Ecological Indicators 145 (2022) 109660

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Ecological Indicators
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecolind

Landscape-based regeneration of the Nile Delta’s waterways in support of

water conservation and environmental protection
Sara S. Fouad a, b, Essam Heggy c, d, *, Abotalib Z. Abotalib c, e, Mohamed Ramah f,
Seifeddine Jomaa g, Udo Weilacher a
a
Department of Landscape Architecture and Transformation, School of Engineering and Design, Technical University of Munich, Emil-Ramann Street 6, Freising 85354,
Germany
b
Arab Academy for Science and Technology and Maritime Transport, College of Engineering & Technology, Architectural Engineering & Environmental Design Dept.,
Egypt
c
Ming Hsieh Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Southern California, 3737 Watt Way, PHE 502, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0271, USA
d
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA
e
Division of Geological Applications and Mineral Resources, National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences, Cairo, Egypt
f
National Research Centre, Department of Geophysical Sciences, Giza, Egypt
g
Department of Aquatic Ecosystem Analysis and Management, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Magdeburg, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Waterways’ regeneration is proposed as one of the main mitigation strategies for addressing the alarming water
Waterways budget deficit in the populous, hyper-arid Egypt, relying primarily on the Nile as its most important water source.
Environmental degradations The latter is increasingly under pressure from a rise in internal consumption, droughts, and upstream damming.
Pollution
We perform herein a review of the state of knowledge of waterways in the Nile Delta and the environmental
Littering
Water deficit
drivers that resulted in their degradation. We evaluate how these degradations are associated with the decadal
Public perception changes in their socioeconomic context and how these changes impacted the public perception of the waterways’
Regeneration functionality from irrigation canals to sewage sites. The above led to littering, pollution, and negligence toward
Nile Delta their preservation, which consequently accelerated their gradual landfilling as a response to their contamination
Environmental landscaping triggering severe public health and ecosystem degradation concerns. The extensive landfilling further compro­
mised their role in crop production, water conservation, and ecosystem integrity. We review and compile several
published reports and perform field investigations to assess the current state of knowledge on the physical
degradation of waterways in the Nile Delta for the last 60 years. Our results suggest that the alarming increase in
informal settlements, resulting from multiple economic shifts and rapid urban sprawl, is the primary cause of
waterways degradation and landfilling as well as the reduction in their total area by ~30 % from ~207,912 ha in
1987 to ~146,381 ha in 2019. We suggest a landscape-based design built on the Nile’s natural heritage to
efficiently regenerate the areas surrounding these waterways to enable their role in addressing the water budget
deficit and ensuring sustainable ecosystem services.

1. Introduction intrinsic consumption and the increased damming activities upstream of

the Nile basin; both requiring rapid implementation of waterways
The United Nations Climate Change Conference in Glasgow (COP26) regeneration among other water conservation strategies. In response to
in 2021 drew global attention to the impacts of climate change on inland the current intrinsic water budget deficit ranging from 40 to 54 BCM/yr
historic waterways and their role in addressing water stress (Green WIN, (billion cubic meters per year) (Nikiel and Eltahir, 2021; SSCHR, 2022)
2021). In Egypt, the nation’s rising water budget deficit has been the and its expected increase due to the construction of the Grand Ethiopian
subject of international concern considering the alarming growth of Renaissance Dam (GERD) (Heggy et al., 2021), the Egyptian authority

* Corresponding author at: University of Southern California (USC), Viterbi School of Engineering, 3737 Watt Way, Powell Hall of Engineering, Office 502, Los
Angeles, CA 90089, USA.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S.S. Fouad), [email protected] (E. Heggy), [email protected] (A.Z. Abotalib), [email protected] (M. Ramah), seifeddine.
[email protected] (S. Jomaa), [email protected] (U. Weilacher).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2022.109660
Received 9 August 2022; Received in revised form 1 November 2022; Accepted 8 November 2022
Available online 15 November 2022
1470-160X/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
S.S. Fouad et al. Ecological Indicators 145 (2022) 109660

implemented several measures including the adaptation of less water downstream of the Aswan High Dam (AHD) (Heggy et al., 2021) and
consuming crops, the lining of waterways and the expansion of irriga­ thus the Egyptian authorities are encouraging all efforts to explore new
tion water reuse (Elnmer et al., 2015; Khadr et al., 2017; Dessalegn et al., unconventional resources of water to support the national water needs
2022). These mitigation efforts are severely compromised by the in­ such as defining and locating new groundwater aquifers (Abotalib et al.,
crease in the heavy metal pollution in the waterways, the incremental 2021; Attwa et al., 2021; Khalil et al., 2021a), expansion in desalination
increase in water consumption, littering, and public misuse, and the (Kotb et al., 2021) and reuse of irrigation water (Tawfik et al., 2021),
high implementation cost of regeneration. The increase in heavy metal and adopting strategies for waterway regeneration as a method of water
pollution is primarily attributed to the expansion of the reuse of un­ conservation (Khalil et al., 2021a).
treated irrigation return water, which is rich in fertilizers due to the high Of particular interest is the Nile Delta, in the upper northern part of
cost of drainage water treatment. This water source amounts on average Egypt, which is the country’s primary source of agricultural production
to 11 BCM/yr (El Shazly, 2019; Morsy et al., 2020; Tawfik et al., 2021). (Redeker and Kantoush, 2014). It is also one of the largest river deltas in
Moreover, the increase in water consumption is a consequence of the the world with its surface area of ~22,000 km2 and its high vulnerability
rapid population growth and the large-scale developments in both the to sea level rise and seawater intrusion in soils and shallow aquifers,
industrial and agricultural sectors. For instance, the withdrawalof the change in land use, subsidence and the socioecological implications of
Nile water, ranging from 0.872 to 4.5 BCM/yr, mixed with drain water these drivers (Hamza, 2009; El-Ramady et al., 2013; Rateb and Abotalib,
to Sinai Peninsula through El-Salam canal (’Abdelwahab et al., 2020; 2020). The above natural and anthropogenic hazards are augmented by
Assar et al., 2019; Othman et al., 2012). the unsustainable land management practices in the Nile Delta, where
However, the reasons for the littering and public misuse of the Nile only 14 % of the Delta’s area adopts sustainable land use management
waterways remain largely unquantified let alone understood, as histor­ practices (El-Nahry and Abdel Kawy, 2013). Moreover, Egypt’s rapid
ically, Egyptians were highly preservative of the Nile, with a strong population growth in recent decades at an average annual rate ranging
sense of cultural and socioeconomic attachment to the river ecosystem. from 1.9 to 2.7 % during the period of 1961-2020, resulted in a reduc­
The historical significance of the Nile River and its associated waterways tion of the per capita water share to a quarter through these forty years
in Egyptian public perception can be attributed to several cultural, po­ (UN DESA, 2019; The World Bank, 2022). Today, Egypt is classified as a
litical, and religious reasons. First, culturally, the Nile River has long zone of “severe water stress” as the annual water supplies drop below
been considered the source of prosperity as its flow in the harsh hyper- 500 m3 per person, categorized as dangerously close to “absolute scar­
arid desert creates a unique and sustainable harvest that protects its city”. The above water stress is mitigated to some extent through
inhabitants from outer invasions (Oestigaard, 2018). Second, politically, importing virtual water (i.e., water is imported indirectly through food,
the governance of the Nile’s flow in ancient Egypt was one of the sources hence is called virtual water), in the form of primary and secondary
of the king’s strength, requiring careful dedication to the river’s health agricultural crops and animal products (The World Bank, 2000).
(Weber, 1993). Third, religiously, ancient Egyptians considered the Nile Furthermore, the repeated reuse of agricultural drainage water is also
“Nylus” as the artery of life and the greatest of all Gods (Heliodorus, widely used to mitigate the water shortage. This, in turn, negatively
1895) and therefore, the flooding season was a time of feasting and other impacts the quality of water by increasing its salinity and pollutant
religious rituals (Siculus et al., 1947). The later religious value of the concentration (Khalil et al., 2021b). According to Omar and Moussa
Nile River has also extended through the Roman and the Greek eras as (2016), Mazzoni et al. (2018), and Bekhit (2019), Egypt is already facing
well as more recently in Christianity and Islam, where the Nile River was an intrinsic water shortage between 18.5 and 21 BCM/yr and will
considered a holy water (Oestigaard, 2018). In terms of sustenance, continue to exacerbate water stress conditions leading to doubling their
Egypt began its first agricultural activity around 5200 BCE, by sowing water demands by 2040 (Nikiel and Eltahir, 2021). The current, sig­
seeds and relying on the Nile for watering and fertilizing the soil (Gad, nificant increases in food prices due to severe water scarcity per capita
2008). As a result, the Egyptian culture has always been defined by its could increase the socioeconomic instability over the next 30 years
reliance on Nile River water rather than rainfall (Hmdan, 1967). Today, (Terwisscha van Scheltinga et al., 2021). Moreover, under current global
the mitigation efforts to preserve the Nile and its associated waterways, warming, future global predictions of river flow (up to 2100) using daily
which are one the oldest and largest waterway systems known in human data of river discharge from high-resolution general circulation climate
history (Tayia et al., 2021) are compromised by severe large-scale models suggest that the frequency and intensity of prolonged droughts
degradations due to rapid urbanization, littering, public misuse and will significantly increase (Hirabayashi et al., 2008; Abdelmohsen et al.,
inefficient regeneration strategies. 2020). The above reasons are alarming and cast a grim outlook on water
The environmental status of any natural system is expected to change resources for downstream nations in the Nile basin and for Egypt in
over time depending on the socioeconomic settings and development particular.
levels of its society (e.g., (Meybeck and Helmer, 1989; Garcier, 2007). Under such water stress conditions, preservation strategies are
Following the natural evolution of the hierarchy of needs theory (Mas­ crucial to providing minimum sustainability of water resources. Heggy
low, 1943), it is assumed that humans will consider complex needs, only et al. (2021) presented the feasibility indices of various mitigation
when their basic needs are fulfilled. This theory has been approved in measures needed to avoid severe water deficit in Egypt, especially
different environmental-related problems in different showcases during the filling period of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam
worldwide, where environmental interests are consistently ranked after (GERD), such as using the strategic reserves at the AHD reservoir,
human health and economic needs (de Haan et al., 2014; Arden and expanding groundwater extraction from shallow aquifers, and regener­
Jawitz, 2019; Wachholz et al., 2022). The Nile River basin is not an ating the waterways. For example, shading and lining of the irrigation
exception in this regard, as the rapid population growth, rising food canal network of ~31,000 km can reduce the Nile flow water loss from
prices, stagnant GDP, and increase in poverty in Egypt during the last both seepage and evaporation by 10 to 40 % (Omar and Moussa, 2016);
decade made the Egyptians less protective of the river ecosystem. (Molle, 2018a). On the other hand, the currently implemented design
Egypt is the most downstream riparian of the Nile River basin, which using the impermeable concrete lining of the canal will significantly
is composed of separate sub-basins sharing water resources among 10 reduce recharge to the surrounding shallow aquifers (Khalil et al.,
nations where more than 500 million inhabitants are residing (NBWRA, 2021b). The importance of lining the 31,000 km long irrigation canals is
2022). Among all the Nile riparian countries, populous Egypt is the most materialized in a new governmental infrastructure campaign and water
arid country and the one relying almost exclusively on the surface water regeneration plan (i.e., the 2017–2037 plan) that was announced in
from the Nile River, for 98 % of its renewable water resources (FAO, 2020. As a first step, the Egyptian authorities are implementing a two-
2016). The latter is subject to significant flow fluctuations due to natural year plan to upgrade and reinforce the lining of 7,000 km of irrigation
and anthropogenic drivers which can trigger substantial water deficit canals at a cost of one billion USD (Enterprise, 2020). The latter includes

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reinforcing the canals to prevent seepage, promoting the use of efficient for multidisciplinary target audiences, including researchers, policy­
irrigation techniques as well as incentivizing farmers to use these makers, and key stakeholders for supporting decision-making. One of
techniques. However, even though several canals were lined, they have the advantages of the DPSIR framework is its flexibility in terms of in­
been degraded in just a few months by littering and solid waste dumping dicators and in-situ data availability requirements compared to
by the local inhabitants (Abou Elnasr, 2021; Elsahy, 2021). Therefore, modeling and data-driven analyses, which are well-known as data-
the technical solutions to the Nile waterways’ regeneration are not dependent approaches. This criterium is crucial in our investigation as
sufficient by themselves to achieve their sustainability. Instead, efficient the Nile Delta is an in-situ data-limited area.
regeneration needs to include a landscape architectural intervention to Third, we use architectural landscape design to propose an effective
increase the inhabitant’s connectivity for the cultural value of their nature-based solution for the sustainable regeneration of waterways
living environment, which significantly supports preservation. The functionalities, ensuring their multiple benefits and roles in water con­
rationale for considering the importance of cultural landscape regener­ servation and ecosystem services. The latter was achieved using the
ation through aesthetics together with the functional aspects is the water-sensitive urban design (WSUD) approach. The WSUD approach
consideration of landscape as an integrative system including multiple involves using natural elements such as soil, water, and plants to address
ecosystem functionalities with direct and indirect benefits. In this, the environmental, economic, social, and climate concerns. The design of
cultural landscape is defined as ′′ a composition of man-made or man- the conceptual regeneration model is created through Adobe Illustrator
modified spaces to serve as infrastructure or background for our collective and AutoCAD version 2022. The design integrates water surfaces to
existence′′ (Jackson, 1984). Accordingly, the intent here is not to adopt build healthy and more liveable urban areas, that fuse with nature along
the historical solution that attempts to bring the landscape to its original the riverbanks.
functionality while ignoring multiple societal and urban developments,
but rather to establish a balance between both expectations to achieve 3. Results
sustainability. Consequently, the waterscape in Egypt that is currently
undergoing major large-scale degradation requires a holistic long-term 3.1. Current state of knowledge on waterways evolution in the Nile Delta
interdisciplinary regeneration strategy, as described above, to enforce
its role in water conservation and food security. It is important to note The changes in the flow dynamics in waterways (such as canals,
that, in climate-vulnerable cities, such as those in the Nile Delta, wa­ creeks, and rivers) in arid areas, such as the Nile in Egypt, provide the
terways are the most important components of the natural life support public with a visual measure of water stress as these water bodies cross
system (Dolman, 2021). dense urban areas. Historically, the public perception of the seasonal
Herein, we provide a state of knowledge of the Nile Delta waterways’ state of the Nile waterways constituted an important part of their
system and investigate the socioeconomic drivers that led to its degra­ awareness of the magnitude and extent of the wet, normal, or dry con­
dations as well as addressing the challenges for its preservation in order ditions in the Nile basin, where the changes in flow level and water
to support water conservation and suggest design solutions. In partic­ quality (inferred from the water color, smell and Nile vegetations) built
ular, we assess the evolution of the local inhabitants’ physical connec­ the public’s perception of the sustainability of their water resources and
tivity and visual perception of waterways, which plays an important role associated conservation schemes (Ouda et al., 2021). With an above
in their response to water awareness campaigns addressing the nation’s world average illiteracy rates, lack of constructive media coverage of
rising water deficit. This connectivity relies on two main benchmarks: environmental challenges, and absence of continuous educational pro­
the visual characteristics of landscape as an aesthetic factor resulting grams on water conservation, the state of waterways has always been
from urban expansion, and the socioeconomic activities connecting the the metric for the public when it comes to understanding water stress
inhabitants and the landscape settings. (Benameur et al., 2021). To a lesser extent, the public perception of
water stress is also impacted by municipal resource management prac­
2. Methods tices including conservation scenarios, water reuse, and pricing (Cau­
berghe et al., 2021). The success of the above elements in raising public
Our analysis to assess the degradation and effective regeneration of awareness to mitigate water stress is often dependent on the inhabitants’
Nile Delta waterways is carried out, following three steps. The first, is an cultural values, and educational levels as well as their perception of
assessment of the physical degradation of the waterways and its corre­ water value (Reed and Buckmaster, 2015). Furthermore, economic
lation to urban and socioeconomic settings in the last seventy years. The drivers have a quantifiable impact on public behavior towards their
latter is investigated through establishing a historical record of the natural assets, including waterways (Dopico et al., 2022). Several ana­
evolution of waterways and the socioeconomic status of Egyptians using lysts suggest a U-shaped relationship between wealth and environ­
compiled data from peer-reviewed literature and analysis of multi- mental sustainability (Tang and Koveos, 2008; Cox et al., 2011; Tranos
temporal high-resolution photogrammetric satellite images accessible and Zeleke, 2018), where positive environmental attitudes are highest in
on Google Earth in a GIS environment. both the wealthiest and poorest nations, but the decline of these atti­
The second, is an evaluation of the decadal changes in the ecological tudes become clear as richer nations enter a recession, i.e., “the envi­
indicators of the waterways performed using the DPSIR (Drivers-Pres­ ronmental Kuznets curve” (Cole et al., 1997). Still, other studies
sures-States-Impacts-Responses) framework. The DPSIR framework was suggested that there is no proof at present that society’s interaction with
developed in the early 1990s and was adopted by the European Envi­ the water environment has been significantly affected by the economic
ronmental Agency (EEA) in 1999 as a conceptual cause-effect relation­ aspects (Dopico et al., 2022).
ship for environmental assessment (Smeets and Weterings, 1999). Since Waterways management in Egypt went through several phases that
then, the DPSIR framework has been further extended as a knowledge were highly impacted by the rapid changes in urban and demographic
production tool using an appropriate combination of indicators in a morphology. These phases could be summarized in five main trans­
meaningful manner for decision-makers (Organisation of Economic Co- formation eras: (1) the initiation of the modern waterways’ system,
operation and Development (OECD), 2003). Furthermore, the DPSIR which occurred during the Ottoman era in 1839, (2) modernization of
framework allows a holistic explanation of mutual interactions between the waterways in the 1960s during Nasser presidential initiative to
the environmental states with their controlling drivers and pressures, achieve national agricultural sufficiency and industrialization (Daef,
including the socio-economic dynamics (Lundberg, 2005). Therefore, 1986), (3) the rapid increase in population, urban growth and the reli­
the DPSIR framework is used in our study as a unique assessment tool ance on imports to address the local deficit in agricultural production in
connecting the states of waterways degradation to their drivers and the 1970s and the beginning of the degradation of waterways (Water­
impacts and their required management options in a simplified manner bury, 1985a), (4) in response to the later, the Ministry of Water

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Resources and Irrigation launched a series of irrigation improvement 1998).

projects that spanned the 1980s and 1990s in collaboration with Colo­ In the 1960s, the Egyptian economy was mainly agriculture-based,
rado State University and the USAID to establish continuous flow in the where the agricultural sector employed ~47 % of the total workforce
secondary branches (canals) and introduce collective pump stations (El- and provided ~30 % of the gross domestic products and more than ~50
Agha et al., 2011; Molle, 2018b), (5) beginning of the urban sprawl and % of exports (Waterbury, 1985b). Moreover, the industrial sector was
launching the first waterway conservation campaign in the 1990s also heavily dependent on agricultural products such is the case for
(GreenCOM, 2000), (6) the expansion of the irrigation improvement textile and food processing. In 1974, Egypt became a net importer of
projects with the aim to involve the farmers in the design, imple­ agricultural commodities for the first time in its history (Richards,
mentation and maintenance of the waterways’ structures and the allo­ 1980). Simultaneously, the economic liberalization (open-door policy/
cation of water share, which resulted in the improvement of 52,000 Infitah) was announced in 1974 after the socialist experiment, suggest­
feddan in 2014 (Molle et al., 2019), (7) the begining of deriving water ing substantial changes from being a closed self-sufficient communist
from the Nile River and drains during the 2000s through newly devel­ economy to a more open and global trading one with western countries,
oped canals to irrigate desert lands in south Egypt (e.g., Sheikh Zayed attracting international investments and establishing a large private
canal to reclaim 550,000 feddans (El Baradei and Al Sadeq, 2019) and in sector (Daef, 1986). Yet this necessary economic liberalization has been
north Sinai (e.g., El Salam canal is planned to reclaim 620,000 feddans poorly implemented, leading to the decline in national production, and
(Barnes, 2012; Othman et al., 2012), (8) a 2-year project for lining hence a strong reliance on exports, and the beginning of the deteriora­
Egypt’s irrigation canals across the whole nation was launched in 2020 tion of the domestic agricultural sector along with internal migration
to improve water resources management in both the Nile Delta and waves to new urban areas. The fast expansion of these urban areas
valley and contribute to addressing the intrinsic water deficit (Abd-Elaty coupled with the rapid population growth raised the demand for potable
et al., 2022), and finally (9) the current status, which witnesses severe water beyond the capacity of existing facilities and the authority’s
degradation of the water share per capita, urban sprawl and large-scale technical and financial abilities to improve the water infrastructure at
irreversible pollution of the water and soil in the waterways associated that time (Tahoon, 2020). The situation became more alarming during
with dumping and littering solid wastes in the newly lined canals the late 1970s when the Nile flow decreased during the prolonged
(Abd-Elziz et al., 2022; Dessalegn et al., 2022; Shabaka et al., 2022). drought from 1978 to 1987, bringing Lake Nasser’s reservoir level to an
Since the construction of the current Nile irrigation waterway system in all-time low (Molle, 2018a). Based on a detailed study conducted in the
the 19th century, it has been based on the non-systematic management summer of 1979 as part of the Egyptian Government’s Metered Water
approach, where a comprehensive and integrated approach to water Service Connection Program, 25 % of Cairo inhabitants lacked direc­
resources management is lacking. In such a system, many agencies are t access to the city’s water supply system (Nadim et al., 1980). Another
involved in water resources management, with unclear responsibilities, unintended consequence of the economic liberalization strategy was the
which leads to duplication of effort, lack of comprehensive data, and an authority’s recognition of the country’s lack of sufficient water-related
inadequate plan for sustainability (Dayrit, 2022). infrastructure and its impacts on the ability of new economic policies
Moreover, the priority in the waterways planning system is given to to attract international investments. Due to the deficiencies in the
their functionality as irrigation or drinking resource over aesthetics for authority’s investment in the water services sector, excessive inflation
the purpose of an efficient cost effective implementation (Haug, 2021). occurred in the prices of agricultural products, erosion of public services
Thus, Young (1974) stated that “real urban or regional planners (deserving increased, and the majority’s standard of life deteriorated (Ikram,
of the name) must consider the area being planned as a system, must un­ 1980).
derstand its connectedness, its interrelatedness with its parts and those Overall, the economic reforms in the 1970s had adverse impacts on
exterior to it, must understand the flow of inhabitants, energy, and materials the social scale in Egypt, widening the gap between the top and bottom
into and out of it, must understand the design essentials based on environ­ socioeconomic classes and hence widening the gap in water consump­
mental characteristics and human needs. But they do not.” (Young, 1974, p. tion and availability for different parts of the population. Additionally,
54). Unfortunately, the continuous implementation of functionalism in in the 1980s, the massive eastward outflow labor migration to rich oil-
urban expansion results in societal dysconnectivity with the established producing countries in the Persian Gulf resulted in several farmers
infrastructures, which triggers public misuse and hence degradation. abandoning their lands for a better economic perspective. The aban­
The wide use of the functionalistic approach despite the multiple doned agricultural areas soon turned into dense urban sprawls.
transformations in the cultural and socioeconomic contexts over time Furthermore, in the remaining farming areas, irrigation has become a
has led to negative consequences on the inner cities’ waterways. As the more complex process under the rising adjacent urban water demands
historical function of waterways for agricultural irrigation has changed, and the degradation of the waterways now running through sprawls
the public perception of their role also transformed. Today, most further compromising the efficiency of the irrigation system (Molle,
Egyptians in urban areas perceive the waterways as sewage or dump­ 2018a). For instance, the urban sprawl on both agricultural lands and
sters due to the degradation of the urban sprawl landscape surrounding waterways (e.g., canals and drains), together with climate change and
their presence that replaced the scenic crop fields. continuous damming along the Nile River decreased both sediment and
flow supply and thus affecting the revenue of land cultivation (Redeker
3.2. Socioeconomic changes impacting waterways evolution in Egypt and Kantoush, 2014). In response to the reduced flow, local farmers
(1960–2000) adopted inappropriate practices by either over-irrigating their lands
when water is available to store water in the soil profile (Molle et al.,
The construction of the Aswan High Dam (AHD) between 1960-1970 2019) or abstracting water from drains and shallow aquifers (Molle
brought major changes to Egypt’s water and agricultural management et al., 2018). However, these practices my deprive downstream farmers
due to its significant role in flow regulation, and drought management in from their water shares and also introduce salinity, heavy metals and
addition to the hydropower generation (Smith, 1986). The country’s other contaminants that are often more concentrated in shallow aquifers
agricultural production boomed in the 1960s as part of the national plan to the soil, which ultimately affect the crop productivity and food se­
for modernizing the agricultural and industrial sectors, along with the curity and add more costs on the local farmers (Elnmer et al., 2015; El
development of local technical capacities (Wahdan, 2007). In this era, Shazly, 2019; Morsy et al., 2020).
several new urban settlements were established, thus leading to a sub­
stantial internal migration wave to cities. Consequently, urban popula­ 3.3. The degradation of waterscape urban fabric in the Nile Delta
tion expanded from 37.4 % in 1960 to 45 % in 1995 at the expense of
decreasing the rural ones primarily working in agriculture (UNDP, The loss of several agricultural areas in the Nile Delta occurred due to

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rapid urban growth (Fig. 1) (Radwan et al., 2019), causing severe almost the same period) (Fig. 1d).
degradation in the soil organic carbon content between 1972 and 2017 The significant degradation of agricultural land inevitably resulted in
and significantly degrading crop productivity (Abd-Elmabod et al., a loss of the aesthetic quality of the agriculture landscape (Khalil et al.,
2019). In response, agricultural areas expanded into the elevated desert 2014). Another challenge for farmers is the reduction of silt transported
fringes of the Nile Delta to compensate for the rising demand of the delta downstream by the Nile River, which is necessary to maintain fertile
land for residential uses (Rateb and Abotalib, 2020). This led to soil soil. This reduction is caused by the entrapment of the suspended sedi­
maintenance by intense fertilizers and irrigation usage, putting more ment load of the Nile flow in the Aswan High Dam reservoir and thus
pressure on the water consumption (El-Ramady et al., 2013; El-Saadawy further degrading the fertility of the agricultural land in the Nile Delta
et al., 2020). Therefore, increased urbanization has resulted in the loss of (Rashad, 2018). This has led to crucial changes in the urban morphology
soil fertility and a shift in agriculture from productive to marginal soils, of the Delta cities and a strong degradation of the visual and cultural
requiring higher capital inputs and, eventually less sustainable and landscape qualities (Gouda et al., 2016). From the 1980s to the present
higher costs (Abd-Elmabod et al., 2019). time, local inhabitants gradually lost the connection with their urban
To assess these large-scale changes, we examine the evolution of the landscape, which adversely affected their social communication through
irrigation canals in the Nile Delta between 1980 and 2020 using multi- a process that can also be described as a significant weakening of
temporal high-resolution photogrammetric satellite images accessible sentimentality toward one’s environment, i.e., place attachment (Brown
on Google Earth and published geospatial reports (Figs. 1a and b). Visual and Raymond, 2007). For centuries, the visual image of the Egyptian
interpretation, tracing and digitizing of the waterways are achieved landscape communicated a positive relationship between man and the
based on the distinctive spectral absorption of water bodies to electro­ cultivated environment, valuing especially the presence of water for
magnetic waves in the visible range (approximately 0.4 to 0.7 µm) and irrigation and drinking. This rich image of the landscape enforced the
thus their appearance as dark bodies compared to the surrounding place attachment of the inhabitants, but with the change in the land­
landscape. Tracing of the irrigation canal in the Nile Delta shows that scape’s character, the sensitivity of the locals to their environment as
numerous canals have been partially or completely landfilled (Figs. 1a well as the sense of belonging has been significantly weakened (Keleg
and b and 2d), where the total area covered by these canals has been et al., 2021).
reduced from 207,912 ha in 1987 to 146,381 ha in 2019 (about 30 % Due to the degradation of cultural landscape attributes and poor
reduction in the canals’ surface area in the Nile Delta (Fig. 1c). This maintenance of the waterways, several canals in the Nile Delta suffered
reduction has been accompanied by a dramatic urban expansion from from continuous littering, becoming an illegal solid waste estuary,
90,700 ha in 1990 (which is equivalent to 907 km2) to 240,800 ha in resulting in further visual and sanitary degradations (Figs. 2c and g).
2019 (which is equivalent to 2408 km2) (i.e., more than 250 % for Pollution severity varies across the Nile waterway system based on flow,

Fig. 1. (a) Tracing of the man-made waterways used for irrigation in the Nile Delta in 1980. (b) Tracing of the same in 2020, revealing that ~30 % of the waterways
have been landfilled in the last four decades. (c) The evolution of the surface area of waterways in the Nile Delta in Egypt from 1987 to 2019. (d) The increase in
urban areas in the Nile Delta that led to the decrease in the green/blue spaces from 1972 to 2019. Figures based on data from Roest, 1999; Abd-Elmabod et al., 2019;
Abd El-kawy et al., 2019; Radwan et al., 2019; Abd El-Hamid, 2020; Elagouz et al., 2020; Ramadan et al., 2021.

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S.S. Fouad et al. Ecological Indicators 145 (2022) 109660

Fig. 2. The two main waterscape transformation processes in Egypt (upper row: case 1; and lower row: case 2) are exemplified by the two cases of Al Mahmoudieh
canal in Alexandria, and Saqqara canal in Giza (landfilling or lining while ignoring landscape design in both cases). (a-d) The degradation of Al Mahmoudieh canal
started by the end of 1990 s due to difficulty of landscape maintenance, leading to a disconnect from its inhabitants and its perception as a destination of municipality
waste that led to its landfilling in 2018 (one of the major landfilled canals connecting the Nile Delta to the Mediterranean port). (e-f) The deterioration of the 11-km
Saqqara canal due to inefficient urban expansion on agricultural lands; the canal was lined in 2021 and filled by waste discarded by local inhabitants after being
developed at a cost of ~1.6 million USD. Source: (Abd El-kawy et al., 2019; Abou Elnasr, 2021).

usage patterns, population density, sanitation system availability, and remain functional and well-maintained (MWRI, 2021). Under the su­
other socioeconomic and geological factors (Abdel-Satar et al., 2017; pervision of MWRI, this objective is enforced by implementing a new
Hegazy et al., 2020). Untreated or partially treated industrial and do­ Egyptian Law on Irrigation and Drainage (Law No. 12) and establishing
mestic wastewater, residual fertilizer leaching, solid waste disposal and regulatory bodies to monitor violations by inhabitants. In 2019, 1,300
navigation are all major contributors to the observed pollution. How­ violations have been reported in the Nile Delta canals, and 1,203 of these
ever, lining of the irrigation canals has reduced the contamination of cases witnessed litigation procedures (Abd-Elaziz et al., 2020).
surrounding shallow aquifers in the Nile Delta and in the newly Egypt’s 2017–2037 national development plan was publicly released
reclaimed desert fringes (Khalil et al., 2021b). Consequently, the Nile’s in April 2019 and has a primary focus to address the nation water
poor water quality became the primary source of public health degra­ scarcity (Mostafa et al., 2021). The 50 billion USD development
dation, including a surge in terminal diseases, such as cancer and kidney approach is built on multiple pillars, including increasing water quality,
failure (Dakkak, 2021). The Nile River receives drainage water from 67 optimizing water use, and creating a productive environment in which
agricultural drains, 43 of which are major drains, from Aswan to the state agencies may collaborate (FAO, 2017). The initiative includes
Delta. Only ten drains, however, meet Egyptian standards for drainage encouraging farmers to employ modern irrigation systems, collaborate
water quality released into the Nile. The surge in pollution will be with research institutions to develop water-efficient crops, cooperate
aggravated by the potential reduction of the Nile flow resulting from with African states on water-use research, and, of special interest to
upstream damming and drought periods (Abdel-Satar et al., 2017). The private sector investors, build new wastewater and desalination plants.
intensive reuse of drain water to compensate any expected irrigation The authorities had already finished 26 of the 52 planned sewage-
deficit in Egypt during the filling of the GERD (Heggy et al., 2021) or treatment plants by the start of 2020, with a total capacity of 418
drought period could also increase the concentration of contaminants of million m3 per year and will service an estimated 8 million inhabitants
both Nile water and soil by fertilizers and heavy metals. in the Nile Delta (Kwasi et al, 2022). Moreover, the Egyptian authorities
started lining irrigation canals that will result in a significant reduction
4. Discussion of approximately 5 billion m3 in seepage loss. The national project’s goal
is to line 20,000 km of the 55,000 km of Nile valley irrigation canals
4.1. Waterways regeneration as a measure for water conservation in (Minister of Planning and Economic Development., 2020; Oxford Busi­
Egypt ness Group OBG, 2020). Although the project is already underway, there
is very little information available about how it will affect the ground­
With a rapidly growing population and severe climate vulnerability, water levels in the Nile Delta, or how the Delta’s water resources will be
the future of Egypt’s water sufficiency is challenging. While the Nile managed conjunctively (Abd-Elaty et al., 2022). The construction proj­
Basin is currently receiving more rainfall, it is also experiencing more ect, which will focus on canals of the Nile Valley and Delta, has already
hot and dry years on average (Coffel et al., 2019) with projected in­ begun in numerous Egyptian governorates (Takouleu, 2022). The lining
creases in the frequency and magnitude of prolonged droughts (Abdel­ of these waterways will require an investment of ~5 billion USD.
mohsen et al., 2022). Currently, the Egyptian Ministry for Water Nevertheless, the Central Bank of Egypt announced an ambitious plan to
Resources and Irrigation (MWRI) has established that one of its highest mobilize 3.5 billion USD for the modernization of irrigation systems,
priorities for water conservation is to ensure that the national canals including waterways in Egypt (Magoum, 2021).

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S.S. Fouad et al. Ecological Indicators 145 (2022) 109660

4.2. Modern public perception of waterways in the Nile Delta reflected by the increased heavy metals concentration. Even though
there is an increase in the population using an improved sanitation fa­
Despite the multiple regeneration initiatives of local waterways, cility, point source control remains insufficient (in 2019 only 66.32 % of
their public perception and connectivity remain poor. A significant the population used proper sanitation systems (The World Bank, 2022)
number of the lined canals were littered with solid waste a few months (Fig. 3). Reusch et al. 2018 have reported that tackling point sources of
after their regeneration. This can be attributed to the reinforcement of nutrients or contaminations represent the “low hanging fruit” when
the functionality concept implemented in the current waterways’ addressed rapidly and efficiently, which is an essential first step that can
development projects in Egypt that does not emphasize on the aesthetic lead to considerable environmental improvements, especially under the
of these regenerations. The important role of the waterways as a land­ increased knowledge and accessible technologies.
scape infrastructure with significant historical, ecological, aesthetic, and Though, the main reason for the continuous littering and pollution of
structural values is systematically ignored in regeneration projects that waterways is the inability of waste management services and infra­
only focus on the functionality. Because of adopting the functionality structure to keep up with the continuous generation of municipal solid
concept, the transformation of waterways is perceived by developers (i. waste, which is exacerbated by population growth rates (Abou Elnasr,
e., the local authorities) as a utility that should be functionally efficient 2021). Only circa 60 % of the waste generated is currently collected, and
without any regard for its sociocultural and visual importance as an less than 20 % of it is professionally disposed off or recycled. While
environmentally sustainable blue infrastructure. public spaces in some cities are kept clean, in other parts of the country
“Al Mahmoudieh canal” in Alexandria, provides an important the situation is problematic. A large part of the total waste is disposed off
example for the above ineffective urban water transformation. The canal in canals, rivers, streets, or open areas without any preventive measures
that connects the Nile River with the Mediterranean Sea, is the oldest to reduce the impacts on the environment. The environmental risks
freshwater source for Alexandria and its main in-land transportation associated with this practice are significant, including water, soil, and
logistic vein. For the last four decades, the canal underwent severe air pollution, as well as landscape degradation. There are obvious issues
degradation due to the absence of preservation policies and planning in the legal framework, including the lack of a strategic plan and the
regulations for controlling the informal settlements and slums expansion unclear division of responsibilities (Fig. 3). Additionally, there is a great
along the canal and decreasing agricultural lands. The latter led to the need for sustainable investment and services in the waste disposal
degradation of the canal’s surrounding landscape and was consequently sector, which is significantly underfunded (NSWMP, 2022).
perceived as a dumpster (Figs. 2b and c). In 2020, this ~21 km long of In Egypt, 8.4 million inhabitants do not have access to improved
the canal was landfilled and replaced with a highway (Fig. 2d). On the sanitation, mostly in rural areas. Overall, 10 percent of the Egyptian
other hand, the “Saqqara canal” located in the Badrashin area in Giza population, did not benefit from access to improved sanitation, with
governorate, ~10.7 km long, is a significant example that reflects the marked geographical and socio-economic disparities in 2014 (UNICEF,
functionality concept followed in the current national development 2017). This adverse public behavior toward waterways results in
projects to protect the deteriorated waterways along the Nile Delta. The polluting and clogging several irrigation waterways, further compro­
canal suffered from many years of neglect, littering and pollution until it mising the agricultural activities and endangering public health.
was sanitized and lined at the beginning of 2021 at a cost of ~1.9 million Farmers in these impacted areas have to rely on digging costly
USD. Within few weeks, the local inhabitants littered the regenerated groundwater wells (Abou Elnasr, 2021) that often suffer from contam­
canal (Fig. 2h). ination. Moreover, groundwater irrigation does not provide enough
Results showed that there are causal chain relationships between the nutrients for crops nor replenishes the soil with fertile sediments as do
anthropogenic effects of population growth in the Nile Delta and their the waterways.
associated pressures such as the urban expansion on the decrease of In such a challenging waterscape, improving the landscape quality of
waterways’ area (Fig. 3). This situation has generated a rise in wastes these waterways can contribute to their sustainability and connectivity
and wastewater production from domestic and industrial activities with the community through a network of green/blue infrastructures.
causing increased water pollution and sediment contamination as This green/blue infrastructure represents a network of green open
spaces connected by the waterways resulting in preservation of the
Egyptian’s threatened natural ecosystem values and functions and
providing related benefits to the community, including aesthetic and
recreational ones (Benedict et al., 2006). Moreover, the top-down so­
lution will solve the problem only for a short period. If residents’
behaviour will not positively change through innovative governance
and living labs as social learning spaces and bottom-up engagement
processes, the situation will not be sustainably improved. Civil society
and NGOs should be more active as neutral moderators organizing
public awareness workshops among different stakeholders. Egyptian
youth that constitutes the largest portion of the active population
(Janischewski, 2021) should be targeted through effective and creative
social media campaigns to raise the public awareness on the vulnera­
bility and sustainability of waterways. In this sense, the characteristics
of urban green spaces can provide co-benefits and link with societal
aspects, such as retaining or developing a sense of place. As shown in the
Fig. 3. Schematic representation of Driver, Pressure, State, Impact and two examined case studies, their design, implementation, and moni­
Response (DPSIR) of the Nile Delta’s waterways. Note that plots are not drawn toring can provide many opportunities for the involvement or increasing
to scale. Driver: Population growth is taken from (CAPMAS, 2015; The World awareness of stakeholders through aspects of interests for many par­
Bank, 2021; CAPMAS, 2017); Pressure and State: Urban expansion and Decease
ticipants and the broader public. Thus, a sense of ownership over their
of waterways area, respectively, are taken from (Roest, 1999; Abd-Elmabod
solution can evolve, leading to more acceptance and implementation of
et al., 2019; Abd El-kawy et al., 2019; Radwan et al., 2019; Abd El-Hamid,
2020; Elagouz et al., 2020; Ramadan et al., 2021); Impact: Heavy metals con­ measures and potentially overcoming bottlenecks more easily. The
centration is taken from Abd-Elmabod et al. (2019); Radwan et al. (2019); Gu successful engagement of civil society, the openness of administrations,
et al. (2013); Radwan et al. (2019); Metwally (2019); Nasr et al. (2015); Galal the multi-scale and multidisciplinary round tables, the neutral media­
(2021), and Response is taken from worldbank.org, 2022. tion to overcome conflicts and build trust and confidence between the

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S.S. Fouad et al. Ecological Indicators 145 (2022) 109660

stakeholders are all important factors in creating successful outcomes (Scannell and Gifford, 2014) such as using trees and shrubs that are
(Lupp et al., 2020). commonly present in cultivated areas of the Nile Delta (i.e., Tamarix
In addition, inefficient municipal solid waste management and aphylla, Populus nigra and Salix babylonica) drought tolerant, and
sewage systems negatively impact current waterways development generally very well adapted to Mediterranean climate conditions
projects in Egypt. Many villages in the Nile Delta and upper Egypt lack (Fig. 4). Moreover, soil restoration is a vital component of nature-based
sewage networks and safe municipal solid waste collection systems, solutions that use the natural environment to address a wide range of
which results in a significant proportion of waste that is being disposed environmental, economic, social, and climate challenges. Accordingly,
in the waterways, including canals and rivers (NSWMP, 2022). Overall, this regeneration approach takes advantage of the natural flow of water
~10 % of the Egyptian population did not have access to improved to create more livable urban environments (Scottish Government,
sanitation, with marked geographical and socioeconomic disparities in 2021). Belts of water-conserving and drought tolerant vegetation along
2014 (UNICEF, 2017). In rural areas, on average, the share of the pop­ the waterways create shadowed areas that help to prevent high flow
ulation without access to adequate sanitation was ~15 % in 2014, evaporation, hence contributing to minimizing water budget losses.
compared with ~1 % among urban dwellers. In rural areas lacking ac­ Moreover, waterscape as a key element in the city’s image and the
cess to proper sanitation systems, septic tanks are the most common mental map of the inhabitants (Lynch, 1964) consolidates the aesthetic
disposal facility where a limited amount of excreta and sludge water can and environmental orientation system and strengthens the social ties of
be collected for biological digestion. The excess digested excreta leaches the inhabitants to their city, the local sense of identity, place attachment
into the soil surrounding the tanks and hence exposes the shallow and social well-being (Georgieva, 2014; ESH, 2018). This will also
groundwater in the Nile aquifer to pollution (Abdel-Shafy, 2002; Hegazy improve the inhabitants’ willingness to preserve the waterways envi­
et al., 2020). The MWRI stated 10 procedures to protect the regenerated ronment, for example by reducing littering. The regenerated landscape
canals that all are concerned with waste management and enhancing the along the waterways will provide a wide range of additional ecosystem
engagement of city inhabitants and supporting youth initiatives to services and functional benefits, such as direct water access areas for
finance projects in the field of waste collection and recycling through inhabitants. Hence, a multi-disciplinary landscape design solution is
purchasing the necessary equipment and tools, raising public awareness required to achieve a sustainable regeneration strategy for the Egyptian
through educational institutes and non-governmental organizations in waterways. The following two landscape-based design strategies, to be
waste recycling process and water conservation, and low implementa­ implemented simultaneously, are crucial to successfully integrating the
tion against any violation towards waterbodies including drainage, solid cultural and functional contexts of these waterways. Both strategies are
and industrial waste. Unfortunately, the authority did not consider the based on the awareness that there are no generally valid standard so­
cultural connection between residents and water streams (MWRI, 2020; lutions for integrating water channels into the landscape. Rather, the
Abo Ammra, 2021). different local landscape’s urban and social context determines the
In 2022, Egyptian authorities started their first campaign to force­ respective planning and design approach. The main aim of both strate­
fully remove informal settlements on the banks of the Nile (Shaker, gies is the combination of social and ecological revalorization methods,
2022). The campaign triggered a wide controversy on the demolishing sensitive to the cultural context.
of what was considered historical boathouses and relocation of thou­ The first conceptual design strategy is applied herein along water­
sands of inhabitants to alternative housing in new urban development ways located in the high-density inner-city in the Nile Delta (Figs. 4a and
areas tens of kilometer deep inland away from the river. That said, the b and c). The reconfiguring of water banks will interweave the city’s
above steering measures will show positive outcomes on the long run urban structure with the waterscape, transforming the degraded wa­
and improved urban and environmental landscape can accelerate and terways into a prominent part of the townscape. This results in restoring
sustain these regeneration procedures as described below. the sociocultural connectivity of the inhabitants to the Nile and its
associated local water bodies through the installation of new recrea­
4.3. Toward an environmental regeneration of waterways in Nile Delta tional spaces along the water sides. These spaces will increase the visi­
bility and accessibility of the waterways. The fluctuation in water level
To achieve sustainable waterway conservation that reduces water as well as many other changing characteristics of the water body can be
evaporation and prevents water pollution, it is important to include locally experienced and appreciated again (Prominski et al., 2017). The
environmental landscaping approaches in restoration projects. This seating steps and stairs along the side offer a visual metric of the Nile
approach, known as water-sensitive urban design (WSUD), involves flow level, promoting inhabitants’ water conservation behaviors, espe­
using natural elements such as soil, water, and plants to address envi­ cially during droughts. The proposed conceptual design alternatives, as
ronmental, economic, social, and climate concerns. This design in­ shown in Figs. 4a and b and c, are also based on creating differences in
tegrates water to build healthy and more liveable urban areas, water banks’ levels, which are exploited to create distinctive places
collaborating with nature along the water’s edge. The implementation of partially protecting the inhabitants against direct environmental pollu­
WSUD is an effective multi-water edge solution that creates social and tion, such as traffic noise, dust, or exhaust emissions. The selection of
ecological values along the perimeter of the waterbody, where in­ materials for these linear waterway green connections is based on na­
habitants, water, and aquatic wildlife intersect (ADB, 2019) for two tionally available resources, and ties in with classic, sustainable building
reasons. First, landscape-based solutions take the ecological and traditions from the region as far as possible. The choice of materials and
economical aspects into consideration, but especially the social ones designs is not only crucial for the ecological and aesthetic quality of the
since every city is permanently shaped by social processes and is the waterscape but also has an influence on the acceptance of the landscape
result of social progress (Sassen et al., 2016). Second, taking the transformation measures by the local population. The second conceptual
complexity of the city as a living superorganism into serious consider­ design solution also aims at the reconsolidation of place attachment by
ation, it is short-sighted to regenerate waterways only as technical parts providing outdoor spaces to the inhabitants that can be used on a daily
of the blue infrastructure, separately from green infrastructure, since basis.
“the structural systems of the environment are complementary and The proposed landscape design recalls the historic image of the
reinforce each other by interdependence, overlay and mutual perme­ Egyptian unaltered, scenic waterways, with visual attributes that are
ation” (Weilacher, 2016). In this sense, the control of waste collections connected to the nation’s golden era of sustainable agricultural devel­
and management simultaneously with implementing a landscape-based opment (UNESCO, 2019). This design concept is represented through a
urban regeneration approach is crucial to reconnect control of waste landscape-based solution, based on urban forestry, which was one of the
collections and management waterways in the Nile Delta to the complex main agricultural landscape characteristics along the Nile stream in
city structure, based on locally compatible landscape design strategies Egypt. This agriculture-related landscape concept could be implemented

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S.S. Fouad et al. Ecological Indicators 145 (2022) 109660

Fig. 4. Conceptual design solutions of urban waterways in the Nile Delta based on regeneration of the cultural connection to landscape by integrating natural and
urban landscapes; enhancing public interaction with their environment; and consequently, enhancing conservation and environmental protection.

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S.S. Fouad et al. Ecological Indicators 145 (2022) 109660

in the post-industrial or agricultural context with low-density residential temperature periods (Fig. 4d). The integration of high canopy trees
communities. Throughout human settlements’ history along the Nile, such as dates and doum palms on the waterways’ banks will not alter the
doum and date palm forests are locally acknowledged as landmark trees airflow and will reduce evaporation, which accounts for a substantial
that have been cultivated as part of the natural heritage (Wisser, 2009; part of the water budget loss in the hot and arid climate of the Nile Delta.
Ismail et al., 2016). Accordingly, a conceptual landscape and nature- The evaporation from waterways in the Nile Delta alone attains more
based design solution is suggested in Fig. 4d focussing on reforestation than 2 BCM/yr (Molle, 2018a) which is on average ~10 % of the na­
with drought-tolerant trees and shrubs along the Nile Delta urban ca­ tion’s intrinsic water budget deficit.
nals’ banks (Fig. 4d). The implementation of urban forestry will add The above amount accounts for ~3.6 % of the Egyptian’s share of
significant ecosystem services while saving on water treatment costs Nile water. The costs required for adopting an urban forestry improve­
through the reduction of the cost of maintenance, wildlife corridor ment to the waterscape in the Nile Delta have been estimated at ~7,210
provision, and visual diversity creation (UNESCO, 2019). Additionally, USD per kilometer (MWRI, 2021); which, considering the length of the
urban forestry is considered to be an ecosystem-based adaptation waterways network in the Nile Delta of 31,000 km, would roughly
strategy, offering an opportunity to enhance water security, climate- require ~0.223 billion USD (Diab, 2022). Yet, it is important to mention
resilient livelihoods and social cohesion, simultaneously (Rodríguez de that the calculation of landscape-based solution budget is calculated
Francisco et al., 2018). The cultivation of a native and naturalized plant- based on a similar project which is implemented in Giza governorate
associated system is an efficient way toward developing a climate- along a petroleum pipeline (Diab, 2022).
resilient waterways regeneration of the Nile Delta, as the tree canopy On the other hand, water reuse and treatment caused by waterways
minimizes evaporation during droughts and cools the air in increased- degradation amount to an annual cost of ~2 billion USD, equivalent to

Fig. 5. The main factors affecting waterways conservation and development strategy in the Nile Delta. These factors are classified as natural factors, including
climate change and environmental drivers; and anthropogenic factors, including unsustainable water consumption patterns associated with high population growth
as well as negative impacts of upstream damming along the Nile River. To implement a sustainable waterways regeneration strategy in the Nile Delta, both authority
and inhabitants have a crucial role. From the authorial side, the formulation of a framework for sustainable water-related services is an essential part of urban and
political policies. However, local engagement through workshops and educational programs is essential for sustaining the waterscape regeneration strategy. The
above results in the improved mental, social and physical well-being of the local inhabitants by changing the perception of their natural environment through a
cultural landscape solution that simultaneously results in sustainable waterways regeneration and water conservation in the Nile Delta.

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S.S. Fouad et al. Ecological Indicators 145 (2022) 109660

1.14 % of the national GDP (Larsen, 2019) a number that is suggested to guarantee sustainable landscape-based development, and strengthening
increase to ~4 billion USD as more treatment for water reuse is planned the natural life support system in the urban environment.
to address the rising water budget deficit (Abotalib et al., 2022). The
above validates the economic importance of implementing an efficient 5. Conclusions and recommendations
landscape-based solution that within a few years would be a cost-
effective solution from both water quality and water budget perspec­ Waterways have a crucial role in water management, agricultural
tives and will also carry the benefit of improving the well-being and development, and ecosystem services within the highly vulnerable Nile
sanitary conditions of the large population that lives in close vicinity to Delta. However, today they are facing continuous degradation resulting
these waterways in the Nile Delta. from several anthropogenic factors, mostly those associated with un­
sustainable and accelerated urban expansion. In its current state, the
4.4. Natural and anthropogenic drivers governing Nile’s waterways observed degradation in waterways system in the Nile Delta, are mainly
conservation associated with the socioeconomic shifts and the extension of urban
sprawl over agricultural areas and landscape deterioration that both
Considering the recently suggested water security strategies to ach­ have resulted in changing the public perception of the waterways
ieve sustainability goals (UNESCO, 2019), the main factors affecting the functionality from irrigation canals to sewage.
waterways conservation and development strategy in the Nile Delta are The public misperception combined with the absence of effective
formulated as shown in (Fig. 5). These factors can be classified as natural sanitation and waste management systems, especially in rural areas,
factors, including climate change related hydrological and environ­ have aggravated the situation and triggered intensive dumping and lit­
mental drivers, and anthropogenic factors, including unsustainable tering, leading to a rapid and intensive degradation of the sanitary
water consumption patterns associated with the high population conditions of the waterways and their surrounding areas. In response,
growth, the increased informal urban expansion, and the impacts of contaminated waterways are being constantly landfilled as a sanitary
upstream damming along the Nile River. Therefore, there is an impor­ mitigating measure. The above resulted in a decrease in their surface
tant international governmental role to formulate a sustainable frame­ area in the Nile Delta by ~30 % from 1987 to 2019. Though, alternatives
work of water-related services as an essential part of urban and political should be created and supported, but also social engagement and public
policies, taking into account the rising disagreements on water shares awareness processes should be reinforced simultaneously to achieve a
that threaten regional socioeconomic sustainability (Varis et al., 2017). better result in the environmental status of the Nile Delta and reduce its
From a local perspective, both governmental bodies and inhabitants fast degradation trajectory benefiting from experiences of other river
are responsible for protecting and developing the vulnerable Egyptian basins such as the Elbe river basin in Germany (Wachholz et al., 2022)
waterways system. Sanitary services, in general, and in rural areas in and the Baltic Sea system (Reusch et al., 2018).
particular, require more attention from authorities, public and civil so­ Our findings suggest that implementing multi-disciplinary landscape
cieties. Despite some progress being implemented, ~85 % of the rural management, inspired by nature-based solutions, and prioritizing the
areas still do not have access to public sanitation networks (Elnidaa, multi-functionality of the waterways, is crucial to achieving a sustain­
2019). In her study, Elnidaa (2019) suggests procedural solutions to able regeneration strategy for Egyptian waterbodies. The first concep­
eliminate the littering problem in the Nile waterways. First, developing tual design strategy is suggested along waterways in the high-density
environmental protection strategies for waterways, agricultural land, inner city, reconfiguring the water banks to regenerate the sociocultural
and housing environments for rural populations, synchronizing the connectivity of inhabitants to local water bodies through the installation
provision of sanitation services with other environmental protection of new social activities. The second conceptual design strategy is based
activities. Second, the overall cost of failing to solve sanitation provision on Egypt’s natural heritage scenery from the nation’s pre-industrial era
issues should be considered when allocating public investment to pro­ of sustainable agricultural development. This scenery is reproduced
jects within the sector. This will result in the conservation of waterways through landscape solutions based on urban forestry, one of the main
by providing sufficient alternatives for waste and sewage disposal. agricultural landscape characteristics along the Nile stream in Egypt, to
Finally, there is a need to raise public awareness of the environmental be implemented in low-density residential communities. These drought-
implications of poor sanitation in order to improve hygiene. This can be tolerant forests include doum and date palms, which are part of the
implemented through educational programs to clarify the minor country’s natural heritage. Both solutions not only support the recon­
behavioural changes that can highly impact both, community health and nection of the inhabitants with their living environment but also provide
the environment. It is important to note that the inhabitant behavior is efficient paths toward developing climate-resilient waterways and
not the only source of the littering problem, the local authorities share landscape regeneration of the Nile Delta, as they create shadowed areas
their part of the responsibility to make littering disposal available and that minimize evaporation. The above can contribute to reducing the
accessible, which is not yet observed in rural areas and in urban sprawls. water budget deficit in Egypt by ~11 % as shown in the discussion
Furthermore, the garbage collection system should be monitored in section (4.3).
areas where illegal dumping in the Nile is observed to increase. The The costs required for adopting the above-described landscape-based
latter is the first step to addressing the littering problem, which is regeneration for the Nile Delta waterways areapproximately assessed
observed nationally on a larger scale beyond the waterways and is using a first order model at ~0.223 billion USD, which represent ~4% of
expanding to newly developed modern cities with high standards of the total cost of the planned waterways lining of ~5 billion USD. which
living (Riad et al., 2020). will make these investments more sustainable. The above expenditure
The above-mentioned approaches are supported by the International validates the efficiency of landscape solutions, considering the 2 billion
Hydrological Program (IHP) of the United Nations, which is devoted to USD spent annually on addressing waterways contamination resulting
enhancing scientific, managerial and cultural water matters (UNESCO, from degradations. Furthermore, the proposed nature-based landscape
2019). As described above, this collaborative management approach solutions will also improve the well-being and sanitary conditions of the
will be based on the community’s socioeconomic demands implemented large population of the Nile Delta that lives in close vicinity to these
through a proactive unified stakeholders’ vision, and thus will lead to waterways and will restore their cultural attachment to these water
the conservation and upgrading of the existing blue and green in­ bodies favouriting their conservation, enabling their role in water con­
frastructures. However, the suggested strategy (Fig. 5) requires creative servation and agricultural development.
water management plans to secure the needs and goals of different
stakeholders. The physical development of waterways should be part of
a socioeconomic regeneration process, enhancing the quality of life to

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Declaration of Competing Interest Barnes, J., 2012. Expanding the Nile’s Watershed: The Science and Politics of Land
Reclamation in Egypt. Water on Sand: Environmental Histories of the Middle East
and North Africa. Oxford University Press, Oxford, https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial oso/9780199768677.003.0011.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Bekhit, H., 2019. The recently developed Egyptian proposal for filling and operation of
the work reported in this paper. the GERD. Paper presented at the Cairo Water Week, Cairo, Egypt.
Benameur, T., Benameur, N., Saidi, N., Tartag, S., Sayad, H., Agouni, A., 2021. Predicting
factors of public awareness and perception about the quality, safety of drinking
Data availability water, and pollution incidents. Environ. Monit. Assess. 194 (1), 22. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s10661-021-09557-2.
Benedict, M., McMahon, E., Fund, T., & Bergen, L. (2006). Green Infrastructure: Linking
Data will be made available on request. Landscapes and Communities. Bibliovault OAI Repository, the University of Chicago
Press, 22, 1-12.
Acknowledgment Brown, G., Raymond, C., 2007. The relationship between place attachment and
landscape values: Toward mapping place attachment. Appl. Geogr. 27 (2), 89–111.
http://dx.doi:10.1016/j.apgeog.2006.11.002.
The research carried out herein benefited from the support of the Cauberghe, V., Vazquez-Casaubon, E., Van de Sompel, D., 2021. Perceptions of water as
Alexander Von Humboldt Foundation in Germany and the Zumberge commodity or uniqueness? The role of water value, scarcity concern and moral
obligation on conservation behavior. J. Environ. Manage. 292, 112677. http://dx.
Innovation Fund at the University of Southern California. Part of this
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