Data Communication and Computer Network (22414) Unit No.

-1

UNIT:1
Fundamentals of Data Communication and Computer Network
[12 Marks]
________________________________________________________
Contents:
1.1 process of data communication and its components: Transmitter
,Receiver,Medium,Message,Protocol
1.2 Protocols, Standards,Standard Organizations, Bandwidth,Data Transmission Rate, Baud
Rate and Bits per seconds.
1.3 Modes of Communicatio(Simplex,Half duplex,Full Duplex)
1.4 Analog Signal and Digital signal,Analog and Digital transmission: Analog To Digital
,Digital To Analog Conversion
1.5 Fundamental Of Computer Network: Defination ,Need Of Computer Network,
Applications, Network Benefits.
1.6 Classification Of Network:LAN,WAN,MAN.
1.7 Network Architecture: Peer To Peer, Client Server Network.

________________________________________________________
Course Outcome:
Analyze the functioning of Data communication and Computer Network

References:
a. www.nptelvideos.in/2012/11/data-communication.html
b.http://www.myreadingroom.co.in/notes-and-studymaterial/68-den/750-analog-to-analog-
conversion-techniques.html
c. http://www.tutorial reports.com/wireless/wlanwifi/wifi_architecture.php
d. http://standards.ieee.org/about/get/802/802.11.html
e. www.tutorialspoint.com/data_communication_computer_network/
f. http://www.studytonight.com/computer-networks/overview-of-computer-networks

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Data Communication and Computer Network (22414) Unit No.-1

Unit 1
Fundamentals of Data Communication and Computer Network
(Marks:12)

1.1 Process of data communication and its components:

components for working of communication system.

1. Transmitter
2. Receiver
3.Medium
4.Message
5. Protocol

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1.2 PROTOCOL: -
A Protocol is set of rules and conventions that governs data communications . -The sender
and receiver , the two key parties in data communication , must agree on common set of
rules ,i.e. protocols before they can communicate with each other.

STANDARDS IN NETWORKING:
Standards provide guidelines to product manufacturers and vendors to ensure national and
international interconnectivity. Data communications standards are classified into two
categories:
1. De facto Standard
1. These are the standards that have been traditionally used and mean by fact or by
convention
2. These standards are not approved by any organized body but are adopted by widespread
use.

2. De jure standard
It means by law or by regulation. o These standards are legislated and approved by an body
that is officially recognized.

These are usually led by governments or government appointment agencies.

Standard Organizations in field of Networking
1. International Standard Organization (ISO) ISO
2. International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication Sector (ITU-T) ITU-T
3. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
4. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
5. Electronics Industry Association (EIA)
6.Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)

BANDWIDTH OF A SIGNAL –
Bandwidth can be defined as the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by the
signal. -It may also be defined as the frequency range over which a signal is transmitted.
Different types of signals have different bandwidth.
-Ex. Voice signal, music signal, etc Bandwidth of analog and digital signals are calculated
in separate ways.
-Analog signal bandwidth is measured in terms of its frequency (hz)
-But digital signal bandwidth is measured in terms of bit rate (bits per second,
bps)Bandwidth of signal is different from bandwidth of the medium/channel
BANDWIDTH OF A CHANNEL
-A channel is the medium through which the signal carrying information will be passed.
-In terms of analog signal, bandwidth of the channel is the range of frequencies that the
channel can carry.
- In terms of digital signal, bandwidth of the channel is the maximum bit rate supported by
the channel. i.e. the maximum amount of data that the channel can carry per second

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1.2 Modes of Communication

Two devices communicate with each other by sending and receiving data.
The data can flow between the two devices in the following ways.

1. Simplex
2. Half Duplex
3. Full Duplex
Modes of Communication

1. Simplex: -

In Simplex, communication is unidirectional Only one of the devices sends the data and
the other one only receives the data. -Example: in the above diagram: a CPU send data
while a monitor only receives data

2. Half Duplex:

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-In half duplex both the stations can transmit as well as receive but not at the same time.
-When one device is sending other can only receive and vice versa (as shown in figure
above.)
Example: A walkie-talkie.

3. Full Duplex:

-In Full duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive at the same time.
-Example: mobile phone

1.4 Signals:
-Computer networks are designed to transfer data from one point to another.
-During transit data is in the form of electromagnetic signals.
- Hence it is important to study data and signals before we move to further concepts
in data communication.
Signal-Signal are generated as physical representations of Data.
signal is a function of time and location.

ANALOG SIGNAL:- -Analog signal is continuously varying signal. They have

infinite values in a range.

Digital Signal:-
refers to information that has discrete states Digital data take on discrete values. It takes
the form of pulses, where we have something or nothing (i.e. 0 or 1) can be used to plot
a digital signal. Information can also be explained in the form of a digital signal.
A digital signal can be explained with the help of following points:

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Definition:- A digital is a signal that has discrete values. The signal will have value
that is not continuous

BIT LENGTH or Bit Interval (Tb)

It is the time required to send one bit.
It is measured in seconds.

BIT RATE It is the number of bits transmitted in one second.

It is expressed as bits per second (bps).
Relation between bit rate and bit interval can be as follows Bit rate = 1 / Bit interval.

Baud Rate It is the rate of Signal Speed, i.e. the rate at which the signal changes. A
digital signal with two levels ‘0‘ & ‘1‘ will have the same baud rate and bit rate .

Difference Between Analog and Digital Signal

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Digital To Analog Conversion And Analog To Digital Conversion

PAM-Pulse Amplitude Modulation

PCM-Pulse Code Modulation
DM-Delta Modulation

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1.5 Fundamentals of Computer Network

Computer Network
Definition:
Computer network is defined as the interconnection of two or more computers for the
purpose of information sharing and resource sharing.

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Need Of Computer Network:

• Communication from one computer to another computer
• Sharing of information over a geographically wide area
• Sharing of expensive software and database
• Sharing of resources such as printer and scanner among the users
• For educational purpose

Applications Of Computer Network:

• Business
• Medical
• Banking sector
• Education
• Service Sector
• Defence
• Engineering and Robotics
• Entertainment

Benefits Of Computer Network:

• Information Sharing
• Resource Sharing
1.Sharing hardware resources
2.Sharing software resources
• Facilitating Centralized management
1.management of software
2.Maintaining the network
3.Backing up data

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1.6 Types Of Computer Network based on Geography:

• There are three types of Computer Network based on geography
1. LAN (Local Area Network)
2. MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
3. WAN(Wide Area Network

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Compare LAN, MAN and WAN:

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1.7 Network Architecture:

• There are two types of Computer Network based on Component Role:
• These two types of networks decide the relationship between each computer on the network
1. Client Server Network
2. Peer to Peer Network

Client Server Network:

• Client –Server network uses centralized management system., where decision are made in
central location
• There are two types of computer used in client server network.
1. Client
2. Server
• In client-Server network , certain computers act as servers and others act as client.
• Server is simply a computer that has the network resources and provides services to other
computer when they request for it.
• A client is the computer running a program and request the services from a server.
• Server is more powerful than clients.
• Server has more priority than client due to storage, speed or disk space.
• Server provides security and administration of a network.

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Communication between Client & Server :

• Functions of Server:
1. Accept the query which is coming from Client
2. Process Query 3. Send Response to the Client

• Functions of Client:
1. Client place a request on the server. i.e. ask the services from Server
2. Use the services

• Advantages of Client Server Network:

1. More Secure
2. More Reliable
3. Better Performance
4. Centralized Backup

• Disadvantages of Client Server Network:

1. Dedicated server is required
2. Professional Administration
3. More Maintenance required

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Types of Server :
1. File Server
2. Print Server
3. Application Server
4. Message Server
5. Database Server

1.File Server :

• File server manages user access and use of file resources

• File server provides services for storing, retrieving and moving the data. User can perform
various operations with the help of file server like read, write, exchange and manage files.

2.Print Server :

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• Print server manages the printing functions on the network. It means that print server is used
for controlling and managing printing on the network.
• Print server provides various print and fax services. For printing, print server uses print
queue.

3.Application Server :

• With the help of application server, the expensive software can be shared in a network

4. Message Server :

• A message server is middle ware program that handles messages that are sent for use by
other programs using messaging application program interface.
•It is used to co-ordinate the interaction between users, documents and applications.

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• This interaction can be in different forms like audio, video, binary, text or graphics. File
server cannot handle all those things, so message server came into the picture

5. Database Server :

• Database server allows user to access centralized database. It performs various

tasks such as data analysis, storage data manipulation, archiving and other non-user
specific task

Peer to Peer Network:

• Peer to Peer network uses decentralized management system.

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• In this network, decision are made locally and resources are managed according to
the needs.

• In Peer to Peer network every computer is equal and works as a Client and Server.

• Peer-to-peer network is generally limited to 10 or 15 nodes

• No additional software is required to set up the peer to peer network

❖ The peer-to-peer networks are suitable for the following conditions:

i. Number of users are less than 10
ii. All users are situated in the same area.
ii. Security is not important.
iii. The possibility of future expansion is less.
iv.

Advantages of Peer to Peer Network:

• Less secure
• Hard to backup
• Data is scattered in various computers
• Possibility of future expansion is less
• All users should be present in the same area
• Only suitable for small network
• Due to absence of server, additional load on computer
• Users are supposed to manage their own resources.

Disadvantages of Peer to Peer Network:

• Less expensive

• Network operating system(NOS) is not required

• Easy to install and maintain
• Server is not required
• Administration is very easy
• User can control their resource sharing
• More built-in redundancy
• User is not depend on other computer for its operation

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Compare Client Server & Peer to Peer Network

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Data Communication and Computer Network (22414) UNIT 2

UNIT:2
Transmission Media and Switching
(Marks16)
________________________________________________________
Contents:
2.1 Communication Media; Guided Transmission Media-Twisted pair Cable, Coaxial Cable,
Fiber-Optic Cable

2.2 Unguided Transmission Media: Radio Waves, Microwaves, Infrared, Satellite.

2.3 Line-of-Sight Transmission Point To Point, Broadcasting

2.4 Multiplexing: frequency-Division Multiplexing, Time Division Multiplexing.

2.5 Switching: Circuit Switched Networks Packet Switched Networks. Difference between
Circuit Switched Networks and Packet Switched Networks.

______________________________________________________________________________

Course Outcome:
Analyze the functioning of Data communication and Computer Network

References:
a. www.nptelvideos.in/2012/11/data-communication.html

b.http://www.myreadingroom.co.in/notes-and-studymaterial/68-den/750-analog-to-analog-conversion-
techniques.html

c. http://www.tutorial reports.com/wireless/wlanwifi/wifi_architecture.php

d. http://standards.ieee.org/about/get/802/802.11.html

e. www.tutorialspoint.com/data_communication_computer_network/

f. http://www.studytonight.com/computer-networks/overview-of-computer-networks

g. https://www.javatpoint.com/multiplexing-in-computer-network

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2.1 Communication Media

Transmission Media

Definition of Transmission Media:-

1. Transmission media are the physical pathways that connect computer, other device, in a
computer network.
Or
1. Transmission media is the medium over which information travels from the sender to
receiver.

Without transmission media communication not takes place.

Transmission media is a pathway that carries the information from sender to receiver. We use
different types of cables or waves to transmit data. Data is transmitted normally through
electrical or electromagnetic signals.

Transmission media is also called Communication channel.

Types of Transmission media

Transmission media :- Guided Transmission Media uses a cabling system that guides the data
signals along a specific path.

Guided transmission media uses a cabling system that guides the data signals along a specific
path. Guided media is the wired media.

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Unguided Transmission Media :-The wireless media is also called as unguided media .

Criteria for the selection of transmission Media:-

• Types of medium
• Number of conductors
• Flexibility
• Required Speed
• Distance
• Cost
• Ease of installation and maintenance

The data transmission capabilities of various Medias vary differently depending upon the
various factors. These factors are:

1. Bandwidth. It refers to the data carrying capacity of a channel or medium. Higher bandwidth
communication channels support higher data rates.

2. Radiation. It refers to the leakage of signal from the medium due to undesirable electrical
characteristics of the medium.

3. Noise Absorption. It refers to the susceptibility of the media to external electrical noise that
can cause distortion of data signal.

4. Attenuation. It refers to loss of energy as signal propagates outwards. The amount of energy
lost depends on frequency. Radiations and physical characteristics of media contribute to
attenuation.

Guided Media vs Unguided Media

Guided media is a medium that sends Unguided media is a medium that
signals through a solid physical path. transmits signals through free space.
Direction
There is no particular direction to send
There is a specific direction to send signals.
signals.
Usage
Used in wired transmission Helps wireless transmission
Examples
Twisted pair, coaxial cable, and fiber optics Radio wave, microwave, and infrared

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Types of Wired Media:-

1. Co-axial cable
2. Twisted Pair Cable
3. Optical Fiber cable

1. Twisted Pair Cable:

• The most popular network cabling is twisted pair.

• It is lightweight, easy to install, inexpensive and supports many different types of

networks.

• It also supports the speed of 100 mbps.

Twisted-pair cable is a type of cabling that is used for telephone communications and most
modern Ethernet networks. A pair of wires forms a circuit that can transmit data. The pairs are
twisted to provide protection against crosstalk, the noise generated by adjacent pairs. When
electrical current flows through a wire, it creates a small, circular magnetic field around the wire.
When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed close together, their magnetic fields are the
exact opposite of each other. Thus, the two magnetic fields cancel each other out. They also
cancel out any outside magnetic fields. Twisting the wires can enhance this cancellation effect.
Using cancellation together with twisting the wires, cable designers can effectively provide self-
shielding for wire pairs within the network media.

Two basic types of twisted-pair cable exist:

1. unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

2.shielded twisted pair (STP).

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UTP Cable

UTP cable is a medium that is composed of pairs of wires . UTP cable is used in a variety of
networks. Each of the eight individual copper wires in UTP cable is covered by an insulating
material. In addition, the wires in each pair are twisted around each other.

Fig: Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable

UTP cable often is installed using a Registered Jack 45 (RJ-45) connector . The RJ-45 is an eight-
wire connector used commonly to connect computers onto a local-area network (LAN), especially
Ethernets.

Fig: RJ-45 Connectors

Why to twist the wires?

• In the beginning, the wires were kept parallel. However, this resulted in far greater levels
of noise. Hence, wires were then twisted.
• Twisting of wires will reduce the effect of noise or external interference.
• Number of twists per unit length will determine the quality of cable. More twist means
better quality.

Characteristics of UTP

• Light weight
• Low cost medium.
• Can support data rate of several mbps
• Installation is easy

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Commonly used types of UTP cabling are as follows:

• Category 1—Used for telephone communications. Not suitable for transmitting data.
• Category 2—Capable of transmitting data at speeds up to 4 megabits per second (Mbps).
• Category 3—Used in 10BASE-T networks. Can transmit data at speeds up to 10 Mbps.
• Category 4—Used in Token Ring networks. Can transmit data at speeds up to 16 Mbps.
• Category 5—Can transmit data at speeds up to 100 Mbps.
• Category 5e —Used in networks running at speeds up to 1000 Mbps (1 gigabit per second
[Gbps]).
• Category 6—Typically, Category 6 cable consists of four pairs of 24 American Wire Gauge
(AWG) copper wires. Category 6 cable is currently the fastest standard for UTP.

Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

• STP has a metal foil or braided mesh to cover each pair of insulating conductors known as
metal shield.
• STP reduces the interference of the noise but makes the cable bulky and expensive.
• So practically UTP is more used than STP.
• Twisted pair can be either used for analog or digital transmission.
• The bandwidth supported by the wire depends on the thickness of the wire and the distance
travelled.

Characteristics of STP
• Twisted conductors are shielded to reduce noise.
• Low cost medium
• Higher capacity than UTP

Although STP prevents interference better than UTP, it is more expensive and difficult to install.
In addition, the metallic shielding must be grounded at both ends. If it is improperly grounded,
the shield acts like an antenna and picks up unwanted signals. Because of its cost and difficulty
with termination, STP is rarely used in Ethernet networks. STP is primarily used in Europe.

The following summarizes the features of STP cable:

• Speed and throughput—10 to 100 Mbps

• Average cost per node—Moderately expensive
• Media and connector size—Medium to large
• Maximum cable length—100 m (short)

When comparing UTP and STP, keep the following points in mind:

• The speed of both types of cable is usually satisfactory for local-area distances.

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• These are the least-expensive media for data communication. UTP is less expensive than
STP.
• Because most buildings are already wired with UTP, many transmission standards are
adapted to use it, to avoid costly rewiring with an alternative cable type.

Comparison of twisted pair cables:

2. Co-axial cable:-

The coaxial cable is a better communication method as it requires a low cost.

• It consist of two concentric conductors separated by a dielectric material.

• The external conductor is metallic and used for the purpose of shielding.
• Shielding protects the wire from electromagnetic interference.
• A plastic jacket which is cover of cable provides protection and insulation.
• Coaxial cable used in telephone network, cable television system, Ethernet LAN
because of large bandwidth and high noise immunity.

The names “coax” comes from its two conductor construction in which the conductors
run concentrically with each othe along axis of the cable.

It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a separate
insulated protection cover. Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial
cables. Coaxial cable has a copper core (the inner conductor) with an outer cylindrical
shell for insulation. The outer shield, just under the shell, is the second conductor.
Because they have additional shielding provided by their multiple layers of material,
coaxial cables are less prone to interference and errors than basic low-cost twisted-pair
wires. Coaxial cables cost about three times as much as twisted-pair wires but offer few
additional benefits other than better shielding.

It is used to transmit both analog and digital signals.

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Inner Conductor:- At the heart of coaxial cable is a inner conductor ,constructed of either pure
copper or copper coated steel or aluminum ,the inner conductor is responsible for transmating
the cable’s signal.

Insulator :- the dielectric insulator’s purpose is two-fold ;first ,it acts as an insulator between the
center conductor and the outer braided/foil shielding . second ,it helps physically hold the center
conductor in the center of the cable .

This is important ,as signal loss can occur if the center conductor strays too close to the outer
area of the cable .

Outer conductor (shield):- It protects the signal from EMI interference. Electromagnetic
interference is often caused by heavy power lines, cell phone signals.

Insulating Sheath (Outer jacket) :- it is generally made out of flexible PVC and serves primarily
to hod the cable together and protect it from the elements .

Characteristics of co-axial cables:-

• Large bandwidth and low data loss

• Excellent noise immunity
• Good resistance to electrical interference
• Less expensive than fiber optics cable but more expensive than twisted pair

Advantages:

• Excellent noise immunity due to shielding

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• Large bandwidth
• Data losses are small
• High data transfer rate
• Less attenuation
• Easy to install

Disadvantages:

• Expensive than TP cable

• BNC connectors are required to be used for connections

Applications:-
• Analog telephone network
• Digital telephone network
• Ethernet LAN
• Cable TV
• Digital Transmission
• Analog and digital transmission

3. Fiber Optic cable:

It consists of an inner of an inner glass core surrounded by a glass cladding which has a lower
refractive index and protective covering

It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The core is
surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used for transmission
of large volumes of data.

• It consists of an inner of an inner glass core surrounded by a glass cladding

• It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic.
• The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding.
• It is used for transmission of large volumes of data.
• It consist of an inner glass core surrounded by a glass cladding which has a lower refractive
index.
• Digital signals are transmitted in the form of intensity, modulated light signal which is
trapped in the glass core.
• Light is launched into fiber using a light source such as LED or laser.
• The optic fiber cables are costlier than other two types but they have many advantages
over other two types.

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Fig: Optical Fiber Cable

Characteristics of Optical fiber

1. High bandwidth (100 mbps to 2 gbps)

2. Light has much higher frequency than electricity.
3. Number of nodes support does not depend on its length.
4. Lower attenuation
5. Can carry signals to longer distance without amplifiers and repeaters.
6. Not affected by EMI
7. Cost is high compared to other 2 types.
8. Installation of fiber optic cable is difficult and tedious.

Advantages:

• Increased capacity and bandwidth

• Wide Bandwidth –
• Low losses- Less signal attenuation over long distance
• Immune to cable cross talk:- it is non-conductors of electricity hence they do not produce
magnetic field. It is immune to cross talk between cables caused by magnetic induction.
• Light weight:- it is made of silica glass or plastic which is much lighter than copper and
aluminum cables.
• Small size :- the diameter of fiber is much smaller compared to other cables, therefore
fiber cable is small in size ,require less storage space.
• Long distance transmission – bcz less attenuation transmission at a longer distance is
possible.
• Less signal attenuation or Low losses

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Disadvantages:

• Difficult to install and maintain-

• High cost-the initial installation or setting up cost is very high compared to all other
system. Repairing and installation cost is high

Uses of fiber optic cables

• Medical
Used as light guides, imaging tools and also as lasers for surgeries
• Defense/Government
Used as hydrophones for seismic and SONAR uses, as wiring in aircraft, submarines and
other vehicles and also for field networking
• Data Storage
Used for data transmission
• Telecommunications
Fiber is laid and used for transmitting and receiving purposes
• Networking
Used to connect users and servers in a variety of network settings and help increase the
speed and accuracy of data transmission
• Industrial/Commercial
Used for imaging in hard to reach areas, as wiring where EMI is an issue, as sensory
devices to make temperature, pressure and other measurements, and as wiring in
automobiles and in industrial settings
• Broadcast/CATV
Broadcast/cable companies are using fiber optic cables for wiring CATV, HDTV, internet,
video on-demand and other applications

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Difference between cables –

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2.2 UnGuided Transmission

o An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using
any physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.

o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy
can flow easily.

Types of Unguided Media

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Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:

1.Radio wave
2.Micro wave
3. Infrared signal

Radio waves
o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the
directions of free space.

o Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the
directions.

o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 Ghz.

o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned,
i.e., the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving
antenna.

o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

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Applications Of Radio waves:

o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many
receivers.

o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.

Advantages Of Radio transmission:

o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular
phones.

o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.

o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

Microwaves

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Terrestrial Microwave Transmission

o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused

beam of a radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna
to another.

o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be

aligned, i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focused.

o In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another
antenna which is km away.

o It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the
towers are the direct sight of each other.

Characteristics of Microwave:

o Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6

GHz to 21-23 GHz.

o Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.

o Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.

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o Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer

distance.

o Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental

conditions and antenna size.

Advantages Of Microwave:

o Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.

o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation
of cables.

o Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the

installation of cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.

o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.

Satellite Microwave Communication

o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.

o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility

than cable and fibre optic systems.

o We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite

communication.

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Data Communication and Computer Network (22414) UNIT 2

How Does Satellite work?

The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it
amplifies the signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.

Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial

microwave.

o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the
centre of the coverage area.

o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication

applications.

o It is easy to install.

o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV

signal broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.

Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.

o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it

remains in orbit.

o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch
of the satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.

Infrared
o An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over
short ranges.

o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.

o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two cell
phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell phone
resides in the same closed area.

Characteristics Of Infrared:

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Data Communication and Computer Network (22414) UNIT 2

o It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.

o Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared

communication in one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.

o An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.

o Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays
will interfere with the infrared waves.

2.4 Multiplexing:
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a
single medium. The process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing
and hardware used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.

Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n

input lines to generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n
input lines and one output line.

Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available

at the receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one input
and n outputs). Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing follows the one-to-many
approach.

Why Multiplexing?
o The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The
medium can only have one signal at a time.

o If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be
divided in such a way that each signal is given some portion of the available
bandwidth. For example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of medium is100
units, then the 10 unit is shared by each signal.

o When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of

collision. Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.

o Transmission services are very expensive.

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History of Multiplexing
o Multiplexing technique is widely used in telecommunications in which several
telephone calls are carried through a single wire.

o Multiplexing originated in telegraphy in the early 1870s and is now widely used
in communication.

o George Owen Squier developed the telephone carrier multiplexing in 1910.

Concept of Multiplexing

o The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer
combines the signals to form a composite signal.

o The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer

separates a signal to component signals and transfers them to their respective
destinations.

Advantages of Multiplexing:
o More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.

o The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.

Multiplexing Techniques
Multiplexing techniques can be classified as:

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1. Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)

o It is an analog technique.

o Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available

bandwidth of a single transmission medium is subdivided into several channels.

o In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into several

frequency channels, and each frequency channel is given to different devices.
Device 1 has a frequency channel of range from 1 to 5.

o The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation
techniques, and they are combined by a multiplexer to form a composite signal.

o The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into different
frequency channels and allocate them to different devices.

o Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into frequency
bands and then combined to form a composite signal.

o The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known as sub-
carriers. They are represented as f1,f2..fn.

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Data Communication and Computer Network (22414) UNIT 2

o FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.

Advantages of FDM:

o FDM is used for analog signals.

o FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.

o A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.

o It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.

Disadvantages of FDM:

o FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.

o It suffers the problem of crosstalk.

o A Large number of modulators are required.

o It requires a high bandwidth channel.

Applications of FDM:

o FDM is commonly used in TV networks.

o It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different

frequencies, and they are multiplexed to form a composite signal. The
multiplexed signal is transmitted in the air.

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Data Communication and Computer Network (22414) UNIT 2

2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

o Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals
are transmitted through the fiber optic cable.

o WDM is used on fiber optics to increase the capacity of a single fiber.

o It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fiber optic cable.

o It is an analog multiplexing technique.

o Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light
with the help of multiplexer.

o At the receiving end, de-multiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to

their respective destinations.

o Multiplexing and De-multiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.

o Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various optical signals
to form a composite signal, and the composite signal is transmitted through a
fiber optical cable.

o Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., de-multiplexing the signal.

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Data Communication and Computer Network (22414) UNIT 2

3.Time Division Multiplexing

o It is a digital technique.

o In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same

time with different frequency, but in case of Time Division Multiplexing
technique, all signals operate at the same frequency with different time.

o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the

channel is distributed among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated
with different time interval known as a Time slot at which data is to be
transmitted by the sender.

o A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.

o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously

rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.

o In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a cycle
of time slots in which each frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each
user.

o It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to
multiplex digital signals.

There are two types of TDM:

o Synchronous TDM

o Asynchronous TDM

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Data Communication and Computer Network (22414) UNIT 2

Synchronous TDM
o A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is pre assigned to every
device.

o In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact
that the device contains the data or not.

o If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.

o In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are
organized in the form of frames. If a device does not have data for a particular
time slot, then the empty slot will be transmitted.

o The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing,
and SONET multiplexing.

o If there are n devices, then there are n slots.

cc

Concept of Synchronous TDM

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Data Communication and Computer Network (22414) UNIT 2

In the above figure, the Synchronous TDM technique is implemented. Each device is
allocated with some time slot. The time slots are transmitted irrespective of whether
the sender has data to send or not.

Disadvantages of Synchronous TDM:

o The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots are also
transmitted which is having no data. In the above figure, the first frame is
completely filled, but in the last two frames, some slots are empty. Therefore,
we can say that the capacity of the channel is not utilized efficiently.

o The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the total speed of
the input lines. An alternative approach to the Synchronous TDM is
Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing.

Asynchronous TDM
o An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.

o An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in the
case of Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to only those devices which
have the data to send. Therefore, we can say that Asynchronous Time Division
multiplexor transmits only the data from active workstations.

o An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to the

devices.

o In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater than the
capacity of the channel.

o Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams and
creates a frame that contains only data with no empty slots.

o In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that identifies the
source of the data.

o The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that many
slots in Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM, slots are
fully utilized. This leads to the smaller transmission time and efficient utilization
of the capacity of the channel.

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Data Communication and Computer Network (22414) UNIT 2

o In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n time slots.
In Asynchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are m time
slots where m is less than n (m<n).

o The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of the number
of input lines.

Concept Of Asynchronous TDM

In the above diagram, there are 4 devices, but only two devices are sending the data,
i.e., A and C. Therefore, the data of A and C are only transmitted through the
transmission line.

Frame of above diagram can be represented as:

The above figure shows that the data part contains the address to determine the source
of the data.

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Data Communication and Computer Network (22414) UNIT 2

2.5 Switching
o When a user accesses the internet or another computer network outside their
immediate location, messages are sent through the network of transmission
media. This technique of transferring the information from one computer
network to another network is known as switching.

o Switching in a computer network is achieved by using switches. A switch is a

small hardware device which is used to join multiple computers together with
one local area network (LAN).

o Network switches operate at layer 2 (Data link layer) in the OSI model.

o Switching is transparent to the user and does not require any configuration in
the home network.

o Switches are used to forward the packets based on MAC addresses.

o A Switch is used to transfer the data only to the device that has been addressed.
It verifies the destination address to route the packet appropriately.

o It is operated in full duplex mode.

o Packet collision is minimum as it directly communicates between source and

destination.

o It does not broadcast the message as it works with limited bandwidth.

Switching techniques
In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The switching
technique will decide the best route for data transmission.

Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one

communication.

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Data Communication and Computer Network (22414) UNIT 2

Classification Of Switching Techniques

Circuit Switching
o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path
between sender and receiver.

o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the
dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.

o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.

o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.

o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data,
voice, video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back
the acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After
receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.

o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice

transmission.

o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

o Circuit establishment

o Data transfer

o Circuit Disconnect

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Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:

o Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of
data transmission.

o It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no

data can be transmitted.

o It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is

required for each connection.

o It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is

transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.

o In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be

transferred even if the channel is free.

Message Switching
o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as
a complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded.

o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path

between the sender and receiver.

o The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching

provides a dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate
nodes based on the information available in the message.

o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the
most efficient routes.

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o Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next
node. This type of network is known as store and forward network.

o Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Message Switching

o Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the
efficiency of using available bandwidth.

o Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in

the nodes.

o Message priority can be used to manage the network.

o The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore,
it supports the data of unlimited size.

Disadvantages Of Message Switching

o The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them
to store the messages until the message is forwarded.

o The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by
the message switching technique.

Packet Switching
o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in
one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.

o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a
unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.

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o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number.

o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.

o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.

o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend
the message.

o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment

message will be sent.

Approaches Of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is

considered as an independent entity. Each packet contains the information about
the destination and switch uses this information to forward the packet to the
correct destination.

o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.

o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.

o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.

o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

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Virtual Circuit Switching

o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.

o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before

the messages are sent.

o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection
between sender and receiver.

o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.

Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching through a diagram:

o In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1 and 2
are the nodes.

o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection between
the sender and receiver.

o When a route is established, data will be transferred.

o After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the receiver that

the message has been received.

o If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the
termination.

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Differences b/w Datagram approach and Virtual Circuit

approach
Datagram approach Virtual Circuit approach

Node takes routing decisions to forward the Node does not take any routing decision.
packets.

Congestion cannot occur as all the packets Congestion can occur when the node is busy,
travel in different directions. and it does not allow other packets to pass
through.

It is more flexible as all the packets are It is not very flexible.

treated as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Packet Switching:

o Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require

massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some
extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet switching technique is a cost-
effective technique.

o Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that
the Packet Switching technique provides reliable communication.

o Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any

established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use the same
communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of available bandwidth
very efficiently.

Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:

o Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that

require low delay and high-quality services.

o The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires
high implementation cost.

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o If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost

packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor
recovered.

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 UNIT:3

Errors Detection, Correction and Wireless Communication

[12 Marks]
________________________________________________________

Contents:

3.1 Types of Errors: Single Bit Error, Burst Error, Redundancy

3.2 Error Detection: Logitudinal Redundancy Check(LRC),Vertical Redundancy Check(VRC), Cyclic
Redundancy Check(CRC) Error Correction: Forword Error Correction.
3.3 IEEE Standards:802.1,802.2, IEEE Standards 802.3,802.4,802.5,
3.4 Wireless LANs: 802.11 Architecture, MAC Sublayer, Addressing Mechanism
3.5 Bluetooth Architecture:-Piconet,Scatternet, Bluetooth Architecture:-Scatternet,
3.6 Mobile generations:1G,2G,3G,4G and 5G.

Course Outcome:
Analyze the transmission errors with respect to IEEE standards

References:
a. www.nptelvideos.in/2012/11/data-communication.html
b.http://www.myreadingroom.co.in/notes-and-studymaterial/68-den/750-analog-to-analog-conversion-
techniques.html
c. http://www.tutorial reports.com/wireless/wlanwifi/wifi_architecture.php
d. http://standards.ieee.org/about/get/802/802.11.html
e. www.tutorialspoint.com/data_communication_computer_network/
f. http://www.studytonight.com/computer-networks/overview-of-computer-networks

Mrs. S.S.kadam 1 DCC (22414)

Introduction:
We know that, it is virtually impossible to send any signal, analog or digital, over a distance
without any distortion even in the most perfect condition. This is basically due to various impairments
that can occur during the process of transmission as a result of an imperfect medium and/or
environment. These errors can be classified into three main categories as given below:

➢ Delay Distortion
➢ Attenuation
➢ Noise

In the chapter we will study various errors that can take place during data transmission, and see
how they can be trapped and corrected

3.1 Error Classification:--

3.1.1 Delay Distortion

Delay distortion is caused because the signal of varying frequencies travels at different
speeds along the medium. We know that any complex signal can be decomposed into different
sinusoidal signals of different frequencies resulting in a frequency bandwidth for every signal. One
property of signal propagation is that the speed of travel of frequency is the highest at the center of
this bandwidth, and lower at the both ends. Therefore at the receiving end, signals with different
frequencies in a given bandwidth will arrive at different times. If the signal received is measured at
a specific time, they will not measure up to the original signal resulting in its misinterpretation

3.1.2 Attenuation

Attenuation is another form of distortion.

In this case as a signal travels through any medium,

Its strength decreases, as shown in fig 3.1 Strength

Just the way our voice becomes weak over a Distances

distance and loses its contents beyond a certain distance. Fig 3.1 Attenuation

Attenuation is very small at short distance. The original signal therefore can be recognized as such
without too much of distortion. Attenuation however increases with distance. This is because some
of the signal energy is absorbed by the medium. Attenuation is also higher at higher
frequencies.Techniques are available to equalize the attenuation for a band of frequencies over a
medium. For telephone lines, this is achieved by using loading coils that change the electrical
properties of the wire to smooth out the effects of attenuation. However it cannot be done away
with. One can use amplifiers to boost the signal, but the amplifier boosts not just the signal, but also
the accompanying noise.
Mrs. S.S.kadam 2 DCC (22414)
3.1.3 Noise

Noise is yet another component that poses a problem in receiving the signal accurately. We
know that a signal travels as an electromagnetic signal through any medium. Electromagnetic energy
that gets inserted somewhere during transmission is called noise. Apart from distortion and
attenuation, noise is one of the major limiting factors in the performance of any communication
system.

In conclusion a signal can get changed over a distance leading to the misinterpretation of the signal
(0 to 1 and vice versa). This can be very dangerous in many situations.

Types of Error:
If the signal is carrying binary data there can be two types of errors: Single-Bit errors and burst
errors. This is shown in fig 3.2.In a single-bit error a bit value of 0 changes to 1 or vice versa.In a
burst error, multiple bits of a binary value are changed

Transmission Error

Single-Bit Error Burst Error

Fig 3.2 Types of transmission Error

As we mentioned in a single-bit errors, a single bit of the data unit changes. Thus effectively, either
a 0 bit changes to 1, or a 1 bit changes to 0. Single-bit errors are more likely in the case of parallel
transmission because it is possible that one of the eight wires carrying the bits has become noisy
resultinginto corruption of a single bit for each byte. This can happen in the case of a parallel
transmission between the CPU and memory inside a computer.

In case of serial transmission the duration of noise is usually longer than that of a single bit. Hence the
chances of corrupting only a single bit are less. In contrast a burst changes at least two bits during
data transmission because of errors. Note that burst errors can change any two or more bits in a
transmission. These bits need not necessarily be adjacent bits. Burst errors are more likely in serial
transmission, because the duration of noise is longer, which causes multiple bits to be corrupted

Mrs. S.S.kadam 3 DCC (22414)

3.2 Error Detection: ----
There are a number of techniques used for transmission error detection and correction. We
shall examine the most common techniques used for this purpose.

3.2.1 Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC) or Parity Check:---

The Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC), also known as parity check, is quite simple. It is the
least expensive technique as well as in this method, the sender appends a single additional bit, called
the parity bit, to the message before transmission it. There are two schemes in this odd parity and
even parity. In the odd parity scheme, given some bits, an additional parity bit is addedin such a
way that the number of 1s in the bit inclusive of the parity bit is odd. In the even parity scheme, the
parity bit is added such that the number of 1s inclusive of the parity bit is even.

For example consider a message string 1100011 that needs to be transmitted. Let us assume the
even parity scheme. The following will now happen.

1) The sender examines this message string and notes that the number of bits containing a value 1
in this message string is 4. Therefore it adds an extra 0 to the end of this message. This extra bit
is called parity bit. This is done by the hardware itself, which is why it is very fast.
2) The sender sends the original bits 1100011 and the additional parity bit 0 together to the receiver.
3) The receiver separates the parity bit from the original bits and it also examines the original bits.
Its sees the original bits as 1100011, and notes that the number of 1s in the message is four i.e.
even.
4) The receiver now computes the parity bit again and compares this computed parity bit with the
0 parity bit received from the sender, it notes that are equal and accepts the bit string as correct.
This is also done by the hardware itself. The process shown in the fig 3.3

In contrast, if the original message was 1010100 the number of 1s in the message would have been
three (old), and therefore, the parity bit would contain a 1.
There is one problem with this scheme. This scheme can only catch a single bit error. If two bits
reverse, this scheme will fail. For instance, if the first two bits in the bit stream shown in fig 3.3
change, we will get a stream 0000011, yielding a parity bit of 0 again, fooling us!

Mrs. S.S.kadam 4 DCC (22414)

 Sender Receiver Compare

1100011 1100011
Original bit string parity bit Original bit string parity bit Recomputed
parity bit
Recomputed the parity
bit and compares it with
Computes and appends
the one received. A
the parity bit
mismatch indicates
error

Fig 3.3 Even Parity VRC Check

Clearly, parity checking can detect single bit errors. However if multiple bits of a message are
changed due to an error (burst), parity checking would not work.Better schemes are required to trap
burst errors.

3.2.2 Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC):

A block of bits is organized in the form of a list (as rows) in the Longitudinal Redundancy Check
(LRC). Here, for instance, if we want to send 32 bits, we arrange them into a list of four rows. Then
the parity bit for each column is calculated and a new row of eight bits is created. These become the
parity bits for the whole block. An example of LRC is shown in fug 3.4.

Original Data

11100100 11011101 00111001 00101001

11100100 Original data

11011101 arranged as
00111001 rows of a list
00101001

00101001 LRC (using every parity)

11100100 11011101 00111001 00101001 00101001

Original data & LRC

Fig 3.4 Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)

Mrs. S.S.kadam 5 DCC (22414)

 3.2.3 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):---
A mathematical algorithm is used on the data block to be sent to arrive at the Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC) a small block of bits which are append to the data block and sent by the
sender. At the destination, the receiver separate the data block, recomputes the CRC using the same
algorithm and matches the received CRC with the computed CRC. A mismatch indicates an error. It
is possible to change a few specific bits in specific position in the data block to get the same CRC
,thus fooling us ,but the probability of that is very rare thus making this method the sturdiest and the
most widely used. At a broad level, the process is shown in fig 3.5

Mathematical
Sender process on the data
to calculate the CRC
Data CRC

(a) Sender Calculate CRC

Sender Receiver
Data CRC
(b) Sender sends data and CRC together as a single frame to the receiver

Same Mathematical
Receiver process on the data
to calculate the CRC
Data CRC

(c) Receiver computes its own CRC using the same formula as used by the sender on the data
received by the receiver

Received B Computed
Are these two
Yes ok Accept data as correct
Receiver CRCs the same?

No
The transmission has some errors. Retransmission is required
(d) if the two CRCs match the receiver accepts the transmission, else rejects it
Fig 3.5 The Logical Process of CRC Computation

Mrs. S.S.kadam 6 DCC (22414)

The main feature of CRC is as follows:

1) CRC is a very sturdy and better error detection method compared to others. Why? As in the
case of VRC, if two adjacent bits change will the CRC be the same, fooling us? The answer is no. The
algorithm to compute the CRC is so chosen that given the length of the data block in bits there are
only a few and finite number of permutations and combinations for which the CRC is the same. The
possibilities are also normally such that you have to inverse a number of specific and distant bits(e.g.
1, 43, and 91) to get the same CRC (which can fool us). As we know, normally, errors occurs in a
burst, causing many consecutive bits and rarely will exactly the bits required to get the same CRC
change.

2) CRC is normally implemented in hardware rather than in software. This makes this
operation very fast, though a little more expansive. Depending on the method of CRC used,the
corresponding type of modem has to be used. For computing the CRC, two simple hardware
components are used an XOR gate and a shift register using a combination of these two, we can
calculate the CRC for any data.

3) The data to be transmitted is divided into a number of blocks consisting of several bits each.
After this, a block is treated as a mammoth string of 1s and 0s in a binary number. It is then divided
by a prime number and the remainder is treated as CRC. This is the normal method.

3.3 IEEE Standards:

A set of network standards developed by the IEEE they include:
• IEEE 802.1: Standards related to network management.
• IEEE 802.2: General standard for the data link layer in the OSI Reference Model. The IEEE
divides this layer into two sublayers -- the logical link control (LLC) layer and the media access
control (MAC) layer. The MAC layer varies for different network types and is defined by
standards IEEE 802.3 through IEEE 802.5.
• IEEE 802.3: Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use CSMA/CD. This is the basis of
the Ethernet standard.
• EEE 802.4: Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use a token passing mechanism
(token bus networks).
• IEEE 802.5: Defines the MAC layer for token-ring networks.
• IEEE 802.6: Standard for Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs).
• IEEE 802.11 Wireless Network Standards: 802.11 is the collection of standards setup for
wireless networking.

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3.4 Wireless LAN

Wireless communication is one of the fastest growing technologies. The demand for connecting
devices without cable is increasing everywhere. Wireless LANs are found on college campuses, office
buildings, and public areas. At home, a wireless LAN can connect roaming devices to the Internet.

IEEE 802.11

IEEE has defined the specification for a wireless LAN, called IEEE 802.11, which covers the
physical and data link layers. But before discussing these layers, we describe the architecture of the
protocol in general.

Architecture

The standard defines two kinds of services: the basic service set (BSS) and the extended
service set (ESS).

Basic Service Set

IEEE 802.11 defines the basic service set (BSS) as the building block of a wireless LAN. A basic service
set is made of stationary or mobile wireless stations and a possible central base station, known as
the access point (AP). Figure 3.6 shows two sets in this standard.

The BSS without an AP is a stand-alone network and cannot send data to other BSSs. It is what is
called an ad hoc architecture. In this architecture, stations can form a network without the need of
an AP; they can locate each other and agree to be part of a BSS. A BSS with an AP is sometimes
referred to as an infrastructure network.

Figure 3.6 BSSs

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Extended Service Set

An extended service set (ESS) is made up of two or more BSSs with APs. In this case, the BSSs
are connected through a distribution system, which is usually a wired LAN. The distribution system
connects the APs in the BSSs. IEEE 802.11 does not restrict the distribution system; it can be any IEEE
LAN such as an Ethernet. Note that the extended service set uses two types of stations: mobile and
stationary. The mobile stations are normal stations inside a BSS. The stationary stations are AP
stations that are part of a wired LAN. Figure 3.7 shows an ESS.

Figure 3.7 ESS

When BSSs are connected, we have what is called an infrastructure network. In this network, the
stations within reach of one another can communicate without the use of an AP. However,
communication between two stations in two different BSSs usually occurs via two APs. The idea is
similar to communication in a cellular network if we consider each BSS to be a cell and each AP to be
a base station. Note that a mobile station can belong to more than one BSS at the same time.

Station Types

IEEE 802.11 defines three types of stations based on their mobility in a wireless LAN:
no-transition, BSS-transition, and ESS-transition.

No-Transition Mobility A station with no-transition mobility is either stationary (not moving) or
moving only inside a BSS.

BSS-Transition Mobility A station with BSS-transition mobility can move from one BSS to another,
but the movement is confined inside one ESS.

ESS-Transition Mobility A station with ESS-transition mobility can move from one ESS to another.
However, IEEE 802.11 does not guarantee that communication is continuous during the move.

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3.5 BLUETOOTH

Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of different functions

such as telephones, notebooks, computers (desktop and laptop), cameras, printers, coffee makers,
and so on, A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network, which means that the network is formed
spontaneously; the devices, sometimes called gadgets, find each other and make a network called
piconet. A Bluetooth LAN can even be connected to the Internet if one of the gadgets has this
capability. A Bluetooth LAN, by nature, cannot be large. If there are many gadgets that try to connect,
there is chaos.

Bluetooth technology has several applications. Peripheral devices of a computer can

communicate with the computer through this technology (wireless mouse or keyboard).Monitoring
devices can communicate with sensor devices in a small health care center. Home Security devices
can use this technology to connect different sensors to the main security controller. Conference
attendees can synchronize their palmtop computers at a conference.

Bluetooth was originally started as a project by the Ericsson Company. It is named for Harald
Blaatand, the king of Denmark (940-981) who united Denmark and Norway. Blaatand translates to
Bluetooth in English.

Today, Bluetooth technology is the implementation of a protocol defined by the IEEE 802.15
standard. The standard defines a wireless personal- area network (PAN) operable in an area the size
of a room or a hall.

Architecture

Bluetooth defines two types of networks: piconets and scatternet.

Piconets

A Bluetooth network is called a piconet, or a small net. A piconet can have up to eight stations, one
of which is called the master; the rest are called slaves. All the slave stations synchronize their clocks
and hopping sequence with the master slave. Note that a piconet can have only one master station.
The communication between the master and the slaves can be one-to-one or one-to-many.Figure
3.8 shows a piconet.

As indicated earlier, a Bluetooth device can be either a master or a slave and any of the devices
within a piconet can be the master. However, the device that establishes the piconet automatically
becomes the master and all the other devices then become slaves. There can be upto seven active
slave(AS) devices active at a time within a single piconet. In addition, as shown in Figure 3.8 (a), a
device may be a standby slave (SS) or a parked slave (PS). Devices in the standby mode cannot
participate in the piconet. A parked slave, however, cannot actively participate in the piconet but is
known by the master and can be reactivated by it. Typically, these are devices that the master has
switched to a low power state to save the power in the batteries of the device.

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 All parked slaves have an 8-bit parked member address (PMA) and there can be up to 255
such devices. If there are already seven active slaves, then a parked slave must wait until one of the
active slaves switches to the parked mode before it can become active. All active slaves have a 3-bit
active member address (AMA) and this is used by the master both to send blocks, of data - referred
to as packets in the standard - to a specific slave and to identify the slave that has sent a response
packet. All communications are via the master and slave-to-slave communications are prohibited.

To utilize the 80 MHz of bandwidth in an efficient way, multiple piconets can be present in a
room/office at the same time. In addition, multiple piconets can be interconnected together to
provide a wider area of coverage. The resulting configuration is then known as a scatternet and a
simple example is shown in Figure 3.8(b).

As we can see, in this example one of the active slave devices is located in the region of the two
overlapping piconets. However, since each piconet has a different pseudo-random hopping
sequence, both piconets can operate concurrently. Hence the slave can become a member ofeither
piconet but not both at the same time. To change its membership, the slave first informs its current
master that it will be unavailable for a specified time. It then proceeds to synchronize, with the
master of the other piconet in the described way

In practice, creating more piconets in the same area leads to a degradation in the performance of
each piconet. This is because the probability of the same carrier frequency is being used at the same
time increases so resulting in the respective bit in the bit stream being corrupted.

Figure 3.8 Bluetooth configurations and terminology:

(a)Single piconet; (b) scatternet

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3.6 Mobile Generation:
The aim of each different generation development is to improve the speed and capability of the wireless
connection. It is only data that is carried by the later generations though, as voice is still mostly carried using
2G technology.

Cellular communication is progressing through different generations. Initially we had first generation (1G),
then second generation (2G). This developed into third generation (3G) and now that has advanced into
fourth generation (4G) and fifth generation (5G). All of the names refer to the generation of wireless
communications that the technology has gone through.

1G ‐ First Generation
This was the first generation of cell phone technology. The very first generation of commercial cellular
network was introduced in the late 70's with fully implemented standards being established throughout the
80's.

1G is an analog technology and the phones generally had poor battery life and voice quality was large
without much security, and would sometimes experience dropped calls. These are the analog
telecommunications standards that were introduced in the 1980s and continued until being replaced by 2G
digital telecommunications. The maximum speed of 1G is 2.4 Kbps.

2G ‐ Second Generation
Cell phones received their first major upgrade when they went from 1G to 2G. The main difference between
the two mobile telephone systems (1G and 2G), is that the radio signals used by 1G network are analog,
while 2G networks are digital. Main motive of this generation was to provide secure and reliable
communication channel. It implemented the concept of CDMA and GSM. Provided small data service like
sms and mms. Second generation 2G cellular telecom networks were commercially launched in 1991.

During 2G Cellular phones are used for data also along with voice. The advance in technology from 1G to
2G introduced many of the fundamental services that we still use today, such as

• SMS
• internal roaming
• conference calls
• call hold and
• billing based on services e.g. charges based on long distance calls and real time billing.

The max speed of 2G with General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is 50 Kbps or 1 Mbps with Enhanced Data
Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE).

3G ‐ Third Generation
This generation set the standards for most of the wireless technology we have come to know and love. Web
browsing, email, video downloading, picture sharing and other smartphone technology were introduced in
the third generation. Introduced commercially in 2001, the goals set out for third generation mobile
communication were to facilitate greater voice and data capacity, support a wider range of applications, and
increase data transmission at a lower cost.

3G has Multimedia services support along with streaming are more popular. In 3G, Universal access and
portability across different device types are made possible (Telephones, PDA's, etc.). 3G increased the
efficiency of frequency spectrum by improving how audio is compressed during a call, so more
simultaneous calls can happen in the same frequency range. 3G technology is capable of allowing internet
speeds that can reach 7 Mbps, but this speed is unrealistic and is often approximately 2 to 3 Mbps.
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 People felt that the speeds reached by 3G technology were better, but that speed and access could still be
improved regarding the internet and mobile devices. This encouraged the development of 4G technology,
the 4th generation of mobile communication standard.

4G ‐ Fourth Generation
4G is a very different technology as compared to 3G and was made possible practically only because of the
advancements in the technology in the last 10 years. Its purpose is to provide high speed, high quality and
high capacity to users while improving security and lower the cost of voice and data services, multimedia
and internet over IP. Potential and current applications include;

• mobile web access

• IP telephony
• gaming services
• high‐definition mobile TV
• video conferencing
• 3D television, and
• cloud computing

The development of 4G technology provided two main benefits, increased upload and download speeds and
reduced latency. 4G technology is approximately five times (and sometimes more) faster than 3G technology.
This meant that the speed at which files could be downloaded was significantly increased. This increase in
speed meant that files could be downloaded in a much faster time. Typically, with 3G technology, a 2GB file
could take approximately 30 minutes to download. However, with 4G technology that download time could
be potentially cut to approximately 3–4 minutes. This significantly improved the experience of mobile devices
and internet usage for the user.

5G ‐ Fifth Generation
5G is a generation currently under development, that's intended to improve on 4G. 5G promises significantly
faster data rates, higher connection density, much lower latency, among other improvements. Some of the
plans for 5G include device‐to‐device communication, better battery consumption, and improved overall
wireless coverage.

5G technology is set to dramatically affect the use of mobile internet. In order to provide 5G access there is
a major restructure occurring on parts of the radio network that is used to transmit data. This restructure is
reported to allow data to be transmitted approximately 100 times faster.

The development from 3G to 4G technology and further developments into 5G technology will enable a
number of advancements. These may include:

• greater speed in internet access

• faster loading speeds of applications, such as maps
• the ability to have multiple people in video conferencing calls
• more effective location services to allow for real‐time updates, such as traffic and weather
• the ability to stream high‐definition (HD).

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 DCC (22414) MRS. S.S.KADAM

UNIT: 4

Network Topologies and Network Devices

(10 Marks)
________________________________________________________
Contents:

Course Outcome:

4.1 Network Topologies: Introduction, Definition, Selection Criteria, Types Of Topology-

i) Bus, ii)Ring, iii)Star, Iv) Mesh v)Tree, vi) Hybrid

4.2 Network Connecting devices: Hub, Switch, Router, Repeater, Bridge, Gateway, Modem,
Wireless infrastructure Components

References:

a. www.nptelvideos.in/2012/11/data-communication.html

b.http://www.myreadingroom.co.in/notes-and-studymaterial/68-den/750-analog-to-analog-
conversion-techniques.html

c. http://www.tutorial reports.com/wireless/wlanwifi/wifi_architecture.php

d. http://standards.ieee.org/about/get/802/802.11.html

e. www.tutorialspoint.com/data_communication_computer_network/

f. http://www.studytonight.com/computer-networks/overview-of-computer-networks

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4.1 Network Topologies:

4.1.1 Introduction
Network Topology is a geographical representation of the relationship of all the links
connecting the devices.
Topology means a way of connecting the computers in LAN.
In LAN, various computers are connected to one another with the help of network topology.
There are two basic categories of network topologies:
i.Physical topology: The shape of the cabling layout used to link the devices is called the
physical topology of the network. This refers to the layout of cabling, the location of nodes and
the interconnections between the nodes and cabling.
The physical topology of a network is determined by the capabilities of the network access
devices and media, the level of control, and cost associated with cabling.
ii.Logical topology: The logical topology, in contrast, refers to how data is actually transferred
in a network. The logical topology, is the way that the data passes through the network from
one device to the next without regard for the physical interconnection of the devices.

4.1.2 Selection criteria

i.Size (number of nodes and their geographical distribution) of the system.
ii.Cost of the components and services required to implement the network.
iii.Management of network.
iv.Architecture of network.
v.Cable type.
vi.Expandability of the system (Future growth).
vii.The desired performance of the system.
viii.The desired reliability of the entire system.
2.Types of Network Topology

Depending on the manner of connecting the computers, we can have different network
topologies:

4.1.3 Types of topologies

i.Bus topology
ii.Ring topology
iii.Star topology
iv.Mesh topology
v.Tree topology
vi.Hybrid topology

1.Bus Topology:
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Bus topology is very simple and temporary. All computers are connected to central cable called
as bus. Bus acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.
All nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection
running between the device and the main cable. Tap is nothing but a connector that connects
the node to bus via drop line. When one computer sends a signal up the cable, all the computers
on the network receive the information, but one with the address that matches that one encoded
in the message accept the information while all the other reject the message.
Bus topology is also called as linear topology because the computers are connected in a straight
line.
Bus topology is passive topology network. Termination is an important issue in bus network.
The electrical signal from a transmitting computer is free to travel the entire length of the cable.

Without the termination, when the signal reaches the end of the wire, it bounces back and
travels back up the wire. When a signal echoes back and forth along an unterminated bus, it is
called ringing. The terminator absorbs the electrical energy and stops the reflections.
The speed of bus topology is slow because only one computer can send a message at a time. A
computer must wait until the bus is free before it can transmit. Bus topology is suitable for a
small network.
In this topology, signal travels along the backbone (bus). Some of its energy is transformed
into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it has to travel farther and farther. For
this reason, there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on the distance between
those taps.

Advantages:

i. Easy to implement and use.

ii.It is cheaper than other topologies because, it requires less cable to connect the computers
than others.
iii.If one node fails, others are not affected.
iv.Easy to install.
v.Suitable for temporary or small networks.
vi.Easy identification of cable faults.

Disadvantages
i.Only one can transmit at a time, hence communication becomes slightly slow.

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ii.If there is problem with the cable, the entire network breaks down.
iii.Proper termination is required.
iv.Limited cable length and number of stations.
v.Performance degrades as additional computers are added or on heavy traffic.
vi.It is suitable for temporary or small network (It works best with limited number of nodes).

2. Ring Topology

Fig 2.2: Ring Topology

In ring topology, each computer is connected to the next computer, with the last one connected
to the first. It means that, all nodes are connected to each other in such a way that they make a
closed loop.
Data travels around the network, in one direction. There is no termination because there is no
end to the ring.
Ring topology uses token passing concept. Short message called as token sending and
receiving data takes place with the help of Token. Token is passed around the ring until a
computer wishes to send information to another computer. Token contains a piece of
information which along with data is sent by the source computer.
This token then passes to the next node, which checks if the signal is intended for it. If yes, it
receives it and passes the empty token into the network, otherwise passes token along with the
data to next node. This process continues until the signal reaches its intended destination.
The nodes with token are only allowed to send data. Other nodes have to wait for an empty
token to reach them. This network is usually found in offices, schools and small buildings.
Ring topology is active network, because each computer retransmits what it receives from the
previous computer. In ring topology, data is transferred in a sequential manner bit by bit around
a ring. Then each repeater regenerates and retransmits each bit.
Repeater acts as the device attachment point. Data insertion, data reception and data removal,
all these functions are performed by the repeater. The failure of a single node can disturb
network operation. To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET or token
Ring technology.

Advantages:

i.This type of network topology is very organized. Each node gets to send the data when it
receives an empty token. This helps to reduces chances of collision.
ii.Requires less cable.

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iii.Less expensive.
iv.The ring topology works well where there is no central-site computer system.
v.Easy to identify the problem, even if the entire network shuts down.
vi.Suitable for small network.

Disadvantages
i.The failure of one machine will cause the entire network to fail.
ii.Only one machine can transmit on the network at a time.
iii.Traffic flow is only in one direction.
iv.Speed is very slow.
v.Adding/removing the computers, disturbs the network activity.

vi.It is difficult to troubleshoot.

3. Star Topology:

Fig 2.3: Star Topology

In star topology, each computer is connected to a central unit called hub. Each computer on a
star network communicates with a central hub that resends the message either to all the
computers or to the destination computer.
If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the hub (controller), which then
relays the data to the other connected device.
It means that, the data is transmitted in the form of electronic signal, the signal is transferred
from the PC to the HUB and then the hub is responsible for broadcasting the data.
Thus, the source computer sends the data to the hub. A hub broadcasts the data which is
received by all the computers except the source computer, then the destination address is
checked. If the address gets matched, then that PC accepts the data otherwise it rejects the data.
The hub in star network can be active or passive. An active hub generates the electrical signal
and sends it to all the computers connected to it. Active hub is also called as multiport repeater.
Active hub requires external power supply.

A passive hub is a wiring panel or punch down block which acts as a connection point. It does
not amplify or regenerate the signal. Passive hub does not require electrical power supply.

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All traffic that traverses the network passes through the central hub. The star topology is
considered the easiest topology to design and implement.
Star topology is an active network because it uses hub which can be of intelligent and passive
types. The intelligent hubs need external power supply, electronic components for regeneration
of signal as well as routing it to the required computer.
Star expansion is possible by placing another hub as shown in figure. This arrangement allows
several more computers or hubs to be connected to that hub.

Fig 2.4: Expansion of Star

Advantages
i. It is very easy to install, manage and reconfigure.
ii. Cabling cost is very less.
iii. Robustness: If one link fails, only that link is affected.
iv. Easy to add new computer to a star network without disturbing the rest of the network.

iv. Single computer failure does not necessarily bring down the whole star network.
v. Star topology eliminates traffic problem.
vi. It is fast as compared to ring topology.

Disadvantages
i. If central node (hub) goes down, then the entire network goes down.
ii. Cost of network is high, because of hub.
iii. Hubs are difficult to install.
iv. More expensive than bus topology.
Star topology degrades most gracefully in high network load situation. The reason is that with
increased load, there will be a large increase in the number of messages travelling on the
network. There would be a large number of collisions and delays possible for the bus and ring
topologies. Mesh is not suitable for large network.

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4. Mesh Topology

Mesh topology is a network where all the nodes are connected to each other and is a complete
network. It means that each device in mesh topology has a dedicated point-to-point link to
every other device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between two
devices it connects.

Fig 2.5: Mesh Topology

Every node not only sends its own signals but also relays data from other nodes. Mesh topology
is very expensive as there are many redundant connections, thus it is not mostly used in
computer networks. It does not have traffic congestion problem because dedicated links are
being used.
This topology is difficult and expensive, as there are a number of to have redundant connections
to every computer. If one network cable fails, the data always has an alternative path to get its
destination.

Full mesh topology

In full mesh topology, each component is connected to every other component.
The main advantage of mesh topology is that the network can be redirected to other nodes, if
one of the nodes goes down. Full mesh topology is used only for backbone networks.
In fully connected mesh topology, n(n – 1)/2 physical channels are required to link n devices.
Each device must have (n – 1) input/output port.
As shown in fig 2.5 nodes, will require 5(5 – 1)/2 = 10 cable or links and each node must have
(5 – 1) = 4 input/output port.
alternative present. So data transfer doesn’t get affected.
It provides privacy and security when every message travels along a dedicated line, only the
intended recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to
message.

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Advantages
i. The use of dedicated link guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load.
Thus, it eliminates traffic problems.
ii. Even if one of the computers fails, there is always an alternative present. So data transfer
doesn’t get affected.
iii. It provides privacy and security when every message travels along a dedicated line, only
the intended recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to
message.
iv.Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.
v.Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disturbing nodes.

Disadvantages
i.Requires more cable than the other LAN topologies (cabling cost is more).
ii.It is suitable for small network.
iii.Installation and reconnection are difficult.
iv.The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) is expensive.

5. Tree Topology

Fig2.6: Tree Topology

A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It is a variation of
a star-topology. It consists of groups of star configured workstations connected to a linear bus
backbone cable. This topology allows for the expansion of an existing network.
The signals that are being transmitted by the root node are received by all the nodes at the
same time. This increases the efficiency of the overall functioning of the network. The tree
network topology can be extended easily to function and there are no limitations to how big it
can be extended. Additional root nodes can be added, and they can be interconnected within
one single network.
Tree has a hierarchy of various hubs, like you have branches in a tree.
Tree Topology integrates the characteristics of Star and Bus Topology. Earlier we saw how in
Physical Star network Topology, computers (nodes) are connected by each other through
central hub. And we also saw in Bus Topology, work station devices are connected by the

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common cable called Bus. After understanding these two network configurations, we can
understand tree topology better. In Tree Topology, the number of Star networks is connected
using Bus. This main cable seems like a main stem of a tree, and other star networks as the
branches. It is also called Expanded Star Topology. Ethernet protocol is commonly used in this
type of topology. The diagram below will make it clear.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. It is an extension of Star and bus Topologies, so in networks where these topologies can't
be implemented individually for reasons related to scalability, tree topology is the best
alternative.
2. Expansion of Network is possible and easy.
3. Here, we divide the whole network into segments (star networks), which can be easily
managed and maintained.
4. Error detection and correction is easy.
5. Each segment is provided with dedicated point-to-point wiring to the central hub.
6. If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1.Because of its basic structure, tree topology, relies heavily on the main bus cable, if it
breaks whole network is crippled.
2. As more and more nodes and segments are added, the maintenance becomes difficult.
3. Scalability of the network depends on the type of cable used.

5. Hybrid Topology:

Fig 2.7: Hybrid Topology

Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies, in such a way that the
resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.).
For example a tree network connected to a tree network is still a tree network topology. A
hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic network topologies are
connected. Two common examples for Hybrid network are: star ring network and star bus
network

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Advantages of Hybrid Network Topology

1) Reliable: Unlike other networks, fault detection and troubleshooting is easy in this type of
topology. The part in which fault is detected can be isolated from the rest of network and
required corrective measures can be taken, WITHOUT affecting the functioning of rest of the
network.
2) Scalable: It’s easy to increase the size of network by adding new components, without
disturbing existing architecture.
3) Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed according to the requirements of the
organization and by optimizing the available resources. Special care can be given to nodes
where traffic is high as well as where chances of fault are high.
4) Effective: Hybrid topology is the combination of two or more topologies, so we can
design it in such a way that strengths of constituent topologies are maximized while there
weaknesses are neutralized. For example we saw Ring Topology has good data reliability
(achieved by use of tokens) and Star topology has high tolerance capability (as each node is
not directly connected to other but through central device), so these two can be used
effectively in hybrid star-ring topology.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1) Complexity of Design: One of the biggest drawbacks of hybrid topology is its design. Its
not easy to design this type of architecture and it’s a tough job for designers. Configuration and
installation process needs to be very efficient.
2) Costly Hub: The hubs used to connect two distinct networks, are very expensive. These
hubs are different from usual hubs as they need to be intelligent enough to work with different
architectures and should be function even if a part of network is down.
3) Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are usually larger in scale, they require a
lot of cables; cooling systems, sophisticate network devices, etc.

4.2 Network Control Devices:

In network, many computers are connected to one another or to the internet. For such
connections, we need to use the connecting devices. These connecting devices are also called
as network control devices. Network control devices can operate on different layers of the
internet model (OSI Reference model). Different network control devices are connector,
transceivers, hubs, switches, repeaters, bridges, routers, modem and gateways.

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1. Connector:
To connect different computers or devices, we need some transmission medium, such as cable
and to connect these cables between two computers we have to use connectors on both ends of
a cable.
The cables are of different types such as twisted pair cables, co-axial cables or fiber optic
cables. Connectors are totally dependent upon types of cables used in network. Connectors can
be distinguished according to their physical appearance and mating properties, such as jacks
and plugs (mate connectors) or sockets and ports (female connectors).

Examples of different types of connectors are:

• RS-232 and V-35 for serial interface.
• RI-45 and BNC connectors for Ethernet connectors.
• SC and ST connectors for fiber-optic cabling.

2. Network Interface Card (NIC)

A Network Interface Card (NIC) is also called as network adapter card. Any station (Each PC,
or workstation or printer) connected in a network has its own Network Interface Card (NIC)
and is used to connect a PC to a network.
The NIC fits inside the station and provides the station with a 6-byte physical address. It is
normally written in hexadecimal notation using a hyphen to separate bytes from each other.

For example, 08 – 03 – 4C– 5D – 02 – 2B

Network Interface Card is a major factor in determining the speed and performance of a
network. If comes in three basic varieties: 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32 bit. If we increase the number
of bits on NIC, the faster the NIC can transfer data to the network cable.

There are three common types of NICs:

i. Ethernet Cards
ii. Local talk connector
iii. Token Ring Cards

3. Repeater:

Fig: 2.8: Repeater

Repeater is also called as regenerator, an electronic device that regenerates a signal.

Repeater allows us to extend the physical length of a network. Repeater only operates at
physical layer of OSI model. Basically repeater is used to connect two segments of the same

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LAN. It does not connect two LAN or cannot connect two LAN’s of different protocols. As
the distance between two computers increases, it requires long cable. Thus, longer the cable,
the weaker is the signal. This weakening is called attenuation. Repeater installed on a link,
receives the signal before it becomes too weak or corrupted, regenerates original signal and
puts the refreshed copy back onto the link. Repeater is used to expand the boundaries of a Local
Area Network (LAN). Repeater is regenerator, not an amplifier. An amplifier cannot intend
signal and noise. It amplifies equally everything fed into it. Repeater forwards every frame, it
does not filter it.

Advantages
i. It can extend network.
ii. It regenerates desired information.
iii. It is less expensive for expanding network.

Disadvantages
i. It has no filtering capability.
ii. It does not support different network architectures.
iii. It can operate only at the physical layer.
iv. It cannot connect two LAN’s. It connects two segments of the same LAN.

Types of Repeaters
Types of repeaters are as follows:
i. Single port repeater: This repeater has one input and one output. One segment sends signal
to repeater, it boosts and passes to the next signal that is it operates with only two segments.
ii. Multi-port repeater: This repeater has one input and multiple output ports. One segment
sends signal and another connects to cable segments.
iii. Smart repeater: It is similar to a bridge in functionality. In smart repeater packet filtering
is done. It is a hybrid device.
iv. Optical repeater: The repeater which operates optical signal is called optical repeater.
Today multiport repeater is mostly used, and is called as hub.

4. Hub:

Fig 2.9: Hub

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Hubs are commonly used to connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When
a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can
see all packets.
Hub serves as a central connection for all of your network equipment and handles a data type
known as frames. Frames carry your data. When a frame is received, it is amplified and then
transmitted on to the port of the destination PC.
In a hub, a frame is passed along or "broadcast" to every one of its ports. It doesn't matter that
the frame is only destined for one port. The hub has no way of distinguishing which port a
frame should be sent to. Passing it along to every port ensures that it will reach its intended
destination. This places a lot of traffic on the network and can lead to poor network response
times

Types of Hub:

On the basis of its working methods, the Hubs can be divided into three types, given as:

• Active Hub
• Passive Hub
• Intelligent Hub
Active Hub: As its name suggests, Active Hub is a hub which can amplify or regenerate the
information signal. This type of bus has an advantage as it also amplifies the incoming signal
as well as forwards it to multiple devices. This Bus is also known as Multiport Repeater. It can
upgrade the properties if incoming signal before sending them to destination.
Passive Hub: Passive Hub works like a simple Bridge. It is used for just creating a connection
between various devices. It does not have the ability to amplify or regenerate any incoming
signal. It receives signal and then forward it to multiple devices.

Intelligent Hub: This is the third and last type of Bus. It can perform tasks of both Active and
Passive buses. Also, it can perform some other tasks like Bridging and routing. It increases the
speed and effectiveness of total network thus makes the performance of whole network fast
and efficient.

Applications of Hub:
Networking Hub is widely used networking connectivity device. It has many advantages over
other connectivity devices. Some Applications of Networking Hub are given below:

• Hubs are used to create small Home Networks.

• Hubs are used for monitoring the networks.
• Hubs are used in Organizations and Computer Labs for connectivity.
• It makes one device or peripheral available throughout the whole network.

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5. Bridge:

Fig 2.10: bridge

Network bridging is the action taken by network equipment to create an aggregate network
from either two or more communication, or two or more network segments. Bridging is distinct
from routing which allows the networks to communicate independently as separate networks.
Also, if one or more segments of the network are wireless, it is known as wireless bridging.
A network bridge is a network device that connects multiple network segments. In the OSI
model bridging acts in the first two layers, below the network layer.
There are four types of network-bridging technologies: simple bridging; multiport bridging;
learning, or transparent bridging; and source route bridging.

There are different types of bridges:

i. Simple bridge: The user has to enter the address manually in the table. Simple bridges are
the most primitive and least expensive type of bridge.
Whenever, a new station is added, the table must be modified. If station is removed, its address
must be deleted from the table. It links only two segments (LAN).

ii. Multiport bridge: It is used to connect more than two LANs.

iii. Transparent bridge: The Bridge builds its table of station address on its own as it performs
its bridge function, and it is also called learning bridge. Transparent bridge is invisible for the
devices on the network. It performs the function of blocking or forwarding data based on MAC
address. At the time of installation, table of transparent bridge is empty. It uses the source
address in packet to build a table. It checks address in memory to determine where to send the
data. Filtering frames, forwarding and blocking these are the duties of transparent bridge.

iv. Translation bridge: It connects network segment running at different speed or using
different protocols, such as token ring and Ethernet network. This bridge takes data link layer
frame off the packets to be relayed to other segment and packages them in new frame for
transmitting.

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v. Source route bridge: In source Route Bridge, sending station defines the bridges that
should be visited by the frames. In frame the address of these bridges are saved. So frame
contains different addresses like source and destination, and bridge address.

Advantages

i. Bridges are self configuring.

ii. It is simple and significant.
iii. It is used to interconnect two LANs.
iv. It can minimize the traffic on a segment.
v. It isolates a busy network from a not so busy one.
vi. It filter traffic and increases throughout on a network.

Disadvantages

i. It is slower than repeater and hub.

ii. It is more expensive than repeater.
iii. Does not scale to extremely large network.
iv. It gives error in bridging of different MAC protocols.

6. Switch:

Fig 2.11: Switch

A network switch is a computer networking device that connects devices together on

a computer network, by using a form of packet switching to forward data to the destination
device. A network switch is considered more advanced than a(repeater) hub because a switch
will only forward a message to one or multiple devices that need to receive it, rather than
broadcasting the same message out of each of its ports.

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Types of switch
There are two types of switch:

i. Store-and-forward switch: It stores the frame in the input buffer until the whole packet has
arrived. This packet is stored in the buffer. Then switch takes the decision about destination
machine with the help of switching table. Then the packet is forwarded towards the appropriate
destination.

ii. Cut-through switch: It forwards the packet to the output buffer as soon as the destination
address is received.
Switches may operate at one or more layers of the OSI model, including the data link and
network layers. A device that operates simultaneously at more than one of these layers is known
as a multilayer switch. In switches intended for commercial use, built-in or modular interfaces
make it possible to connect different types of networks, including Ethernet, Fiber
Channel, ATM, ITU-TG.hn and 802.11. This connectivity can be at any of the layers
mentioned. While layer-2 functionality is adequate for bandwidth-shifting within one
technology, interconnecting technologies such as Ethernet and token ring is easier at layer 3.
Devices that interconnect at layer 3 are traditionally called routers, so layer-3 switches can also
be regarded as (relatively primitive) routers.
Where there is a need for a great deal of analysis of network performance and security, switches
may be connected between WAN routers as places for analytic modules. Some vendors
provide firewall, network intrusion detection,[7] and performance analysis modules that can
plug into switch ports. Some of these functions may be on combined modules.[8]
In other cases, the switch is used to create a mirror image of data that can go to an external
device. Since most switch port mirroring provides only one mirrored stream, network hubs can
be useful for fanning out data to several read-only analyzers, such as intrusion detection
systems and packet sniffers.

7. Router:

Fig 2.12: Router

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Routers are small physical devices that join multiple networks together. Router operates at the
network layer of the OSI model. Home networks typically use a wireless or wired Internet
Protocol (IP) router, IP being the most common OSI network layer protocol. An IP router such
as a DSL or cable modem broadband router joins the home's local area network (LAN) to
the wide-area network (WAN) of the Internet.

Router operates on network layer of OSI reference model. Router is a combination of hardware
and software. The hardware can be a network server, computer or special device and the
software in a router is the operating system and routing protocol. The hardware includes the
physical interfaces to the various network in the inter network. These interfaces can be token,
ring, Ethernet, T1, ATM, frame, relay, etc. Router is an intelligent device, because it is more
capable than the rest of the devices like bridge or repeater. Router has to find out the best
possible path among several others.

Router is an efficient device which performs the task of delivering and forwarding information.
When computer on one network wants to transmit data to a computer on another network, the
computer sends its packet to a router, which then forwards them to destination network. Router
forwards a packet based on the destination address in the network layer protocol header. Each
router consists of routing table, which determines the best way for the data to reach the
destination. Routers use the software configured network address (IP address) to make a
decision. To find out the shortest path, router used some routing algorithms. These routing
algorithms determine the routing decisions, i.e., how to forward a packet on to its next journey.

Types of router

i. Static router: It can manually set up and configure all routes. This router uses the same route
determined by a routing entry. Static router is more secure because the administrator
specifies each route. An administrator is required to maintain the routing table and the router.
Static router can work well for small inter networks, but do not scale well for large or
dynamically changing inter network due to their manual administrator.

ii. Dynamic router: It manually configures the first route. It automatically detects additional
networks and routers. Dynamic routing consists of routing tables that are built and maintained
automatically through an ongoing communication between routers. This communication is
facilitated by a routing protocol, a series of periodic or on-demand messages containing routing
information that is exchanged between routers.
In dynamic router, security can be improved by manually configuring the router. An
administrator is required to maintain the router.

Advantages
i. Router can connect dissimilar LANs and WANs running at different transmission speeds.
ii. Routers are used to interconnect network.
iii. It is a multiport device, i.e., router with multiple slots that can hold different cable and other
devices.

Disadvantages
i. Routers are slower than other devices because of decision making.
ii. They do not have ability to stop broadcast packets from being forwarded to other networks.

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8. Gateway:

Fig 2.13: gateway

Gateway is a network device which connects two dissimilar networks. It is a network point that
acts as an entrance to another network. A gateway is required to convert data packets from one
protocol format to another, format. It operates on all seven layers of OSI reference model.
Gateways are application specific interfaces that link all seven layers of the OSI model. They
are dissimilar at any or all levels.

The term gateway is applied to any device, system or software applications that can perform
the function of translating data from one format to another. A gateway not only has the ability
to translate between different frame formats but also between different protocols.

The gateway works with protocols used by each network connected to a router. It can translate
from one to the other. Gateway must take care of differing frame sizes, data rates, formats,
acknowledgement schemes, priority schemes, etc. That means the task of the gateway is very
tough. A gateway is a very powerful device as compared to a bridge or a router. It is typically
used to connect huge and incompatible networks.

Example:

i. If network A is a token ring network using TCP/IP and network B is a Novell network, a
gateway can relay frames between the two.

ii. Many companies use an e-mail system such as Microsoft exchange or Novell group wise.
These systems transmit mail internally in a certain format. When an e-mail is sent across the
internet to users using a different e-mail system, the e-mail must be converted to another
format, usually to Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). This conversion is performed by
software gateway.

Advantage:

Gateway allows communication between two dissimilar networks.

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9. Modem:

Fig 2.14: Modem

A modem is a network device that both modulates and demodulates analog carrier signals
(called sine waves) for encoding and decoding digital information for processing. Modems
accomplish both of these tasks simultaneously and, for this reason, the term modem is a
combination of "modulate" and "demodulate."
A modem modulates outgoing digital signals from a computer or other digital device to analog
signals for a conventional copper twisted pair telephone line and demodulates the incoming
analog signal and converts it to a digital signal for the digital device.

Modems are available both as internal modem and external modem. Internal modems are
installed in the computer’s expansion slot or in the motherboard circuit. External modem is a
small box that is connected to a computer by a RS-232 cable. RS-232 cable is used to connect
a PC to its modem. Twisted pair wires and RJ-45 connectors are used to connect two modems.

Functions of Modem
i. Converts the binary data into analog signal at sending side and converts the analog signal
into binary data at the receiving side.
ii. Takes the data from the RS-232 interface.
iii. Send dialing signals.
iv. Performs line control and signaling to the other end of phone line.

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Wireless infrastructure Components

Wireless Infrastructure Components: Following are the important wireless infrastructure components
used for the wireless LANs:

1. Radio NICs

2. Access points

3. Routers

4. Repeaters

5. Antenna

1.Radios NICs:

• NIC (Network Interface Card)

• Radio NIC operates inside the computer and provides wireless connectivity

• Radio NIC is also called as radio card and implements the 802.11 wireless LAN Standard

• Radio NICs generally implements one particular physical layer i.e. 802.11a or 802.11 b/g

2.Access Point (A.P.):

• Access point is a device that allows a Wi-Fi device to connect to a wired network

• Communication between the wireless hosts and AP is wireless in nature

• But communication between AP and Wired infrastructure is a wired communication
• Access point is containing a radio card which communicates with the individual user devices
as well as the wired NIC
• Access Point is a station that transmits and receives data. Each AP can serve multiple users
within a specified network area.
• AS user moves beyond this area, it is automatically handed over to the next AP.

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3.Wireless Router:

• A Wireless router transfer between network.

• It works like a router used in wired network.

• It consists of a multiport Ethernet router along with a built in Access Point.

• Router implement the Network Address Translation (NAT) Protocol

4.Wireless Repeater:

• Wireless repeater is used for extending the range of a wireless LAN, instead of adding more Aps

• It receives the radio signals from an AP, end users or other repeaters, regenerates the signals
and retransmits it.

• We can overcome the signal impairment caused by RF attenuation with the help of repeater.

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UNIT-5

Reference Model
[20 Marks]
_____________________________________________________
Contents:
5.1 OSI Reference Model: Layered Architecture, Peer To Peer Processes- Interfaces between Layer,
Protocols, Organization of the Layers, Encapsulation ,Layer, Network Layer, Layers of the OSI
Reference Model(Functions and features of each Layer)-Physical Layer, Data-Link Layer, Transport
Layer, Session Layer, Presentation Layer, Application Layer.
5.2 TCP/IP Model : Layered architecture, Data Link Layer: Nodes and Links, services, two categories
of links, two sub layers, Link layer addressing: three types of addresses, address resolution
protocol(ARP) ,
Network Layer: Addresses: address space, classful and classless addressing, dynamic host
configuration protocol(DHCP),network address resolution (NAT).
Transport layer Protocol: Transport services, connectionless and connection oriented protocol
5.3 Introduction-Addressing mechanism in Internet IP Addressing-IP Address classes, classless IP
addressing, Subnetting, Supernetting, Masking,
5.4 IPV4 and IPV6,
5.5 OSI and TCP / IP Network Model.

Course Outcome:
Configure different TCP/IP services

References:
a. www.nptelvideos.in/2012/11/data-communication.html
b.http://www.myreadingroom.co.in/notes-and-studymaterial/68-den/750-analog-to-analog-conversion-
techniques.html
c. http://www.tutorial reports.com/wireless/wlanwifi/wifi_architecture.php
d. http://standards.ieee.org/about/get/802/802.11.html
e. www.tutorialspoint.com/data_communication_computer_network/
f. http://www.studytonight.com/computer-networks/overview-of-computer-networks

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5.1 OSI Reference Model

Introduction– Layered Architecture

Communication Architecture
• Strategy for connecting host computers and other communicating equipment.
• Defines necessary elements for data communication between devices.
• A communication architecture, therefore, defines a standard for the communicating
hosts.
• A programmer formats data in a manner defined by the communication architecture
and passes it on to the communication software.
• Separating communication functions adds flexibility, for example, we do not need to
modify the entire host software to include more communication devices.
Why Layered Architecture?
• Layer architecture simplifies the network design.
• It is easy to debug network applications in a layered architecture network.
• The network management is easier due to the layered architecture.
• Network layers follow a set of rules, called protocol.
• The protocol defines the format of the data being exchanged, and the control and timing
for the handshake between layers.

Following Example shows need to have layered Architecture

• Assume Maria and Ann are neighbors with a lot of common ideas.
• However, Maria speaks only Spanish, and Ann speaks only English.
• Since both have learned the sign language in their childhood, they enjoy meeting in
a cafe a couple of days per week and exchange their ideas using signs.
• Occasionally, they also use a bilingual dictionary.
• Communication is face to face and Happens in one layer as shown in Figure.

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• Now assume that Ann has to move to another town because of her job.
• Although both are sad, Maria opens a packet that contains two small machines.
• The first machine can scan and transform a letter in English to a secret code or
vice versa.
• The other machine can scan and translate a letter in Spanish to the same secret
code or vice versa.
• Ann takes the first machine; Maria keeps the second one.
•

• The two friends can still communicate using the secret code, as shown in Figure.
• ISO –OSI Open Systems Interconnection Model

• International standard organization (ISO) established a committee in 1977 to

develop an architecture for computer communication.
• Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is the result of this effort.
• In 1984, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was approved as
an international standard for communications architecture.
• Term “open” denotes the ability to connect any two systems which conform to the
reference model and associated standards.
• The OSI model is now considered the primary Architectural model for inter -
computer communications.
• The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from application
programmes (such as spreadsheets) through a network medium (such as wire) to
another application programme located on another network.
• The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information between
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computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageable
problems is known as layering.
• The OSI model is a theoretical blueprint that helps us understand how data gets
from one user’s computer to another.
• It is also a model that helps develop standards so that all of our hardware and
software talks nicely to each other.
• It aids standardization of networking technologies.
• It provides an organized structure for hardware and software developers to follow,
to insure their products are compatible with current and future technologies.
• ISO is the organization; OSI is the model.

Fig: 7 Layers of ISO-OSI Reference Model

OSI: A Layered Network Model
• The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of networking into layers reduces
complexity.
• The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical - Layers 4, 3, 2, and
1) are concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the network.
• The upper three layers of the OSI model (application, presentation and session-
Layers 7, 6 and 5) are orientated more toward services to the applications.
• The layers involved when a message is sent from device A to device B.
• As the message travels from A to B, it may pass through many intermediate nodes.
• These intermediate nodes involve only the first three layers of the OSI model.
• Each layer performs unique and specific task and it offers services to the layer
above it.
• For example, Layer 3 uses the services provided by layer 2 and provides
services for layer 4.
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• Between machines, layer x on one machine communicates with layer x on another

machine.
• This communication is governed by an agreed-upon series of rules and conventions
called protocols.
Peer-to-Peer processes
• The processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer are called peer-
to-peer processes.
• At the physical layer, communication is direct: Device A sends a stream of bits to
device B (through intermediate nodes).
• At higher layers each layer in the sending machines adds its own information to the
message it receives from the layer just above it and passes the whole package to the
layer just below it.
Interfaces between Layers
• An interface defines the operations and services offered by lower layer to the upper
layer. This is an interface between each pair of adjacent layers.
• The passing of the data and network information down through the layers of the
sending device and receiving device is made possible by an interface between each
pair of adjacent layers.

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Data Encapsulation
• The outgoing information will travel down through the layers to the lowest layer.
• While moving down on the source machine, it acquires all the control information
which is required to reach the destination machine.
• The control information is in the form of Headers and Trailer which surrounds the
data received from the layer above.
• This process of adding headers and trailers to the data is called as data
encapsulation.
• The information added by each layer is in the form of headers or trailers.
• At layer 1 the entire package is converted to a form that can be transferred to the
receiving machine.
• At the receiving machine, the message is unwrapped layer by layer, with each
process receiving and removing the data meant for it.
• For example, layer 2 removes the data meant for it, then passes the rest to layer 3.
• Layer 3 then removes the data meant for it and passes the rest to layer 4, and so on.
• The headers and trailers contain control information. The headers and trailers form
the envelope which carries the message to the desired destination.

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Figure: Data Encapsulation

• D7 means the data unit at layer 7, D6 means the data unit at layer 6, and so on.
• The process starts at layer 7 (the application layer), then moves from layer to layer
in descending, sequential order.
• At each layer, a header, or possibly a trailer, can be added to the data unit.
• Commonly, the trailer is added only at layer 2.
• When the formatted data unit passes through the physical layer (layer 1), it is
changed into an electromagnetic signal and transported along a physical link.
Example of Data Encapsulation

The figure shows the example of five layer stack for data encapsulation.

• The fifth layer of sending machine wants to send a message M to the fifth layer of
destination machine.
• The message M is produced by layer 5 of machine 1 and given to layer 4 for transmission.

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Layer 4 adds header H4 in front of the message and pass it to layer 3.

• Layer 3 breaks up the incoming message into small units as M1 and M2 and pass these
packets to layer 2.
• Layer 2 adds the header as well as footer to each packet obtained from layer 3 and pass
it to layer 1 for physical transmission.

Layers of the OSI Reference Model

1. Physical Layer
• It co-ordinates the functions required to transmit bit stream over physical medium.
• Provides physical interface for transmission of information.
• Defines rules by which bits are passed from one system to another on a physical
communication medium.
• Covers all - mechanical, electrical, functional and procedural - aspects for physical
communication.

The physical layer is responsible for the movement of individual bits from one hop
(node) to the next.

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Functions of Physical Layer

• Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium.

• It also defines the type of transmission medium.
• How many pins the network connector has and what each pin is used for.
• Representation of bits. What electrical signals should be used to represent a 1 and a 0.
• Data rate: How many nanoseconds a bit lasts and bits per second.
• Synchronization of bits.
• Sender and Receiver must be synchronized
• Physical topology
• Mesh, Ring, Star, etc.
• Transmission mode. Whether transmission may proceed simultaneously in both
directions.
• Simplex, Half duplex, Duplex
2. Data Link Layer
• Data link layer attempts to provide reliable communication over the physical layer interface.
• Breaks the outgoing data into frames and re-assemble the received frames.
• Create and detect frame boundaries.
• Handle errors by implementing an acknowledgement and retransmission scheme.
• Implement flow control.

The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.

Functions of Data Link Layer

• Framing-
• Divides the stream of bits into manageable data units called frames.
• Physical addressing-
• Adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame.
• Flow control-
• Imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
Synchronization between fast sender and slow receiver.
• Error control-
• Adds mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames (CRC).

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• Access control-
• Determine which device has control over the link at any given time.
• Link establishment and termination:
• Establishes and terminates the logical link between two nodes.
• Frame sequencing:
• Transmits/receives frames sequentially.
• Frame acknowledgment:
• Provides/expects frame acknowledgments.
DLL is divided into two Sub-Layers
• LLC Sub Layer
• MAC Sub Layer

Logical Link Control Sub Layer

• It is upper portion of the Data Link layer.
• Performs Flow control and management of connection errors.
• LLC supports three types of connections:
1. Unacknowledged connectionless service:
• does not perform reliability checks or maintain a connection, very fast, most
commonly used
2. Connection oriented service:
• once the connection is established, blocks of data can be transferred between
nodes until one of the node terminates the connection.
3. Acknowledged connectionless service:
• provides a mechanism through which individual frames can be
acknowledged.
Media Access Control Sub Layer
• This sub layer contains methods to regulate the timing of data signals and
eliminate collisions.

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• The MAC sub layer determines where one frame of data ends and the next one starts
- frame synchronization.
• There are four means of frame synchronization:
• Time based,
• Character counting,
• Byte stuffing and
• Bit stuffing.
3. Network Layer
• It is responsible for source to destination delivery of individual packets across
multiple networks.
• Defines the most optimum path the packet should take from the source to the
destination
• Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified.
• Handles congestion in the network.
• Facilitates interconnection between heterogeneous networks (Internetworking).
• The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller packets to
accommodate different media.

The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the
source host to the destination host.

Functions of Network Layer

1. Logical addressing
2. Routing.
3. Congestion control
4. Accounting and billing
5. Address transformation
6. Source host to destination host error free delivery of packet.

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Que: With the help of neat sketch describe the working of router. Describe in detail the
operation of router considering OSI model.
Answer: Router is a device that connects two or more computer network together this allows two
or more disparate computer network to send data to each other.

The figure shows a router connecting to two networks viz: A (Token Ring) and B
(Ethernet) at points X and Y respectively. This means that the router must have two interfaces
and also two Network interface cards (NICs) one to interact with network A at point X, and
the other to interact with network B at point Y. this enable it to send data between the two
networks A and B. A router connect more than two networks.

A router operates at a the physical, data link and network layer of the OSI model, as
shown in fig a router is termed as an intelligent device. A router is useful for interconnecting
two or more networks. These networks can be heterogeneous, which means that they can
differ in their physical characteristics such as frame size, transmission rates, topologies,
addressing etc. thus, if a router has to connect such different networks, it has to consider all
these issues. A router has to determine the best possible transmission path among several
available.

4. Transport Layer
• Purpose of this layer is to provide a reliable mechanism for the exchange of data
between two processes in different computers.
• Ensures that the data units are delivered error free.
• Ensures that data units are delivered in sequence.
• Ensures that there is no loss or duplication of data units.
• Provides connectionless or connection oriented service.

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The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to another.

Functions of Transport Layer

1. Service point addressing
2. Segmentation and reassembly
3. Connection control
4. Flow control: Flow control is performed end to end
5. Error control

5. Session Layer
• Session layer provides mechanism for controlling the dialogue between the two
end systems.
• It defines how to start, control and end conversations (called sessions) between
applications.
• This layer requests for a logical connection to be established on an end-user’s
request.
• Any necessary log-on or password validation is also handled by this layer.
Functions of Session Layer
• Dialog control
• Synchronization, session and sub session
• Session closure

6. Presentation Layer
• Presentation layer defines the format in which the data is to be exchanged between
the two communicating entities.
• Also handles data compression and data encryption (cryptography).

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Functions of Presentation layer:

• Translation: presentation layer is responsible for converting various formats into
required format of the recipient.
• Encryption: Data encryption and decryption is done by presentation layer for
security.
• Compression and Decompression: data to be transform compressed while
sending and decompress while receiving for reducing time of transmission.

7. Application Layer
• Application layer interacts with application programs and is the highest level of OSI
model.
• Application layer contains management functions to support distributed
applications.
• Examples of application layer are applications such as
• File Transfer,
• Electronic Mail,
• Remote Login Etc.
Functions of Application layer:
1. Network virtual terminal
2. File transfer access and management
3. Mail services and directory services

Horizontal communication

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1. The horizontal communication is the logical connection between the layers, there is
no direct communication between them.
2. Information included in each protocol header by the transmitting system is a message
that will be carried to the same protocol in the destination system.
3. For two computers to communicate over a n/w, the protocol used at each layer of the
OSI model in the transmitting system must be duplicated at the receiving system.
4. The packet travels up through the protocol stack and each successive header is
stripped of by the appropriate protocol & processed.
5. When the packet arrived at its destination, the process by which the headers are
applied at the source is repeated in server.

Vertical communication:
1. In addition to communicating horizontally with the same protocol in the other
system, the header information also enables each layer to communicate with the layer
above & below it.
Eg. The n/w layer will communicate with the data link layer & transport layer.
2. This interlayer communication is called communication vertical.
3. When a system receives a packet & passes it up through various layers the data link
layer protocol header includes a field which specifies the name of n/w layer protocol
to be used to process the packet.
4. The n/w layer protocol header will specify the name of transport layer protocol to be
used to process the packet.
5. Due to vertical communication, it becomes protocol at each layer simultaneously.

Fig: Vertical communication

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Summery

Protocols in Each Layer

Protocols - Layer 7 HTTP FTP SMTP POP DNS Telnet
Protocols - Layer 6 Graphics: TIFF, JPEG, GIF Text: ASCII, EBCDIC, Unicode, Encrypted Audio:
Midi, MPEG, WAV, MP3 Video: Quicktime, AVI
Protocols - Layer 5 NFS - Network File System RPC - Remote Procedure Call ASP - Appletalk
Session Protocol
Protocols - Layer 4 Connection Oriented (TCP) Connectionless (UDP)
Protocols - Layer 3 Routed Routing (IP)
Protocols - Layer 2 MAC - Media Access Control LLC - Logical Link Control
Protocols - Layer 1 Organizations: IEE, TIA/ETA, ANSI, etc. Cable (ie. RJ45)

Devices
Devices - Layer 7 Hosts PC Servers Mobile Phones, gateways
Devices - Layer 3 Routers
Devices - Layer 2 Bridges, Switches, NIC (Layers 1 & 2)
Devices - Layer 1 Hubs, repeaters NIC (Layers 1 & 2) Media: Coax, Fiber,
Twisted Pair, Wireless

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5.2 TCP/IP Reference Model :

Layered Architecture:
 The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model.
 Therefore, the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the
OSI model.
 The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-
network, internet, transport, and application.

Fig: TCP/ IP Model

 When TCP/IP is compared to OSI,

 The host-to-network layer is equivalent to the combination of the physical and
data link layers.
 The internet layer is equivalent to the network layer, and the application layer
doing the job of the session, presentation, and application layers.

Network Access Layer

 Also called as Host-to-Network Layer.

 Performs all functions of physical Layer and Data Link Layer.
 Exchange of data between end system and network.
 Address of host and destination
 Prioritization of transmission.
 This deals with hardware level, connections as in other network model.
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite includes Host-to-Network Layer protocols such as-
 Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) And Point to Point Protocol (PPP).

TCP/IP Internet Layer

 An Internet is an interconnection of two or more networks.
 Internet layer handles tasks similar to network access layer, but between networks
rather than between nodes on a network.
 Uses IP for addressing and routing across networks.
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 DCC (22414) MRS. S.S. KADAM
 Implemented in workstations and routers.
 This layer is concerned with the format of datagrams as defined in the internet
protocol(IP).
 The protocols in this layer include Address Resolution Protocol (ARP),
 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) and
 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP).

TCP/IP Transport Layer

 This layer is concerned with the transmission of the data.
 The two main protocols that operate at this layer are Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
 TCP is reliable transmission protocol and it guarantees that the proper data transfer
will take place.
 UDP is not designed to be reliable or guarantee data delivery.
 Also called host-to-host layer.

Functions of Transport Layer
1. Service point addressing: - Delivery is from specific process on computer to
specific process on another computer. For this transport layer uses port addresses.
2. Segmentation and reassemble: -Each segment of a message contains a sequence
number which is used to reassemble the message correctly.
3. Connection control:-Logical connection is created between source and destination
for the duration of complete message transfer.
4. Flow control:-Flow control is performed end to end.
5. Error control:-Error control is performed process to process. It ensures that entire
message arrives at receivers transport layer without error (damage or loss or
duplication). Error correction is done by retransmission.

TCP/IP Application Layer

 The application layer is concerned with providing network services to applications.
 There are many application network processes and protocols that work at this layer,
including
 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Simple Mail Transport Protocol (SMTP) and
File Transfer Protocol (FTP).

TCP / IP Protocol Suite:

Host-to-Network-SLIP and PPP,
Internet Layer-ARP, RARP and IP:Introduction, IPv4, IPv6 ( Header Format), Differencebetween
IPv4 & IPv6.
Transport Layer- TCP and UDP ( Frame Format, port addresses),
Application Layer- FTP, SMTP, DNS.

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Fig: TCP/ IP Protocol Suite

Internet Layer Protocols

 The Four Network Layer protocols are:
 ARP
 RARP
 IP
 ICMP

ARP-Address Resolution Protocol

 ARP takes the IP address of a host as input & gives its corresponding physical
address as the output.
◼ The Internet is based on IP addresses
◼ Data link protocols (Ethernet, FDDI, ATM) may have different (MAC)
addresses
 The ARP and RARP protocols perform the translation between IP addresses and
MAC layer addresses.

 ARP sends the IP broadcast message to all the computer on the network.
 The computer whose IP address matches the broadcast IP address sends a reply and
along with, its physical address to the broadcasting computer.
 All other computers ignore the broadcast message.

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Address Translation with ARP
Example:
ARP request: Argon broadcasts an ARP request to all stations on the network: “What is
the hardware address of Router137?”

ARP Reply: Router137 responds with an ARP Reply which contains the hardware address

ARP Packet Format

Ethernet II header

Destination Source Type

address address 0x8060

ARP Request or ARP Reply Padding CRC

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Hardware type (2 bytes) Protocol type (2 bytes)

Hardware address Protocol address
length (1 byte) length (1 byte) Operation code (2 bytes)

Source hardware address*

Source protocol address*

Target hardware address*

Target protocol address*

* Note: The length of the address fields is determined by the corresponding address length fields

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2. Internet Protocol (IP)

 IP is internet Protocol.
 It is unreliable protocol because it does not provide any error control and flow
control.
 Packets in IP are called “Datagram”.
 Datagram is variable length packet with two parts –header and data

IP Header Format

Fields Of IP Header:
 Version (4 bits): current version is 4.
 Header length (4 bits): length of IP header, in multiples of 4 bytes
 DS/ECN field (1 byte): This field was previously called as Type-of-Service (TOS)
field.
Differentiated Service (DS) (6 bits): Used to specify service level (currentlynot
supported in the Internet)
Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN) (2 bits):New feedback mechanism
used by TCP.
 Identification (16 bits): Unique identification of a datagram from a host.
Incremented whenever a datagram is transmitted.
 Flags (3 bits):
First bit always set to 0
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DF bit (Do not fragment)
MF bit (More fragments)
 Time To Live (TTL) (1 byte): Specifies longest paths before datagram is dropped.
Role of TTL field: Ensure that packet is eventually dropped when a routing
loop occurs.
Used as follows:
Sender sets the value (e.g., 64)
Each router decrements the value by 1
When the value reaches 0, the datagram is dropped

 Protocol (1 byte):
Specifies the higher-layer protocol.

 Header checksum (2 bytes):

A simple 16-bit long checksum which is computed for the header of the
datagram.
The receiving host will discard the packet if it fails the checksum calculation.
 Options: Security restrictions
Record Route: each router that processes the packet adds its IP address to
the header.
Timestamp: each router that processes the packet adds its IP address and
time to the header.
Source Routing: specifies a list of routers that must be traversed.
 Padding: Padding bytes are added to ensure that header ends on a 4-byte boundary.
 Source and Destination Address: 32 bit IP address.

Functions of the IP
1. Addressing:
◼ In order to perform the job of delivering datagrams, IP must know where to
deliver them to. For this reason, IP includes a mechanism for host addressing.

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2. Data Encapsulation and Formatting/ Packaging:

◼ IP accepts data from the transport layer protocols UDP and TCP.
3. It then encapsulates this data into an IP datagram using a special formatprior to
transmission.
4. Fragmentation and Reassembly:

◼ IP fragment IP datagrams into pieces.

◼ The receiving device uses the reassembly function to recreate the whole IP
datagram again.
5. Routing / Indirect Delivery:
◼ When an IP datagram must be sent to a destination on the same local
network, this is done using direct delivery.
◼ However, if the final destination is on a distant network not directly attached
to the source datagram must be delivered indirectly.
IPV6
 IP version 6 (IPv6) is an advanced version of IPv4.
 It takes all good features of IPv4 and adds new ones.
 Larger address space: IPv6 uses 128 bit(16 Bytes) Address.
 Better header format: This simplifies and speeds up the routing process.
 New options. IPv6 has new options to allow for additional functionalities.
 Allowance for extension: IPv6 is designed to allow the extension of the protocol if
required by new technologies or applications.
IPv6 major goals:
1. Support billions of hosts.
2. Reduce the size of the routing tables.
3. Simplify the protocol.
4. Provide better security (authentication and privacy).
5. More attention to the type of service
6. Aid multicasting by allowing scopes to be specified.
7. Make it possible for a host to roam without changing its address.
8. Allow the protocol to evolve in the future.
9. Permit the old and new protocols to coexist for years.

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IPv6 Header Format

Header Fields:
 Version (4-bit): Defines the version number of the IP. For IPv6, the value is 6.
 Priority(4-bit): Defines the priority of the packet with respect to traffic congestion.
 Flow label (3-byte /24-bit): It is designed to provide special handling flow of data.
 Payload length(2-byte): Defines the length of the IP datagram excluding the base
header.
 Hop limit (8-bit): Serves the same purpose as the TTL field in IPv4.
 Next header (8-bit):
 Defines the header that follows the base header in the datagram.
 The next header is either one of the optional extension headers used by IP or
the header of an encapsulated packet such as UDP or TCP.
 Note that this field in version 4 is called the protocol.
 Source address.:
 The source address field is a 16-byte (128-bit)
 Internet address that identifies the original source of the datagram.
 Destination address.
 The destination address field is a 16-byte (128-bit)
 Internet address that usually identifies the final destination of the
datagram.
 However, if source routing is used, this field contains the address of the next
router.
IPv4 IPv6
1. Source and destination addresses are 1. Source and destination addresses are 128
32 bits (4 bytes) in length. bits(16 bytes)in length.
2. Uses broadcast addresses to send 2. There are no IPv6 broadcast addresses.
traffic to all nodes on a subnet. Instead, multicast scoped addresses are
used.
3. Fragmentation is supported at 3. Fragmentation is not supported at routers. It
Originating hosts and intermediate is only supported at the
routers.
4. IP header include a checksum. 4. IP header does not include a checksum.
5.IP header includes options. 5. All optional data is moved toIPv6
extension headers.

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6.IPsec support is optional 6.IPsec support is required in a full IPv6
implementation.
7. No identification of payload for QoS 7. Payload identification for QoS handling By
Handling by routers is present within routers is included in theIPv6 header using
the IPv4 header. the Flow Label field.
8. Address must be configured either 8. Addresses can be automatically assigned
manually or through DHCP. using stateless address auto configuration,
assigned using DHCPv6, or manually
configured.
9. IP address represented in decimal 9. IP address is represented in hexadecimal
number system number system
10. “.” used as seperator 10. ‘ : ‘ used as separator .
11. Uses host address (A) resource 11. Uses host address (AAAA) resource
records in the domain name system to records in the domain name system to map
map host names to IPv4 addresses. host names to IPv6 addresses.

Transport Layer Protocols

 Transport Layer Works on top of Internet Layer.
 It is concerned with transport of packets from the source to destination.
 In TCP/IP the transport layer is represented by two Protocols:
➢ TCP
➢ UDP

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

 TCP is transmission control protocol.
 It Provides:
◼ Connection oriented service
◼ Reliable service
◼ Stream delivery service
◼ Sending and receiving buffers
◼ Bytes and segments
◼ Full duplex service

➢ TCP is a connection oriented protocol.

 Connection oriented means that a virtual connection is established before any
user data is transferred.
 If the connection cannot be established, the user program is notified.
 If the connection is ever interrupted, the user program finds out there is a problem.

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➢ TCP is Reliable-
 Reliable means that every transmission of data is acknowledged by the receiver.
 Reliable does not mean that things don't go wrong, it means that we find out when
things go wrong.
 If the sender does not receive acknowledgement within a specified amount of time,
the sender retransmits the data.
➢ Stream delivery service:
◼ TCP is a stream oriented protocol.
◼ It allows the sending and receiving process to obtain as a stream of bytes.
◼ TCP creates a working environment in such a way that the sending and
receiving processes seem to be connected by an imaginary “tube” This is
called as stream delivery service.
➢ TCP : Flow Control
◼ Sending and receiving buffers:
◼ The sending and receiving process may not produce and receive data at
the same speed.
◼ Hence TCP needs buffers for storage.
◼ There are two types of buffers used in each direction:
1) Sending buffer
2) Receiving buffer
➢ Full duplex service:
◼ TCP offers full duplex service where the data can flow in both the direction
simultaneously.
◼ The TCP segments are sent both the directions.

 Process to process communication:

◼ The TCP uses port numbers as transport layer addresses.
◼ Also called as Port to Port communication.
TCP Header

2. UDP
 UDP is user datagram protocol.
 It is connectionless protocol because data is sent without establishing a connection
between sender and receiver before sending the data.
 UDP is unreliable because data is delivered without acknowledgement.

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 UDP does not perform Auto retransmission.
 UDP does not use flow control .
 UDP has high transmission speed.
UDP Datagram Format

UDP Vs TCP
UDP TCP
Complexity UDP is less complex TCP is more complex
Connection UDP is connection less protocol TCP is connection oriented protocol
Reliability It provides unreliable delivery It provides reliable delivery of
of messages messages
Function By using this protocol one As a message makes its way across
program can send a load of the internet from one computer to
packets to another and that another. This is connection based.
would be the end of the
relationship.
layer they exist Transport layer Transport layer
Flow controlling UDP has no flow control TCP has flow control
Overhead Overhead is very low Overhead is low
Which is powerful UDP is less powerful TCP is more powerful.

5.3 Addressing mechanism in Internet IP Addressing-IP Address classes

➢ An IP address is an address used in order to uniquely identify a device on an IP
network.
➢ The address is made up of 32 binary bits, which can be divisible into a network
portion and host portion with the help of a subnet mask.
➢ The 32 binary bits are broken into four octets (1 octet = 8 bits). Each octet is
converted to decimal and separated by a period (dot).
➢ For this reason, an IP address is said to be expressed in dotted decimal format (for
example, 172.16.81.100).
➢ The value in each octet ranges from 0 to 255 decimal, or 00000000 − 11111111
binary.
➢ The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) assigns network identifiers to

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avoid duplications.

5.2 IP Addressing – IP Address classes, classless IP addressing, Subnetting,

supernetting, Masking.
➢ IPv4 addresses are unique.
➢ They are unique in the sense that each address defines one, and only one,
connection to the Internet.
➢ Two devices on the Internet can never have the same address at the same time.

Address Space:
➢ IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, which means that the address space is 232 or
4,294,967,296 (more than 4 billion).
➢ This means that, theoretically, if there were no restrictions, more than 4 billion
devices could be connected to the Internet.

Notations
There are two prevalent notations to show an IPv4 address: Binary notation and Dotted
decimal notation.
➢ Binary Notation:
o In binary notation, the IPv4 address is displayed as 32 bits.
o Each octet is often referred to as a byte.
o So it is common to hear an IPv4 address referred to as a 32-bit address or a
4-byte address.
o The following is an example of an IPv4 address in binary notation:
01110101 10010101 00011101 00000010

➢ Dotted-Decimal Notation:
o To make the IPv4 address more compact and easier to read, Internet
addresses are usually written in decimal form with a decimal point (dot)
separating the bytes.
o Each byte is identified by a decimal number in the range [0..255].
o The following is the dotted decimal notation of the above address:
117.149.29.2
o Example:

Example: Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary notation to dotted-
decimal notation.
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a. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
Solution:
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent decimal number and add dots for
separation.
a. 129.11.11.239
b. 193.131.27.255

IP Address classes
• IPv4 addressing, at its inception, used the concept of classes.
• This architecture is called classful addressing.
• In classful addressing, the address space is divided into five classes: A, B, C, D,
and E.
• Each class occupies some part of the address space.
• We can find the class of an address when given the address in binary notation or
dotted-decimal notation.
• If the address is given in binary notation, the first few bits can immediately tell
us the class of the address.

Fig: Finding the class in binary notation.

• If the address is given in decimal-dotted notation, the first byte defines the
class.

Fig: Finding the class in decimal notation

Example: Find the class of each address.
a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 14.23.120.8

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d. 252.5.15.111
Solution:
a. The first bit is O. This is a class A address.
b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is O. This is a class C address.
c. The first byte is 14 (between 0 and 127); the class is A.
d. The first byte is 252 (between 240 and 255); the class is E.
Classes and Blocks
One problem with classful addressing is that each class is divided into a fixed
number of blocks with each block having a fixed size.

Fig: Number of blocks and block size in classful IPv4 addressing.

Class A:
• The high-order (First) bit in a class-A address is always set to zero.
• The next seven bits complete the network ID.
• The remaining 24 bits represent the host ID.
• This allows for 128 networks and 16,777,214 hosts per network.
• In this 7 bits are used for network field and 24 bits for host field.
• Class A IP address range includes 1.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255

Note: Millions of class A addresses are wasted.

Class B:
• Class B addresses are assigned to medium-sized to large-sized networks.
• The two high-order bits in a class B address are always set to binary 1 0.
• The next 14 bits complete the network ID.
• The remaining 16 bits represent the host ID.
• This allows for 16,384 networks and 65,534 hosts per network.
• Class B IP address range includes 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255

Class C:
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• Class C addresses are used for small organizations with a small number of attached
hosts or routers.
• The three high-order bits in a class C address are always set to binary 1 1 0.
• The next 21 bits complete the network ID.
• The remaining 8 bits (last octet) represent the host ID.
• This allows for 2097152 networks and 256 hosts per network.
• Class C IP address range includes 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255.

Class D:
• Class D addresses are reserved for IP multicast addresses.
• The four high-order bits in a class D address are always set to binary 1 1 1 0.
• The remaining bits recognize hosts.
• Class D IP address range includes 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255

Class E:
• Class E is an experimental address that is reserved for future use.
• The high-order bits in a class E address are set to binary 1111.
• Class E IP address range includes 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255

Netid and Hostid

• Note that the concept does not apply to classes D and E.
• In class A, one byte defines the netid and three bytes define the hostid.
• In class B, two bytes define the netid and two bytes define the hostid.
• In class C, three bytes define the netid and one byte defines the hostid.
• In classful addressing, an IP address in class A, B, or C is divided into netid and
hostid.
• These parts are of varying lengths, depending on the class of the address.

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Mask
• Although the length of the netid and hostid (in bits) is predetermined in classful addressing,
we can also use a mask (also called the default mask/natural masks), a 32- bit number made
of contiguous 1’s followed by contiguous 0’s.
• The masks for classes A, B, and C are shown in Table.
• The concept does not apply to classes D and E.

• The mask can help us to find the netid and the hostid.
• For example, the mask for a class-A address has eight 1s, which means the first 8 bits of
any address in class A define the netid; the next 24 bits define the hostid.

Subnetting
• If an organization was granted a large block in class A or B, it could divide the addresses
into several contiguous groups and assign each group to smaller networks (called subnets)
or, in rare cases, share part of the addresses with neighbors.
• Subnetting increases the number of 1’s in the mask.
• To create multiple logical networks that exist within a single Class A, B, or C network.
• If you do not subnet, you are only able to use one network from your Class A, B, or C
network, which is unrealisticThe subnet mask follows two rules:
o If a binary bit is set to a 1 (or on) in a subnet mask, the corresponding bit in the
address identifies the network.
o If a binary bit is set to a 0 (or off) in a subnet mask, the corresponding bit in the
address identifies the host.

Finding The Subnet Address: We use binary notation for both the address and the maskand
then apply the AND operation to find the subnet address.
Example: What is the subnetwork address if the destination address is 200.45.34.56 andthe
subnet mask is 255.255.240.0?
Solution :
Step 1: Convert given IP and Subnet mask to BinaryStep 2:
Perform AND Operation on these two.
11001000 00101101 00100010 00111000 Binary 200.45.34.56

11111111 11111111 11110000 00000000 Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0

11001000 00101101 00100000 00000000
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The subnetwork address is 200.45.32.0.

Step 3: Convert the result of AND operation to Dotted Decimal format which is Subnet
mask.
Example 2: (VIMP)
A company is granted the site address 201.70.64.0 (class C). The company needs six
subnets. Design the subnets.
Solution:

• The number of 1s in the default mask is 24 (class C).

• The company needs six subnets.
• This number 6 is not a power of 2.
• The next number that is a power of 2 is 8 (23).
• We need 3 more 1’s in the subnet mask.
• The total number of 1’s in the subnet mask is 27 (24 + 3).
• The total number of 0’s is 5 (32 - 27).
• The mask is
11111111 11111111 11111111 11100000
or
255.255.255.224
• The number of subnets is 8.
• The number of addresses in each subnet is 25 (5 is the number of 0s) or 32.
Subnet 1:
The bit combination is 001.
Taking last octet in binary:0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 = 32 (10)
Hence the subnet address is, 201.70.64. 32
Subnet 2:
The bit combination is 01 0.
Taking last octet in binary:0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 = 64(10)
Hence the subnet address is, 201.70.64. 64
Subnet 3:
The bit combination is 011.
Taking last octet in binary:0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 = 96(10)
Hence the subnet address is, 201.70.64. 96
Subnet 4:
The bit combination is 100.
Taking last octet in binary :1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 128(10)
Hence the subnet address is, 201.70.64. 128
Subnet 5:
The bit combination is 101.
Taking last octet in binary :1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 = 160(10)
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Hence the subnet address is, 201.70.64. 160

Subnet 6:
The bit combination is 110.
Taking last octet in binary :1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 192 (10)
Hence the subnet address is, 201.70.64. 192

Example 3:
A company is granted the site address 181.56.0.0 (class B). The company needs 1000
subnets. Design the subnets.
Solution:

• The number of 1s in the default mask is 16 (class B).

• The company needs 1000 subnets.
• This number is not a power of 2.
• The next number that is a power of 2 is 1024 (210).
• We need 10 more 1’s in the subnet mask.
• The total number of 1’s in the subnet mask is 26 (16 + 10).
• The total number of 0’s is 6 (32 - 26).
• The mask is
11111111 11111111 11111111 11000000
or
255.255.255.192
• The number of subnets is 1024.
• The number of addresses in each subnet is 26 (6 is the number of 0s) or 64.

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Supernetting
• The most of the class A and class B addresses were exhausted; however, there was still a
huge demand for midsize blocks.
• The size of a class C block with a maximum number of 256 addresses did not satisfy the
needs of most organizations.
• One solution was supernetting.
• In supernetting, an organization can combine several class C blocks to create a larger
range of addresses.
• In other words, several networks are combined to create a supernetwork or a supernet.
• An organization can apply for a set of class C blocks instead of just one.
• For example, an organization that needs 1000 addresses can be granted four contiguous
class C blocks.
• The organization can then use these addresses to create one supernetwork.
• Supernetting decreases the number of 1’s in the mask.
• For example,
o if an organization is given four class C addresses, the mask changes from 24 to 22.
Example:

• We need to make a supernetwork out of 16 class C blocks. What is the supernet mask?
Solution:

• We need 16 blocks.
• For 16 blocks we need to change four 1s to 0s in the default mask. So the mask is
11111111 11111111 11110000 00000000
Or
255.255.240.0
Address Depletion
• The flaws in classful addressing scheme combined with the fast growth of the
Internet lead to the near depletion of the available addresses.
• Yet the number of devices on the Internet is much less than the 232 address
space.
• We have run out of class A and B addresses, and a class C block is too small for
most midsize organizations.
• One solution that has alleviated the problem is the idea of classless addressing.

Classless Addressing
• To overcome address depletion and give more organizations access to the
Internet, classless addressing was designed and implemented.
• In this scheme, there are no classes, but the addresses are still granted in blocks.
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Address Blocks

• In classless addressing, when an entity, small or large, needs to be connected to

the Internet, it is granted a block (range) of addresses.
• The size of the block (the number of addresses) varies based on the nature and
size of the entity.
• For example, a household may be given only two addresses; a large organization
may be given thousands of addresses.
• An ISP, as the Internet service provider, may be given thousands of addresses
based on the number of customers it may serve.
Restriction: To simplify the handling of addresses, the Internet authorities imposethree
restrictions on classless address blocks:
1. The addresses in a block must be contiguous, one after another.
2. The number of addresses in a block must be a power of 2 (1, 2, 4, 8, ...).
3. The first address must be evenly divisible by the number of addresses.
Example:
A company needs 600 addresses. Which of the following set of class C blocks can be used to form
a supernet for this company?
1. 198.47.32.0 198.47.33.0 198.47.34.0
2. 198.47.32.0 198.47.42.0 198.47.52.0 198.47.62.0
3. 198.47.31.0 198.47.32.0 198.47.33.0 198.47.52.0
4. 198.47.32.0 198.47.33.0 198.47.34.0 198.47.35.0
Solution:
1: No, there are only three blocks.
2: No, the blocks are not contiguous.
3: No, 31 in the first block is not divisible by 4.4:
Yes, all three requirements are fulfilled.

5.5 OSI and TCP / IP Network Model.

OSI reference model TCP/IP network model
1)It has 7 layers 1)It has 4 layers
2)Transport layer guarantees delivery of 2)Transport layer does not guarantees
packets delivery of packets
3)Horizontal approach 3)Vertical approach
4)Separate presentation layer 4)No session layer, characteristics are
provided by transport layer
5)Separate session layer 5)No presentation layer, characteristics are
provided by application layer

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6)Network layer provides both 6)Network layer provides only

connectionless and connection connection less services
oriented services
7)It defines the services, interfaces and 7)It does not clearly distinguishes between
protocols very clearly and makes a clear service interface and protocols
distinction between them
8)The protocol are better hidden and can 8)It is not easy to replace the protocols
be easily replaced as the technology
changes

9)OSI truly is a general model 9)TCP/IP cannot be used for any other
application
10)It has a problem of protocol 10) The model does not fit any protocol
filtering into a model stack.

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