SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

MECHANICAL AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING LABARATORIES

WELDING

NAME:ONYANGO JEFF OTIENO

REGISTRATION NUMBER:CSE/2561/23

COURSE CODE:CVS 290

DATE:29/06/2024

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 CATALOGUE

1.ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................................2

2.INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................2

3.TYPES OF WELDING...........................................................................................................................4
i)Arc welding.............................................................................................................................................5

ii)Gas welding............................................................................................................................................7

iii)Spot welding........................................................................................................................................11

Postions:...................................................................................................................................................13

i)Flat Position:..........................................................................................................................................13

ii)Horizontal Position:..............................................................................................................................13

iii)Vertical Position:.................................................................................................................................14

iv)Overhead Position:..............................................................................................................................14

4.CONCLUSION.....................................................................................................................................15

5.REFERENCES......................................................................................................................................16

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1.ABSTRACT

Welding is a fundamental process in modern manufacturing and construction industries,

essential for joining metals and thermoplastics to form strong, durable bonds. This report explores
the diverse techniques and applications of welding, highlighting both fusion and solid-state welding
methods. Fusion welding, such as arc welding and oxy-fuel welding, involves melting base metals
and often using filler materials to create joints.

In contrast, solid-state welding methods like friction welding and ultrasonic welding join
materials through pressure alone or with minimal heat, preserving material properties. Safety
precautions, including protective gear and proper ventilation, are crucial due to welding's inherent
hazards like exposure to harmful gases and UV radiation. Understanding welding positions and joint
types enhances weld quality and structural integrity, ensuring reliable performance in various
industrial applications.

2.INTRODUCTION

Welding is a fundamental process used to join materials, typically metals or thermoplastics, by

melting them and often incorporating a filler material to form a strong, permanent bond.
Alternatively, methods like brazing and soldering utilize lower-melting materials to join work-pieces
without melting them.

Various energy sources such as friction, ultrasonic waves, electric arcs, gas flames, lasers, and
electron beams are employed in welding processes. This versatility allows welding to be conducted
in diverse environments including open spaces, underwater, and even in outer space. Despite its
utility, welding involves inherent risks such as exposure to harmful gases, electric shock, and UV
radiation, necessitating strict safety measures like proper ventilation, protective gear, and adherence
to electrical safety protocols.

-There are two primary categories of welding processes:

1. Fusion Welding: This method involves melting the base metal along with filler material, if
needed, to create the joint. Common fusion welding techniques include arc welding
(utilizing electric arcs), resistance welding (applying electrical resistance), oxyfuel
welding (using gas flames), electron beam welding, and laser beam welding.

2. Solid-State Welding: In contrast, solid-state welding joins materials through pressure alone or in
combination with heat, without using filler metal. Techniques like diffusion welding
(where materials are bonded through atomic diffusion), friction welding (joining
materials through frictional heat), and ultrasonic welding (using ultrasonic vibrations to
create bonds) fall under this category.

Understanding these welding processes helps in selecting the appropriate method based on
factors such as material properties, desired weld strength, and environmental conditions. Each
technique finds application across various industries, underscoring welding's essential role in modern
manufacturing.

Welding safety precautions include:

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 Always wear appropriate shield welding
 Always wear closed toed shoes
 Always wear long sleeved non flammable shirt
 Always wear protective glooves
 Always wear ear protection muffs
 The room should be wel ventilated
 Make sure the welding area is free from flammable materia
 Do not look at the arc without wearing the helmetl
 Cylinders must always be placed upright and not horizontally

Materials to be used In welding:

 Mild steel
 Stainless steel
 Aluminium
 Brass
 Copper
 Cast iron
 High carbon steel

Sizes for different welding rods include:

 2.5mm
 3.25mm
 4.00mm
 5.00mm
 6.00mm
 8.00mm
 10.00mM

3.TYPES OF WELDING

The different types of welding include:

A. Arc welding
B. Gas welding
C. Spot welding
D. Tick welding

A.ARC WELDING

By creating and sustaining a high-temperature arc, arc welding is a technique for joining metal
components. An electrode, which may be a non-consumable rod or a consumable wire, and the
workpieces being welded are connected by an electric current that produces this arc. Direct current
(DC) or alternating current (AC) can be used as the power source for arc welding.

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At a very basic level, all arc welders have five components:

i. An Electrode and electrode cable

ii. A Ground Cable and Clamp (sometimes called a work cable)
iii. A Power Supply
iv. Metal workpieces
v. An Arc

Fig.1 showing an AC generator used in arc welding.

-Process:The first step in arc welding preparation is to properly clean and secure the metal surfaces.
Next, depending on the type and thickness of the metal, the proper electrode and welding
machine parameters are selected. The electrode and workpiece are first brought into
contact to create an arc, which produces a great deal of heat that melts the metal. Melted
metal is deposited along the joint by the electrode, creating a pool of weld. The joint may
be strengthened by the use of filler material. The joint is tested for quality after cooling
after welding. To get rid of any last bits of residue or slag, the area is cleansed. Safety
equipment, including as helmets and gloves, is worn throughout the operation to provide
protection from fumes, sparks, and UV radiation.

-Some of the different types of arc welding include:

a) Shielded Metal Arc (SMAW) Welding: SMAW (sometimes called "stick

welding") . It makes use of a consumable, hand-held electrode (the "stick"). This electrode
is coated with flux, which melts at the tip of the electrode and produces the shielding gas, as
well as a slag product that protects the weld from oxidation during welding.
b) Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW): This is similar to SMAW welding, but it is
semi-automatic. The consumable electrode used contains flux and it is continuously fed.
c) Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding: This welding technique uses shielding gas to
protect the molten metals from the atmosphere. The metal consumable electrode is machine-
fed.
d) Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding: This welding method uses a non-consumable
electrode made of tungsten, and therefore requires a filler wire to be fed to make the weld.
Shielding gas is necessary.
e) Submerged Arc Welding (SAW): This strategy is used with automated welding
processes, where the joint to be welded is completely submerged in flux. The flux is
conductive when molten, and the weld is completed below this blanket of flux.

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-Materials Used in Arc Welding:

i. Magnesium
ii. Aluminum
iii. Stainless Steel
iv. Steel
v. Titanium
vi. Cast Iron
vii. Copper and Brass
viii. Nickel Alloys

-Applications: Arc welding is widely used in construction, automotive manufacturing, shipbuilding,

and many other industries due to its versatility and ability to join a wide range of metals
and alloys.

-Safety: Safety measures are crucial in arc welding due to the high temperatures involved and
potential hazards like electric shock, UV radiation, and fumes. Proper protective gear and a
well-ventilated workspace are essential.

Pros

·
 Good impact strength
 High production rates
 Strong, seamless welds with no air gaps
 Easy to learn and use
 Portable equipment, easy to store
 Versatile, works on many types of metal
 Affordable
 High-quality, strong welds
 Accessible

Cons

 Toxic fumes need ventilation or respirators

 More waste than with other processes
 Requires practice to achieve a high skill level
 Burn through on thin materials

B.GAS WELDING

Gas welding uses a welding torch to create a flame by mixing roughly equal amounts of oxygen
and acetylene, which are supplied at identical pressures from different gas bottles. With a
temperature of about 3100°C (5600°F), this flame can melt steel and a variety of other metals,
enabling the fusion joining and creation of metal components. The ability of gas welding to repair,
fabricate, and cut metal is highly desired in a variety of industries, including as the industrial,

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construction, and automotive sectors. Even though other welding processes have advanced, this
technology is still preferable in some welding settings because to its precise control over heat output
and ability to weld thicker materials.

Process:The process of oxyacetylene welding involves the burning of fuel gas and oxygen to
produce heat. By adjusting the gas regulators, the fuel gas hose and oxygen hose that are
flexible hoses are supplied with gas that is kept in high-pressure cylinders. The hand-held
oxyfuel torch's mixing chamber is where the gases are combined, and the tip's aperture is
where they exit. Welding tip orifice size is a crucial component that should be selected based
on the application.

Fusion welding takes place when the base metal reaches a melting temperature (about
3200°C) due to heat application. Oxyacetylene welding is best suited for thin metals because
other electrically powered welding methods can achieve temperatures beyond 5000°C.

Types of flames used in gas welding include

a) Oxidizing flame
b) Neutral flame
c) Carburizing flame

a)Oxidizing flame

Oxidizing flames have got more oxyen than acetylene gas in composition.The flame burns with
a hissing sound and produces sparks while burning
During welding the flame produces form around the weld.The flame has got only two layers and
is only used during brass and bronze welding

b)Neutral flame

Equal amounts of oxygen and acetylene gases are mixed to produce this kind of flame.The
flame durng welding produces a shiny molten pool
Generally the flame is used broadly in welding and produces no sparks during welding
It has two fame layers,the inner and the outer layers

c)Carburizing flame

This type of flame has more acetylene gas than oxygen gas and produces a cruizy molten weld
pool

It has three flame layers namely:

I. Outer envelope
II. White inner core
III. Blue white feather flame

Due to the more acetylene gas that it contains,more carbon is added to the weld which make it brittle
as acetylene gas itself contains carbon.
It is used to contain low carbon steel.
It is also used for hardfacing and aluminium brazing

-Materials That Can Be Used in Gas Welding

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a) Aluminum
b) Copper
c) Stainless Steel
d) Brass
e) Cast Iron
f) Nickel Alloys
Materials That Cannot Be Use in Gas Welding
Nonmetals, including composites, woods, and plastics, cannot be gas welded. And even
weldable metals have limitations. Dissimilar metals typically cannot be gas welded to one another.
For example, aluminum and steel, aluminum and copper, or titanium and steel melt at significantly
different temperatures, so they can’t form a proper weld pool together.

One of the primary uses of gas welding services is repair work. This technique is better than
most at bridging gaps between parts. Other applications of gas welding include:

1. Fabrication of sheet metal

2. Joining of aircraft parts
3. Automotive chassis and frame fabrication
4. Joining of high-carbon steel

Pros

 The process is suitable for a variety of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

 Gas welding doesn’t require electricity.
 It is a simple and straightforward welding technique.
 Gas welding equipment is cheap and portable compared to other welding processes.

Cons

 -Gas welding offers less penetration and heat than arc welding techniques, such as TIG and MIG
welding.
 -The process requires post-weld finishing to improve its aesthetic look.
 -Oxyacetylene welding is prone to weld defects since it doesn’t have weld pool shielding.
 -Gas welding has a slower rate of heating and cooling compared to modern methods.
 -It isn’t suitable for welding high-strength steel since it can alter its mechanical properties.

C.SPOT WELDING

-Spot welding is a type of resistance welding that is sometimes referred to as resistance spot
welding. By applying pressure and heat from an electric current to the weld area, this welding
technique is mostly used to join two or more metal sheets together.

-Process:Spot welding, a type of resistance welding, is one of the original methods of joining two or
more metal sheets together without the need for filler.

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 -By utilizing shaped alloy copper electrodes to apply pressure and heat to the weld area while
passing an electrical current through the weld pieces, the procedure is carried out. At that
moment, the electrode pressure is maintained, the material melts and fused the parts together,
solidifying the molten "nugget" to form the junction and cutting off the current.
-Electric current transfers to the work-piece through electrodes made of copper alloy,
producing the heat during welding.Copper is used for the electrodes as it has a high thermal
conductivity and low electrical resistance compared to most other metals, ensuring that the
heat is generated preferentially in the work pieces rather than the electrodes

Material used for spot welding.

i. Steel is comparatively easy to spot weld due to its lower thermal conductivity and higher
electrical resistance, with low carbon steel being most suited to spot welding. However, high
carbon content steels are prone to poor fracture toughness or cracking in the welds as they tend
to form hard and brittle micro-structures.
ii. Galvanized steel (zinc coated) requires slightly higher welding currents to weld than uncoated
steels. Also, with zinc alloys, the copper electrodes rapidly degrade the surface and lead to a
loss of weld quality. Other materials commonly spot welded include stainless steels , nickel
alloys and titanium.
iii. Aluminium has a thermal conductivity and electrical resistance close to that of copper and the
melting point for aluminium is lower, which means welding is possible. However, due to its low
resistance, very high levels of current need to be used when welding aluminium (in the order of
two to three times higher than for steel of equivalent thickness).
iv. Copper and its alloys can also be joined by resistance spot welding

-Electrode materials typically used for spot welding copper include molybdenum and tungsten.

Applications of Spot Welding

Spot welding has applications in a number of industries, including automotive, aerospace, rail,
white goods, metal furniture, electronics, medical building and constructionAutomotive industry for
body and chassis assembly,electrical and electronics manufacturing,aerospace industry for sheet
metal components,appliances manufacturing,metal furniture fabrication,HVAC systems,shipbuilding
and marine industry,industrial equipment and machinery production and construction and
metalworking industries.

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.

Pros

-The advantages of Spot welding are:

 Strong and durable welds.

 Rapid and efficient process.
 Minimal distortion of work-pieces.
 No need for consumable filler material.
 Suitable for various metals and alloys.
 Cost-effective and automated for mass production.
 Reliable and consistent results.
 Environmentally friendly (minimal fumes or waste).

Cons

-The limitations of Spot Welding process are:

 Limited to thin materials.

 Requires precise alignment of electrodes.
 Not suitable for welding dissimilar materials.
 Creates visible weld marks.
 Limited access to complex geometries.
 Electrode wear and maintenance in Spot Welding are required.
 Susceptible to issues with coating and surface contaminants.
 High initial equipment costs.

Defects of Spot Welding

-The various defects in Spot Welding include:

 Uneven spot weld marks

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 Metal splatter near the weld site
 Cracks within the weld area
 Sunken or indented surfaces
 Weld splattering

Positions in Welding:

Positions for welding specify how a workpiece is oriented during the welding process. The
methods and factors required to produce sturdy and dependable welds are determined by these
positions, which include:

i)Flat Position:
 The workpiece is horizontal, and the weld is performed from above.
 Gravity helps hold the molten metal in place, making it easier to control.
ii)Horizontal Position:
 The weld is performed on the upper side of a horizontal joint.
 This position requires adjustments to prevent molten metal from sagging or flowing excessively.
iii)Vertical Position:
 Welding is performed on the vertical surface of a joint that may be either upwards or
downwards.
 Techniques like weaving are often used to ensure even penetration and fusion.
iv)Overhead Position:
 Welding is done on the underside of a horizontal surface.
 Gravity works against the welder, making it challenging to control the molten metal and prevent
drips or lack of fusion.

-For welders to properly satisfy project parameters and guarantee constant quality, mastering
welding positions is essential.

Joints in welding:

Joints are important in welding because they affect the welded structure's strength, appearance,
and functionality. In welding, a variety of joints are employed, each with a distinct function:

i)Lap Joint: One piece of metal overlaps the other, forming a joint.
ii)Butt Joint: Two pieces of metal are aligned in the same plane and welded along their edges.
iii)Corner Joint: Two pieces of metal are joined at right angles to each other.
iv)T-Joint: One piece of metal is perpendicular to the other, forming a T-shape when viewed from
the end.

Beveling in welding

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 In welding, beveling is the act of cutting or grinding the edges of the metal parts that are going
to be bonded at an angle, usually resulting in the creation of a V- or U-shaped groove along the edge.
This preparation is essential because it makes it possible for the weld metal to enter the joint more
effectively, producing a stronger and more dependable weld.

-Beveling are of three types namely:

a) Square beveling: refers to the preparation of the edges of metal pieces where the edges are cut
or ground at a 90-degree angle (square) to the surface of the material. This type of beveling
creates a square groove along the edge, which provides several benefits in the welding process
namely:Enhanced Fusion,Increased Welding Area and suitability for Thick Materials.

b) V-beveling:The technique of cutting or grinding metal parts at an angle, usually resulting

in the creation of a V-shaped groove along the edge, is known as "V-beveling" in welding. Due
to improved weld metal penetration into the joint made possible by this preparation, the weld is
stronger and more dependable. V-beveling increases the surface area for welding and provides
space for the weld metal to bond effectively with the base metal. It also ensures proper fusion
between the pieces being joined.
c) Double-v beveling:double V beveling is the process of preparing the two sides of the
junction by forming V-shaped grooves on their opposing sides. When strong welds are needed,
this preparation method is frequently utilized, particularly for thicker materials or important
structural elements.Double-V beveling increased Welding Area,enhances Weld Quality and
makes welding process compatible.

4.CONCLUSION

In conclusion, welding is a versatile and essential process used across industries to join metals
and thermoplastics, creating strong and durable bonds. It encompasses a variety of techniques,
including fusion welding like arc welding and solid-state welding methods such as friction welding.
Each method offers unique advantages suited to different materials and applications, from
construction to aerospace.

Safety is paramount in welding due to the inherent risks such as exposure to harmful gases, UV
radiation, and electric shock. Proper safety measures, including ventilation, protective gear, and
adherence to safety protocols, are crucial to safeguard welders' health and ensure a safe working
environment.

Understanding welding positions and joint types allows welders to execute projects effectively,
ensuring weld integrity and structural strength. Techniques like bevelling enhance welding quality by
preparing joints for optimal weld penetration and fusion.

Overall, welding continues to play a pivotal role in modern manufacturing and construction,
enabling the fabrication of complex structures and ensuring the reliability of welded components
across various industries.

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5.REFERENCES

 -American Welding Society. (2020). *Welding handbook: Welding processes, Vol. 1*.
American Welding Society.

 -Hicks, J. (2018). *Welding: Principles and applications*. Cengage Learning.

 -Kalpakjian, S., & Schmid, S. R. (2019). *Manufacturing engineering and technology*. Pearson.

 -Kutz, M. (Ed.). (2019). *Handbook of materials selection for engineering applications*. CRC
Press.

 -Lincoln Electric. (n.d.). Welding safety precautions. Retrieved from

https://www.lincolnelectric.com/safety

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