWM Services 161 • Technologies Available for Processing, Treatment, and
Disposal of Solid Waste 162 • Factors Governing Choice of Technology 167 • Judicial Intervention to
Improve the System 167 • Strategy to Implement MSW Rules 2000 169 • Initiatives Taken by State
Governments to Handle Solid Waste 171 • PPP in Cities 174 • Funds Required for SWM 179 • Sources
of Funds 180 • Supplementing ULB Resources 180 • Way Forward 182
Annexe 184
References 189

9. URBAN ENERGY MANAGEMENT 190

Prem K. Kalra and Rajiv Shekhar
Present Status 190 • Integrated Resource Planning 192 • Renewable Energy Sources 194 • Convergence
in Energy 197 • Energy Conservation 197 • Conclusions 207

10. URBAN ENVIRONMENT 208

Suneel Pandey, Shaleen Singhal, Pragya Jaswal, and Manraj Guliani
Status of the Urban Environment 209 • Industry and Environment 216 • Emerging Techniques to
Measure Quality of Urban Environment 223 • Conclusion 229
References 230

11. SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE: URBAN HEALTH AND EDUCATION 232

Laveesh Bhandari
Key Issues 232 • Structure of Education Delivery 234 • Schools in India 235 • Coverage and Access 239
• Summing Up 242 • Health Care Structure 243 • Physical Infrastructure 246 • Usage and Accessibility
of Healthcare Facilities 246 • Summing Up 251 • Way Forward 251
Annexe 254
References 257
 TABLES
Anupam Rastogi

1.1 Project Outlays and Incentive Payments under APDRP as on 31 May 2005 7
1.2 Status of NHDP as on 31 August 2005 10
1.3 Projects under Implementation as on 31 August 2005 10
1.4 BOT Projects with Negative Grants 10
1.5 Structure of Project Finance under JNNURM by Source of Assistance (per cent) 21
2.1 Growth of Million Plus Cities of 1991 during 1990s 28
2.2 Pattern of Urbanization and Growth of Urban Population across States/UTs 31
2.3 Average monthly per capita expenditure and Percentage Poor in Different Size Class of Cities/Towns 33
3.1 Service Decline under Status Quo 53
3.2 Responsibilities of Main Urban Service Providers in Bangalore 54
5.1 Internal Resource Generation 87
5.2 Municipal Own Revenues 88
5.3 Role of Transfers in Municipal Finances 90
5.4 Per Capita Revenue Expenditure 91
5.5 Octroi in the Finances of Municipalities, 2001–2 92
5.6 Correlation Coefficients 93
5.7 Municipal Bonds 96
5.8 Devolution System and Recommendations by State Finance Commissions 100
6.1 Personal versus Public Vehicles per 1000 population in India 108
6.2 Share of Buses in Total Motor Vehicles in India 108
6.3 Air Pollution Levels 108
6.4 Fare Structure for Public Bus Services 111
6.5 Performance Parameters of Select Public Bus Services and all Urban Bus Services 111
6.6 Responsibilities of the Government or a Public Agency 112
6.7 Agencies Responsible for Different Aspects of Urban Transport 114
6.8 Projections of Urban Population in India 115
6.9 Projected Number of Trips in 2021 Compared to 1994 115
6.10 Projected Travel Demand for Different Categories of Cities 115
6.11 Preference Pattern of Modes of Transport in Delhi and Mumbai, 2005 117
7.1 Distribution of all Urban Households (per cent) per Major Source of Water for States and
Union Territories 131
7.2 Access to Sanitation Facilities for the Major Indian States for Urban Households (per cent) (1998) 132
7.3 Access to Drinking Water and Toilet Facilities for Urban Households Across City Sizes (1991) 134
7.4 Access to Water and Sanitation Facilities for Urban Households Living in Slums (per cent) (2002) 135
xii Tables

7.5 Institutional Set-up for Urban Water Supply 136

7.6 Comparative Data on Water and Sanitation for Select ULBs in the Mumbai Urban Agglomeration 138
7.7 Water Supply Level in the Municipal Councils of the Vasai-Virar Sub-region 141
7.8 Demand-supply Gap in Delhi (million gallons per day) 141
7.9 Required Incremental Investment for Water Supply, Sewerage and Storm Water Drains
(at Rs price 1995) (in billion Rs) 142
7.10 Public–Private Partnerships Options 144
7.11 Water Tariff Structure in Indian Cities 146
8.1 Waste Generation per Capita in Indian cities 160
8.2 Waste Quantities and Waste Generation Rates in 1 million plus Cities and State Capitals 160
8.3 Waste Generation in Class 1 Cities with Population above 100,000 161
8.4 Timeframe for the Implementation of the Rules 168
8.5 Cost Estimates for Standard Landfill Sites in Gujarat 172
8.6 Estimates for Standard Compost Plants in Gujarat 172
8.7 Cost Estimates for Improving Solid Waste Management Services in West Bengal 173
8.8 Status of the Implementation of the Rules in Maharashtra 174
8.9 Estimated Cost for Vehicle, Tools, Equipments and Composting 179
8.10 12th Finance Allocation to Municipalities and Panchayats (2005–10) 181
8.11 GOI Subsidy on SWM Plants 182
9.1 Conversion Efficiency of Fuels used for Cooking (per cent) 191
9.2 Energy Demand–Supply Gap: 2006–7 and 2046–7 192
9.3 Renewable Energy Potential and Achievements in India 194
9.4 Energy Intensities for IEA Countries 198
10.1 GDP Growth Rates of India in the Last Decade 208
10.2 Parameters of Water Supply in Four Indian Cities (1996–7) 209
10.3 Policy Highlights 215
10.4 Sources and Quantum of Waste Generated from Major Industrial Sources 218
10.5 Quantity of Hazardous Wastes 219
11.1 Growth of Primary Schools in India (1993–2002) 237
11.2 Annual Percentage Growth in Number of Schools by Management 237
11.3 Annual Percentage Growth in Schools (by management) between 1993–4 and 2001–2 237
11.4 Distribution of Schools 2001–02 238
11.5 Change in the Number of Schools in the Last Decade 238
11.6 Proportion of 6–7 Year Olds Enrolled in School by Sex and Quintiles 239
11.7 Proportion of 8–10 plus Year Olds Enrolled in School by Sex and Quintiles 239
11.8 Proportion of 10–12 plus Year Olds Having Completed Primary School 240
11.9 Proportion of Out of School Population in the Age Group 10–19 Years 240
11.10 Infant Mortality Rates in Indian States and Comparable Countries 1998–9 243
11.11 Distribution of Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) as per Major Categories of Ailments 243
11.12 Life Expectancy Over Time 244
11.13 Staff as per Facilities, All India 1999 244
11.14 Urban Family Welfare Centres 245
11.15 Distribution of Ailments NSSO,1995–6 246
11.16 Age-wise Distribution of Urban Population 247
11.17 Urban Morbidity: Percentage Ailing in a 15 day Span, NSS 1995–6 247
11.18 Percentage Distribution of Causes of Non-treatment, NSS 1995–6 247
11.19 Distribution of Non-hospitalized Treatments by Source in the Last 15 Days 248
11.20 Distribution of Non-hospitalized Treatments by Source in the Last 15 Days 248
11.21 Expenses per Ailment Related to Non-hospitalized Treatment by Major Sources 248
(at constant 1986–7 Rupee prices)
11.22 Percentage Distribution of Hospitalized Treatment by Source (in the last 365 days) 250
11.23 Source of Finance for Hospitalized Care, NSS (1995–6) 250
 BOXES AND FIGURES
Anupam Rastogi

BOXES
1.1 Wireless Broadband Technologies 4
1.2 Deluge in Mumbai 16
1.3 Implementation of e-Governance in Municipalities 18
1.4 Model Municipal Law to Enable Urban Reforms 19
2.1 Urban Land Ceiling Act (ULCA) and its Impact 34
2.2 Impact of Density Controls on Land Markets in Mumbai 35
3.1 Twelfth Schedule of the Constitution of India 43
3.2 Implementation of the 74th Constitution Amendment Act 44
3.3 More Revenue and Infrastructure do not Mean Better Services: Bangalore 53
4.1 Core Functions of Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPO) in the USA 61
4.2 Metropolitan Planning Organization in Texas 62
4.3 Realities of Urban Land 63
4.4 Understand the social disparities: Mapping of ‘Shadow Areas’ 66
4.5 Land use zoning in Bangalore Master Plan 2015 68
4.6 Development of a Metropolitan Spatial Data Infrastructure (MSDI) for ‘Greater Bangalore’ 69
4.7 Coordinated Planning Schemes 72
4.8 Institutional Arrangements for Land Use in Ludhiana, Punjab 73
4.9 Town Planning Schemes: Land Pooling and Reconstitution—an Opportunity for Infrastructure
Provision in an Equitable Manner 75
4.10 Innovative Tools Involving FAR Management 77
4.11 Local Area level Plans 80
5.1 International Comparisons of Local Government Revenues 86
5.2 Increasing Municipal Revenues: Case of Indore 94
5.3 Market-based Financing for Smaller- and Medium-sized ULBs: The Cases of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka 97
6.1 Congestion Charging 118
6.2 The Vehicle Quota System of Singapore 118
6.3 Sustainable Transport Fuels for Urban Transport 120
6.4 Vehicular Pollution Issues in India 121
6.5 Choice of Mass Rapid Transit Technology 122
6.6 Recent International Trends in the Supply of Urban Public Transport 124
6.7 London Buses 124
6.8 The Transmilenio Bus Rapid Transit System in Bogota, Colombia 125
xiv Boxes and Figures

6.9 Land Transport Authority, Singapore 125

7.1 Considering Alternate Sanitation Systems for India 133
7.2 Hidden Cost of Intermittent Water Supply 139
7.3 Visakhapatnam Industrial Water Supply Project using Public Private Partnership Format 145
7.4 Public–Private Partnership in Urban Service Delivery: Performance Based Service Contracts
in Navi Mumbai, India 147
7.5 The Buenos Aires Water and Wastewater Concession 150
7.6 Reduction of Unaccounted for Water losses in Nagpur 153
7.7 Innovative Approaches to Improve Access of Poor to Urban Services in Bangalore and Sangli 155
8.1 Nisarguna Biogas Plant 165
8.3 Integrated Reforms at the Municipal Corporation of Delhi 178
8.4 Sanitary Landfill at Nagpur 179
9.1 Hidden Costs of Poor Infrastructure 192
9.2 Solar Photovoltaics: Applications and Case Studies 195
9.3 CII–Sohrabji Godrej Green Business Centre (GBC) in Hyderabad 196
9.4 Achieving Energy Efficiency by Performance Benchmarking 199
9.5 Energy Savings and Efficiency: Nasik and Bangalore Experiences 201
9.6 Reducing Theft by Improving Access: Ahmedabad Slum Electrification Project 203
9.7 The City of Phoenix Energy Management Programme 203
9.8 In Maharashtra Dark Zone, A Village Lights Up 204
9.9 Efficient Transportation for Successful Urban Planning in Curitiba (Brazil) 205
10.1 Delhi Breathes Clean Air Now 213
10.2 Moving Towards Environmentally Friendly Fuel Transport System for Urban India 214
10.3 Failure of Common Effluent Treatment Plant in Vapi Industrial Estate, Gujarat 217
10.4 Ship-breaking Activity at Alang, Gujarat 220
10.5 Heavy Metal Scrap Trade in India 220
10.6 Land Contamination by Toxic Waste 222
10.7 Management Failure at Narela Industrial Estate, Delhi 223
10.8 Natural Resource accounting in the Yamuna-basins 225
10.9 Greening of GDP 226
10.10 Pilot Case Studies of Kanpur and Delhi 228
11.1 Role of the Indian State in Primary Education 236
11.2 The How and Why of the Poor Infrastructure and Services at Public Schools: A Case Study 242
11.3 Indore Urban Health Programme 249
11.4 Hospital Based Urban Health Care and Health Centres 252

FIGURES
1.1 Cellular Mobile Growth and Effective Charge per Minute 3
1.2 Rural, Urban and Total Teledensity 5
2.1 Percentage and Growth Rate of Urban Population since 1901 27
2.2 Number of Towns in Different Size Categories 29
2.3 Proportion of Urban Population in Different Size Categories 29
2.4 Annual Population Growth Rates in Different City/Town Size Categories 30
2.5 Annual Population Growth Rate in Different Categories of Urban Centres 30
3.1 Plan Outlays and spending by Central Government on Urban Water and Sanitation Sector 48
3.2 Centrally Sponsored Schemes for Urban Sector 49
3.3 Various Delivery Modes to Fund Urban Sector Schemes 50
3.4 Water Delivery (hrs/day) in Select Indian Cities since 1980s 51
3.5 International Comparison of Water Availability and Delivery per day 51
3.6 Projection of Urban Population in India by 2030 51
3.7 Sectoral Contribution to GDP, 1960–2005 51
 Boxes and Figures xv

3.8 Compliance with Common Reforms vs Service Delivery 54

3.9 Fragmentation and Duplication of Authority 55
3.10 Roadblocks, Triggers, and the Reform Agenda 56
4.1 Cost of Urban Transportation: International Scenario 65
4.2 Relation between City densities and Energy Consumption per capita 66
5.1 Relative Shares of Municipal Revenues 86
5.2 EFC Criteria for Allocation to States for Municipalities 101
5.3 TFC Criteria for Allocation to States for Municipalities 101
6.1 Share of Trips by Different Modes in Class I Cities (per cent) 106
6.2 Percentage Growth in Population and Vehicles (1981–2001) in Select Metro Cities 107
6.3 Sale of Cars and Two-wheelers, 1993–2001 (in ’000s) 107
6.4 Share of Two-wheelers in Total Registered Vehicles as on 31 March 2003 107
6.5 Profile of Persons killed in Road Accidents in Delhi 109
6.6 Consumption of Petroleum Products 109
6.7 Ownership of Public and Private Buses in India (1961–2001) 110
6.8 Ownership Patterns of Private Buses in Delhi 110
6.9 Projected Mode Share of Vehicular Trips per day 116
8.1 Status of Compliance of MSW Rule 2000 by Class I cities as on 1 April 2004 169
9.1 Flowchart of a Typical IRP Process 194
10.1 Smaller Fraction of Cities with Dangerous or Bad Air 211
10.2 SOx and Nox in Air 212
10.3 Generation of Hazardous Waste in Selected States in India 219
11.1 Structure of the Schooling System in India 235
11.2 Growth in Number of Institutions and Enrolments from 1950–1 to 2001–2 237
11.3 Average Annual Percentage Growth in Number of Schools 1993–4 to 1996–7 and 1996–7 to 2001–2 237
11.4 Percentage Share of Public–Private Schools across Levels of Education in Urban Areas 238
11.5 Transition Rates from Middle to Secondary Levels, Rural and Urban 241
11.6 Infant Mortality Rate in India (1971–2001) 243
11.7 Hospitalized Treatment of Urban Poor by Source 250
11.8 Average Duration of Stay in Public Hospitals 250
 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
Anupam Rastogi

ADC Access Deficit Charge

AIILSG All India Institute of Local Self-Government
APDRP Accelerated Power Development and Reforms Programme
APIIC Andhra Pradesh Industrial Infrastructure Development Corporation
ARPU Average Revenue per User
BMC Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation
BMP Bangalore Mahanagar Palike
BMTPC Building Material Technology Promotion Council
BMW Biomedical Waste
BOOT Build, Own, Operate and Transfer
BWSSB Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board
CBD Central Business District
CBO Community Based Organization
CDP City Development Plan
CERC Central Electricity Regulatory Commission
CFL Compact Fluorescent Lamps
CHC Community Health Centre
CIDCO City and Industrial Development Corporation
COE Certificates of Entitlement
CorDECT Corrected Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications
CPHEEO Central Public Health Environment and Engineering Organisation
CRIS Centre for Railway Information Systems
CRZ Coastal Regulation Zone
CSS Centrally Sponsored Schemes
CWC Central Warehousing Corporation
CWTF Common Waste Treatment Facilities
DBO Design, Build and Operate
DMRTS Delhi Metro Rail Transport System
DOT Department of Telecom
DPC District Planning Committee
DPEP District Primary Education Programme
DUSR Digital Urban Spatial Repository
EASDP Environmental Adjusted State Domestic Product
ECGIP Expert Group on Commercialization of Infrastructure Projects
xviii Abbreviations and Acronyms

EMP Energy Master Plan

ERP Electronic Road Pricing
ESCO Energy Services Company
FAR Floor Area Ratio
FOIR Forum of Indian Regulators
FSI Floor Space Index
GAISP Green Accounting for Indian States Project
GIST Green Indian States Trust
GSDP Gross State Domestic Product
GTL Gas to Liquid
HCW Healthcare Waste
HSDPA High Speed Data Packet Access
HWM Healthcare Waste Management
ICMR Indian Council of Medical Research
IDBI Industrial Development Bank of India
IDFC Infrastructure Development Finance Company
IDSMT Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns
IIFC India Infrastructure Finance Company
IIG Inter-Institutional Group
IL&FS Infrastructure Leasing and Financial Services Limited
IMG Inter-Ministerial Group
IPDF India Project Development Fund
IRP Integrated Resource Planning
IT-ITES Information Technology—Information Technolgy Enabled Services
JBIC Japan Bank of International Co-operation
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
JV Joint Venture
LHV Lady Health Visitor
LIC Life Insurance Corporation of India
LPA Local Planning Area
MBR Methylene blue reduction
MBTA Massachusetts Bay Transit Authority
MMD Model Municipal Law
MMRDA Mumbai Metropolitan Regional Development Authority
MoF Ministry of Finance
MoP Ministry of Power
MOUD Ministry of Urban Development
MPC Municipal Planning Committee
MSDI Metropolitan Spatial Data Infrastructure
MSW Municipal Solid Waste
MWRRA Maharashtra Water Resource Regulatory Authority
NCERT National Council of Educational Research and Training
NHAI National Highway Authority of India
NHDP National Highway Development Programme
NLD National long-distance
NMMC Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation
NTP National Telecom Policy
NURM National Urban Renewal Mission
NUTP National Urban Transport Policy
O&M Operations and Maintenance
PBS performance-based service
PCB Pollution Control Board
 Abbreviations and Acronyms xix

PHC Primary Health Centre

PPP Public-Private Partnership
PRI Panchayati Raj Institutions
PSP Private Sector Participation
QoS Quality of Service
RATP Régie Autonome des Transports Parisiens—Paris Transport Company
RDF Refuse Derived Fuel
RFID Radio Frequency Identification
RITES Rail India Technical and Economic Service
RLDA Rail Land Development Authority
RUIDP Rajasthan Urban Infrastructure Development Project
SBI State Bank of India
SDU Social Development Unit
SEB State Electricity Board
SEZ Special Economic Zone
SFC State Finance Commission
SHG Self Help Group
SMS Short Message System
SPCB State Pollution Control Board
SPM Suspended Particulate Matter
SPV Special Purpose Vehicle
SSA Sarva Siksha Abhiyan
SSP Slum Sanitation Programme
STA State Transport Authority
STC State Transport Corporation
STIP Syndicat des Transports d’Ile-de-France
T&D Transmission and Distribution
TERI The Energy and Resources Institute
TIFAC Technology Information Forecasting and Assessment Council
TPD Tonnes per day
TPS Town Planning Scheme
UDPFI Urban Development Plan Formulation and Implementation
UEM Urban Energy Management
UFW Unaccounted for water
UGC University Grants Commission
ULB Urban Local Bodies
UMTA Unified Metropolitan Transport Authority
USO Universal Service Obligation
UWSS Urban Water Supply and Sewerage
VAS Value Added Services
VIWSCo Visakhapatnam Industrial Water Supply Company Limited
VoIP voice over internet protocol
WC water-closet
Wi Max Worldwide Interoperability of Microwave Access
WMATA Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority
WMC Waste Minimization Circles
WTE Waste to Energy