Unit –1

Composition and structure of atmosphere

The Earth's atmosphere is a complex layer of gases that surrounds our planet
and is crucial for supporting life.

Composition of the Atmosphere:

Major Gases:

• Nitrogen (N₂): The most abundant gas, making up about 78% of

the atmosphere.
• Oxygen (O₂): Constitutes approximately 21% of the atmosphere
and is essential for respiration.
• Argon (Ar): About 0.93%, a noble gas that is chemically inert.
• Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): Makes up about 0.04%, crucial for
photosynthesis and the greenhouse effect.

Trace Gases:

• Water Vapor (H₂O): Highly variable, but typically around 0.1% by

volume, plays a critical role in weather and climate.
• Neon, Helium, Methane, Krypton, Xenon, Ozone, and other
gases: Present in very small amounts but can have significant
atmospheric effects.

Structure of the Atmosphere:

The atmosphere is divided into distinct layers based on temperature

variations with altitude:

Troposphere:

• Altitude: 0 to 12 kilometers (0 to 7.5 miles) above sea level.

• Temperature: Generally decreases with altitude.
 • Significance: This is where most weather phenomena occur, and
it contains the majority of the atmosphere's water vapor and
aerosols.

Stratosphere:

• Altitude: 12 to 50 kilometers (7.5 to 31 miles) above sea level.

• Temperature: Temperature increases with altitude due to the
presence of the ozone layer, which absorbs and scatters solar
ultraviolet radiation.
• Significance: Contains the ozone layer, which shields the Earth
from harmful UV radiation.

Mesosphere:

• Altitude: 50 to 85 kilometers (31 to 53 miles) above sea level.

• Temperature: Temperature decreases with altitude.
• Significance: Important for the study of meteors and
atmospheric dynamics.

Thermosphere:

• Altitude: 85 kilometers (53 miles) and higher above sea level.

• Temperature: Temperature increases with altitude due to the
absorption of highly energetic solar radiation.
• Significance: Location of the International Space Station (ISS)
and other low Earth orbit satellites.

Exosphere:

• Altitude: Extends from the top of the thermosphere out to space.

• Temperature: Highly variable and can range from very hot to very
cold.
• Significance: Gradually transitions into space, where
atmospheric particles become sparse.
Global implications of air pollution

Air pollution has significant global implications across various aspects of

human health, ecosystems, climate change, and the economy.

Human Health:

• Respiratory Diseases: Inhalation of pollutants such as particulate

matter (PM), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), and ozone (O₃)
can lead to respiratory problems like asthma, bronchitis, and lung
cancer.
• Cardiovascular Diseases: Air pollution is linked to heart diseases,
stroke, and exacerbation of existing cardiovascular conditions due to
the inflammatory responses triggered by pollutants.
• Reduced Life Expectancy: Long-term exposure to high levels of air
pollutants has been shown to reduce life expectancy, particularly in
urban areas with severe pollution.
• Children's Health: Children are particularly vulnerable to the effects of
air pollution, which can impair lung development, lead to asthma, and
impact cognitive development.

Ecosystems:

• Biodiversity: Acid rain and deposition of pollutants can harm

ecosystems by affecting soil pH, nutrient availability, and directly
damaging plants and aquatic life.
• Eutrophication: Nitrogen and sulfur compounds from air pollution can
contribute to eutrophication of water bodies, leading to harmful algal
blooms and ecosystem degradation.
• Disruption of Food Chains: Pollutants can accumulate in the food
chain, affecting predators at higher trophic levels and ultimately
impacting biodiversity and ecosystem stability.
Climate Change:

• Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Pollutants like carbon dioxide (CO₂),

methane (CH₄), and black carbon contribute to global warming by
trapping heat in the atmosphere and altering the Earth’s radiative
balance.
• Feedback Loops: Air pollution can accelerate climate change through
feedback loops, such as the melting of polar ice caps due to increased
temperatures exacerbated by black carbon deposition.

Economic Impacts:

• Healthcare Costs: Treating illnesses related to air pollution imposes

significant healthcare costs on governments and individuals.
• Productivity Losses: Illnesses caused by air pollution can lead to
absenteeism and reduced productivity in the workforce.
• Damage to Infrastructure: Acid rain and corrosive pollutants can
damage buildings, monuments, and infrastructure, necessitating costly
repairs and maintenance.

Global Cooperation:

• International Agreements: Global initiatives like the Paris Agreement

and regional agreements aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and
mitigate climate change, indirectly addressing air pollution.
• Technology Transfer: Sharing of clean technologies and practices
between countries can help reduce emissions and improve air quality
globally.
• Public Awareness: Increasing public awareness about the impacts of
air pollution can lead to greater support for policies and initiatives
aimed at reducing emissions and improving air quality.

Classification of air pollutants

Air pollutants can be classified into several categories based on different
criteria such as their physical state, chemical composition, emission
sources, and effects on human health and the environment.

Based on Physical State:

• Particulate Matter (PM):

• PM10: Inhalable particles with a diameter of 10 micrometers or
smaller.
• PM2.5: Fine inhalable particles with a diameter of 2.5
micrometers or smaller.
• Ultrafine Particles: Smaller than PM2.5, often less than 0.1
micrometers.
• Gaseous Pollutants:
• Ozone (O3): A secondary pollutant formed by the reaction of
sunlight with nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs).
• Carbon Monoxide (CO): Produced by incomplete combustion of
fossil fuels.
• Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): Released from burning fossil fuels
containing sulfur, such as coal and oil.
• Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2): Generated from combustion processes,
primarily from vehicles and power plants.
• Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Organic chemicals that
vaporize into the air, contributing to ozone formation and other
health effects.

Based on Chemical Composition:

• Primary Pollutants: Directly emitted into the atmosphere from

sources.
• Examples: Particulate matter, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen dioxide, volatile organic compounds.
 • Secondary Pollutants: Formed in the atmosphere through chemical
reactions involving primary pollutants.
• Examples: Ozone, sulfate aerosols, nitrate aerosols.

Based on Sources:

• Mobile Sources: Pollutants emitted from vehicles, including cars,

trucks, buses, and airplanes.
• Example pollutants: Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides,
particulate matter.
• Stationary Sources: Emissions from industrial processes, power
plants, residential heating, and other stationary activities.
• Example pollutants: Sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, volatile
organic compounds.
• Area Sources: Small or dispersed sources of emissions, such as
residential wood burning, agriculture, and small businesses.
• Example pollutants: Particulate matter, volatile organic
compounds.
• Natural Sources: Pollutants released from natural processes such as
wildfires, volcanic eruptions, and dust storms.
• Example pollutants: Particulate matter, ozone (from lightning).

Based on Health and Environmental Effects:

• Criteria Air Pollutants: Regulated by environmental agencies due to

their significant impact on human health and the environment.
• Examples: Particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide,
carbon monoxide, ozone, lead.
• Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs): Also known as air toxics, these
pollutants are known or suspected to cause cancer or other serious
health effects.
• Examples: Benzene, formaldehyde, mercury, arsenic.
Based on Global Impact:

• Greenhouse Gases (GHGs): Gases that contribute to the greenhouse

effect and global warming.
• Examples: Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide.

Based on Persistence and Bioaccumulation:

• Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs): Organic compounds that

persist in the environment, bioaccumulate in living organisms, and pose
a risk to human health and ecosystems.
• Examples: Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, furans.
For particulates

• Particulate matter (PM) is a significant category of air pollutants that

consists of tiny solid particles or liquid droplets suspended in the air.
These particles can vary greatly in size, composition, and origin,
influencing their effects on human health and the environment.
• PM10: Particles with a diameter of 10 micrometers (µm) or smaller.
These include coarse particles such as dust, pollen, and mold spores,
which are inhalable and can penetrate into the respiratory system.
• PM2.5: Fine particles with a diameter of 2.5 µm or smaller. These
particles can penetrate deeper into the lungs and are particularly
concerning for health as they can enter the bloodstream and affect
organs.

Apart from size-based classification, particulate matter can also be

categorized based on its chemical composition and sources:

• Primary Particles: These are emitted directly into the atmosphere from
sources such as vehicles, industrial processes, construction activities,
and natural sources like wildfires and volcanic eruptions.
• Secondary Particles: These form in the atmosphere through chemical
reactions involving gases emitted by various sources, such as sulfur
 dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), ammonia (NH3), and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs). Secondary particles can include sulfates,
nitrates, ammonium, and organic aerosols.

For Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are a group of organic compounds consisting solely of

hydrogen and carbon atoms. In the context of air pollutants, hydrocarbons
contribute to air pollution through their emissions from various sources. They
can be classified based on their chemical structure, source of emission, and
their potential impacts on health and the environment

Classification Based on Chemical Structure:

• Aliphatic Hydrocarbons:
• Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes): Simple hydrocarbons with
single bonds between carbon atoms.
▪ Examples: Methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8),
butane (C4H10).
• Unsaturated Hydrocarbons (Alkenes and Alkynes):
Hydrocarbons with double or triple bonds between carbon
atoms.
▪ Examples: Ethylene (C2H4), propylene (C3H6), acetylene
(C2H2).
• Aromatic Hydrocarbons:
• Hydrocarbons containing benzene rings or other aromatic rings.
▪ Examples: Benzene (C6H6), toluene (C7H8), xylene
(C8H10).

Classification Based on Reactivity and Health Impacts:

• Reactive Hydrocarbons:
• Hydrocarbons that participate in atmospheric reactions leading
to the formation of ozone and secondary organic aerosols.
 • Examples: Olefins (such as ethylene), which can contribute to
ozone formation in the presence of nitrogen oxides (NOx).
• Toxicologically Significant Hydrocarbons:
• Hydrocarbons that are known or suspected to cause health
effects, including carcinogenicity and respiratory issues.
• Examples: Benzene, a known human carcinogen; 1,3-butadiene,
which can cause cancer; and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs), which are often associated with combustion processes.
For carbon monoxide

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is a

significant air pollutant due to its adverse health effects. It is primarily
produced by incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels.

Classification Based on Sources:

• Combustion Sources:
• Vehicular Emissions: From gasoline and diesel engines,
particularly in urban areas with heavy traffic.
• Industrial Processes: Emissions from combustion in industrial
facilities, including power plants, refineries, and manufacturing
processes.
• Residential Sources: Emissions from heating systems, stoves,
fireplaces, and other combustion appliances.
• Natural Sources:
• Wildfires: Release carbon monoxide and other pollutants during
burning.
• Volcanic Activity: Releases carbon monoxide and other gases
during eruptions.

Classification Based on Health and Environmental Impacts:

• Health Effects:
 • Toxicity: CO binds to hemoglobin in the bloodstream, reducing
the blood's ability to carry oxygen, which can lead to tissue
damage and death in high concentrations.
• Symptoms: Exposure to elevated levels of CO can cause
symptoms such as headaches, dizziness, fatigue, and impaired
vision.
• Chronic Effects: Prolonged exposure to low levels of CO can lead
to cardiovascular diseases and neurological effects.
• Environmental Impacts:
• Contributes to Ozone Formation: CO reacts with nitrogen oxides
(NOx) in the atmosphere to form ground-level ozone (O3), a
harmful secondary pollutant.
• Contributes to Smog Formation: Along with nitrogen oxides, CO
contributes to the formation of smog, which impacts air quality
and visibility.
Oxides of sulphur

Oxides of sulfur, often referred to collectively as SOx, are a group of chemical

compounds composed of sulfur and oxygen. The most common oxides of
sulfur encountered as air pollutants are sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfur
trioxide (SO3).

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2):

• Sources:
• Combustion of Fossil Fuels: Mainly from burning coal, oil, and
natural gas in power plants, industrial boilers, and residential
heating systems.
• Industrial Processes: Such as metal smelting, petroleum
refining, and the production of sulfuric acid.
• Transportation: Emissions from vehicles burning fuel containing
sulfur, although this is less significant compared to stationary
sources.
 • Natural Sources: Volcanic eruptions are a significant natural
source of SO2 emissions.
• Health and Environmental Impacts:
• Health Effects: SO2 is a respiratory irritant and can exacerbate
asthma and other respiratory conditions. Prolonged exposure
may cause respiratory diseases and cardiovascular effects.
• Environmental Effects: Contributes to acid deposition (acid rain)
when SO2 reacts with water and oxygen in the atmosphere to
form sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Acid rain can harm aquatic
ecosystems, damage vegetation, and erode buildings and
monuments.
• Regulation:
• SO2 is regulated as a criteria air pollutant in many countries.
National ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) are established
to limit SO2 concentrations in the air to protect public health and
the environment.
• Control Measures:
• Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD): Technology used in power
plants and industrial boilers to remove sulfur dioxide from
exhaust gases before they are released into the atmosphere.
• Low-Sulfur Fuels: Switching to cleaner fuels with lower sulfur
content, such as low-sulfur diesel and natural gas.
• Emission Standards: Setting limits on sulfur dioxide emissions
from industrial sources and vehicles.

Sulfur Trioxide (SO3):

• Formation:
• SO3 is primarily formed in the atmosphere by the oxidation of
sulfur dioxide (SO2) and other sulfur-containing compounds in
the presence of oxygen and other pollutants.
• Reactivity:
 • SO3 is highly reactive and contributes to the formation of sulfuric
acid aerosols (fine particulate matter) in the atmosphere, which
can affect visibility and human health.
• Environmental Impacts:
• Contributes to acid deposition similarly to sulfur dioxide,
resulting in acid rain and associated environmental damage.
Oxides of nitrogen and photochemical oxidants

Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and photochemical oxidants are key components of

air pollution, closely related to each other due to their interdependent
formation and impact on air quality and human health.

Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx):

• Composition:
• Nitric Oxide (NO): A colorless gas formed during high-
temperature combustion processes, such as in vehicles and
industrial boilers.
• Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2): A reddish-brown gas that forms when
nitric oxide reacts with oxygen in the atmosphere. It is a key
component of NOx emissions.
• Sources:
• Combustion Processes: Primary sources include vehicles
(especially diesel engines), power plants, industrial processes
(such as metal smelting), and residential heating using fossil
fuels.
• Natural Sources: Lightning strikes and microbial processes in
soil also contribute small amounts of nitrogen oxides to the
atmosphere.
• Health and Environmental Impacts:
• Health Effects: Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a respiratory irritant and
can worsen asthma symptoms and decrease lung function. Long-
 term exposure is associated with respiratory diseases and
cardiovascular effects.
• Environmental Effects: NOx contributes to the formation of
ground-level ozone (O3) and secondary particulate matter
(PM2.5), both of which have significant health and environmental
impacts.
• Regulation and Control:
• NOx is regulated as a criteria air pollutant in many countries.
Regulations include emission standards for vehicles and
industrial sources, as well as requirements for emission control
technologies (e.g., catalytic converters and selective catalytic
reduction) to reduce NOx emissions.

Photochemical Oxidants:

• Formation:
• Photochemical oxidants are formed in the atmosphere through
complex chemical reactions involving sunlight (solar radiation),
nitrogen oxides (NOx), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
• Key Components:
▪ Ozone (O3): A secondary pollutant formed when NOx and
VOCs react in the presence of sunlight.
▪ Peroxyacyl Nitrates (PANs): Formed from reactions
involving NOx and VOCs, contributing to photochemical
smog.
• Sources:
• Anthropogenic Sources: Emissions of NOx and VOCs from
vehicles, industrial processes, and other combustion sources.
• Natural Sources: Biogenic emissions of VOCs from vegetation
and soil, as well as natural emissions of NOx from lightning and
microbial processes.
• Health and Environmental Impacts:
 • Health Effects: Ozone is a powerful respiratory irritant and can
exacerbate respiratory diseases such as asthma and bronchitis.
Long-term exposure may lead to permanent lung damage.
• Environmental Effects: Ozone and other photochemical
oxidants contribute to smog formation, reduce visibility, harm
vegetation, and react with materials (e.g., rubber and plastics).
• Regulation and Control:
• Ozone is regulated as a criteria air pollutant. Control strategies
focus on reducing emissions of NOx and VOCs through emission
standards, technological improvements, and promoting cleaner
fuels and processes.
Indoor air pollution

Indoor air pollution refers to the presence of harmful contaminants within

indoor spaces that can negatively impact the health and well-being of
occupants. These pollutants can originate from various sources and can
accumulate indoors due to inadequate ventilation.

Sources of Indoor Air Pollution:

• Combustion Sources:
• Gas Stoves and Heaters: Combustion byproducts like carbon
monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and particulate matter
can pose health risks.
• Fireplaces and Wood Stoves: Smoke and particulates released
during burning can degrade indoor air quality.
• Building Materials:
• Formaldehyde: Found in plywood, particleboard, and some
insulation materials, which can off-gas over time.
• Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Released from paints,
varnishes, cleaning products, and building materials, contributing
to indoor air pollution.
• Household Products:
 • Cleaning Agents: Many contain VOCs and chemicals that can
contribute to indoor air pollution.
• Personal Care Products: Aerosol sprays, perfumes, and hair
sprays can release VOCs.
• Biological Contaminants:
• Mold and Mildew: Thrive in damp environments and release
spores and allergens into the air.
• Dust Mites: Found in bedding, upholstered furniture, and
carpets, they can trigger allergies.
• Pet Dander: Skin flakes and saliva from pets can be allergenic.
• Outdoor Sources:
• Vehicle Exhaust: Can infiltrate indoor spaces, especially in
urban areas or near roadways.
• Pollen and Outdoor Allergens: Can enter buildings through
ventilation systems or open windows.

Health Effects of Indoor Air Pollution:

• Respiratory Issues:
• Asthma: Aggravated by allergens like dust mites, pet dander, and
mold spores.
• Allergies: Symptoms worsened by exposure to allergens and
VOCs.
• Respiratory Infections: Indoor pollutants can weaken the
immune system, making individuals more susceptible to
infections.
• Cardiovascular Effects:
• Long-term exposure to indoor pollutants like fine particulate
matter (PM2.5) and VOCs has been linked to increased risk of
cardiovascular diseases.
• Neurological Effects:
 • Some indoor pollutants, such as lead and certain VOCs, can
affect cognitive function and development, especially in children.
• Cancer Risk:
• Certain chemicals found in indoor air, such as formaldehyde and
radon, are known carcinogens and can increase the risk of cancer
with prolonged exposure.
Effects of air pollutants on humans,animals,property and plants

Air pollutants can have diverse and significant effects on humans, animals,
property, and plants.

Effects on Humans:

• Respiratory System:
• Particulate Matter (PM): Fine particles can penetrate deep into
the lungs, causing respiratory issues such as asthma, bronchitis,
and aggravated allergies.
• Ozone (O3): Ground-level ozone can irritate the respiratory
system, leading to coughing, throat irritation, and reduced lung
function.
• Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2): Can inflame the airways, worsen
respiratory diseases, and increase susceptibility to respiratory
infections.
• Cardiovascular System:
• Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5): Long-term exposure is
associated with increased risk of cardiovascular diseases,
including heart attacks and strokes.
• Carbon Monoxide (CO): Binds to hemoglobin and reduces
oxygen delivery, impacting cardiovascular function.
• Nervous System and Cognitive Function:
• Lead (Pb) and Mercury (Hg): Neurotoxic metals that can impair
cognitive function, especially in children.
 • Airborne Toxics (e.g., benzene, formaldehyde): Some volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) and other pollutants can affect the
nervous system.
• Cancer Risk:
• Arsenic, Benzene, Formaldehyde: Long-term exposure to
certain air pollutants has been linked to increased cancer risk.

Effects on Animals:

• Respiratory Issues:
• Animals can suffer from similar respiratory problems as humans
when exposed to air pollutants like particulate matter, ozone, and
nitrogen dioxide.
• Behavioral and Reproductive Changes:
• Some pollutants can affect animal behavior, reproduction, and
overall health, impacting ecosystems and biodiversity.

Effects on Property:

• Buildings and Infrastructure:

• Acid Rain: Damages buildings, monuments, and infrastructure by
corroding metals and deteriorating building materials.
• Particulate Deposition: Fine particles can soil and stain surfaces
over time.
• Agriculture:
• Crop Damage: Ozone and particulate matter can reduce crop
yields and affect plant growth.
• Soil Acidification: Nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide can
contribute to soil acidification, affecting agricultural productivity.

Effects on Plants:

• Photosynthesis and Growth:

 • Ozone: Damages plant tissues and interferes with
photosynthesis.
• Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): Can impair plant growth and reduce crop
yields.
• Acid Rain: Alters soil pH and affects nutrient availability to plants.
• Biodiversity:
• Air pollution can contribute to changes in plant communities and
affect plant-pollinator relationships, impacting biodiversity.