Review

Older adults, computers, and the Internet:

Future directions
Bo Xie
Department of Science and Technology Studies
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
110 8th Street, Troy, NY 12180-3590, USA
email: [email protected]

B.Xie. Older adults, computers, and the Internet: Future directions. Gerontechnology 2003;

No 4
2(4):289-305. This article reviews existing literature on older adults’ interactions with computers
and the Internet, and proposes questions and directions for future gerontechnology research.
The first section of this paper briefly reviews existing human factors research on older adults’

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interactions with computers and the Internet. The next two sections review research on barriers
to and aids of older adults’ learning and use of computers and the Internet, and older adults’

June 2003,
attitudes toward, perceptions, and general usage of computers and the Internet, respectively.
The fourth section summarizes available research on older adults’ interactions in computerized
community networks. Finally, based on existing literature on this topic and informed by general
theories of the interdisciplinary field of science and technology studies (STS), the fifth section
proposes new questions and directions for future gerontechnology research.

Keywords: aging, computers, the Internet, Science and Technology Studies 289

The ‘twin challenges’ of the aging of the age, etc. – have on older adults’ experiences
population and the development of new with ICTs? What power asymmetries and
information and communication techno- social relations are embedded in the current

w w w. g e r o n t e c h j o u r n a l . n e t
logies (ICTs) is becoming a new research technical design of ICTs? What impact might
topic in recent years. Existing research on the dramatic development of ICTs have on
aging and new ICTs often focuses on such the rapidly increasing older population? And,
topics as the effects of age-related changes in what are the potential influences of an aging
visual, perceptual, motor, and cognitive population on the design and development
abilities on older adults’ learning and use of of computers and the Internet? To answer
computers and the Internet, barriers to and these questions, this article argues, it is
aids of their learning and use of new ICTs, important to pay more serious attention to
and older adults’ attitudes toward, social and cultural factors that affect older
perceptions, and general usage of computers adults’ interactions with computers and the
and the Internet. This current research focus, Internet in various ways. The first four
however, is very limited; many crucial issues sections of this article review existing
are understudied or, in some cases, literature on aging and new ICTs. The fifth
completely ignored. For instance, what section, informed by general theories of the
social, political, economic, cultural, and interdisciplinary field of science and
technical factors have, either independently technology studies (STS), proposes a list of
or synergistically, caused or facilitated the new research questions for future
uneven computer and Internet usage gerontechnology research.
between older and younger adults? What
effects do various variables – nationality, HUMAN FACTORS RESEARCH
gender, ethnicity, cultural background, Currently, the majority of research on aging
education, class, profession, health status, and new ICTs takes the human factors
 Computers and the Internet

approach. Human factors or ergonomics Design and training interventions

research is an interdisciplinary field. In Two types of human factors interventions
general, it focuses on human-technology are often addressed in the published
interaction1,2. In particular, human factors literature: guiding principles for designing
researchers working at the intersection of senior-friendly physical interfaces and
aging and ICTs explore the effects of age- software18,19,26-36, and guidelines for
related changes in visual, perceptual, motor, designing age-appropriate training instruc-
and cognitive abilities on older adults’ tions and materials6-8,18,19,23,25,32,37-43.
learning and use of various computer and Overall, available human factors research
Internet applications and related devices. appears to suggest that, on the one hand,
Furthermore, based on their understanding age-related changes in visual, perceptual,
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of age differences in technology learning motor, and cognitive abilities make it more
and adoption, human factors practitioners difficult for older adults to learn and use
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are devoted to exploring the interventions new technologies; on the other hand,
that may help older adults to overcome those difficulties can be at least partly
these age-related obstacles. compensated by senior-friendly design of
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technological interfaces and software, and

Age-related differences age-appropriate training materials and
A large number of human factors studies strategies.
have found age-related differences in older
adults’ learning and use of computers and BARRIERS AND AIDS
the Internet. For instance, studies observed Age-related changes in visual, perceptual,
290
that older adults made more errors than motor, and cognitive abilities, coupled
their younger counterparts in learning with poor design, are some of the major
computer text-editing software3-5; they barriers to older adults’ learning and use of
required more time and assistance than computers and the Internet. Other major
younger adults to learn and use computer obstacles include lack of access to
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software3, 6, 7; they had more difficulty than computers and the Internet17,44, lack of
their younger counterparts in learning to prior experiences with new techno-
use electronic bulletin board systems8, and logies45, and negative social stereotypes of
they had more difficulty using a computer older adults44. Often it is the synergistic,
mouse9-12. Human factors researchers rather than independent, effects of these
suggest that the difficulties older adults barriers that inhibit older adults’ learning
experience when learning and using ICTs and use of ICTs. For instance, available
are related to age-associated changes in research indicates that lack of access to a
visual, perceptual, psychomotor, and computer and lack of knowledge about
cognitive abilities. For instance, a number the Web are two primary predictors for not
of studies suggest that age-related changes using the Web46. The use of large-size
in psychomotor abilities affect older adults’ display screens (capable of displaying
use of computer input devices such as the large-size characters), assistance from a
mouse and the keyboard9,13-16, while trained computer demonstrator, and small
impaired eyesight affects older adults’ use group settings (rather than large groups or
of computers and the Internet13,17-19. Due individual settings) are important
to their reduced perceptual and cognitive facilitators of older adults’ experiences
abilities, older adults often experience with computers47. While attitude towards
more difficulties in learning computer computers is the strongest predictor of
software8,13,20-23, and navigating, browsing, participation in an electronic bulletin
searching for, and retrieving information on board system, success at initial training is
the World Wide Web19,23-25. the most important predictor of continued
 Computers and the Internet

use of the system37. Multiple sources of selected, and there were no control
instruction – including class presentations, groups, it does show that, on the one
individual lessons, functional “cue cards”, hand, at least among the 10% who were
manuals, expert peers, and periodic visitors of the Technology Center, the
meetings – must be given to facilitate majority of older adults were very positive
elders’ learning of computers48-50; and a about computers. On the other hand,
careful and supportive environment is however, at least half of them were having
important to older adults’ acceptance and difficulties with computers51.
use of new technologies51.
On the other hand, other studies appear to
ATTITUDES, PERCEPTIONS, AND USAGE suggest that there are no age differences in

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A number of studies focus on older attitudes toward computers3, or that older
people’s attitudes toward, perceptions of, adults are quite positive about new

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and general usage of computers and the ICTs47,54-57. For instance, a study found that
Internet. The results, however, are at most the general response from the respondents
ambiguous, and, not unusually, conflicting. was positive, and older computer users

June 2003,
For instance, a telephone survey found reported a trend of declined loneliness54.
that, compared to their younger counter- Interviews with a small number of older
parts, older adults had less positive Internet users in New Zealand found that
attitudes toward and less usage of a variety older adults’ attitudes toward information
of technologies such as computers52. technology are mostly positive55. A two-
Another survey found that participants’ year ethnographic study of a group of older
291
attitudes toward and usage of computers computer users at a senior center in
were influenced by their age, gender, and California shows that older adults are
prior experience with computers. In positive about and capable of using
particular, age was negatively related to computers, and computers have enhanced
computer usage. Men reported more the quality of life for older users56. In a

w w w. g e r o n t e c h j o u r n a l . n e t
computer usage than women and had quasi-experimental study conducted at an
more positive attitudes toward computers urban retirement center, respondents’
than women. Also, prior experience with attitudes toward computers were examined
computers in everyday life was positively before and after a three-week period.
related to attitudes toward computer Older users reported that, after three
technology53. In May 1986, a survey was weeks of learning computer games and
conducted among visitors of the computer-based communication, their
Technology Center of the Biannual self-confidence was significantly higher
Meeting of the AARP. About 10% of the than before. Also, respondents stated that
visitors of the Technology Center (N = 458) they were more willing to play with
volunteered to complete the computers at the end of the three-week
questionnaire. The results of this survey period47. An experiment found that older
generate more questions than answers: on adults were willing and able to interact
the one hand, 84% of participants with the computerized questionnaire.
reported feeling “fascinated” and 78% Also, their acceptance of computer-
feeling “excited” when they thought about generated recommendations was high,
computers; on the other hand, 50% of which indicated that older adults’ attitude
participants stated that they felt toward computer technology was quite
“confused” and 61% felt “ignorant” when positive57.
they thought about computers. Although
the survey itself has limitations – for The ambiguity of existing results is to a
instance, the participants were self- large extent due to the fact that studies are
 Computers and the Internet

conducted during different time periods, social structures and interpersonal

testing different computer technologies, interactions at the workplace and among
using different research methodologies, retired individuals48-50. In this study, eighty
and evaluating different samples. retired and working employees of a
Consequently, the results of available governmental agency were recruited and
studies on older adults and new ICTs are randomly assigned to either the “electronic
not comparable. The lack of comparable group”, or the “standard group”. Each
research calls for more empirical work. group consisted of an equal number of
recent retirees and current employees, and
COMPUTERIZED COMMUNITY each was assigned the same task force
NETWORKS project. The major difference between the
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Currently, the majority of social research two groups was that the former were given
that explores the relationship between access to networked computers, while the
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older adults and ICTs is limited to the latter did not have access to computers.
individual level, as the above discussion Researchers found that the primary use of
has shown; the issues of how the computer was for communication via
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computerized networks have changed electronic mail – members of the elec-

people’s sense of community, and the tronic groups enjoyed sharing information
dynamics of interpersonal relations, and working with other members of the
community networks, and social structures group via computer networks. Use and
in the new information era, are perception of computers among members
significantly understudied. This literature of the electronic group, however, were not
292
review has found only a handful of necessarily associated with age. Indeed,
relevant studies on the intersection of the most striking finding was that the
older adults and computerized community ‘electronic retirees’ had the highest
networks55, 58-62. participation rates by the end of the year.
Researchers suggested that the difference
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Surprisingly, the most exciting findings on between electronic retirees and working
older adults and computerized community employees was due to ‘office pressures’:
networks often have come unexpectedly employees were directly or indirectly told
or when researchers did not seem to have by their managers to use the computer only
a notion of ‘community’ in mind when they had ‘free time’ (and few
(‘communities’ came into the picture as a employees would admit that they had ‘free
byproduct of other research purposes). For time’ when they were on duty). At the end
instance, in a study that was originally of the experimental time, the electronic
designed to explore older adults’ group formed their own online
interactions with computer games, community: the DEPCNET48-50. This study,
researchers unexpectedly found that although conducted nearly two decades
participants favored interacting with other ago, is still valuable to today’s research, not
people via computer networks, an only because it is one of the earliest studies
unplanned activity, more than playing that has shown ICTs have the ability to
computer games47. This study, conducted diminish the social isolation of those who
more than twenty years ago, is one of the are retired and increase the social
earliest studies that has revealed older ‘connectedness’ of retired people, but also
adults’ interest in and interaction with because it indicates that, contrary to the
computerized community networks. widely circulated stereotype, advanced age
is not the determinative factor of slow
In a yearlong study, researchers explored adoption of new technologies; other
the contributions of computer networks to factors – in this case, how much ‘free time’
 Computers and the Internet

one had to practice – play important roles social and cultural aspects are under-
in adopting new technologies. studied or, in some cases, completely
ignored. This section proposes a list of
Mary Furlong started a notable online research questions that deserve more
community -- SeniorNet -- for older adults attention. The intention is not to offer a
in the mid-1980s. SeniorNet was first complete list but to stimulate more
launched in March 1986, and it soon conversations and discussions on aging-
evolved from a small on-line network that and ICT-related issues.
mainly provided information to an
expanding electronic community where What positive and negative effects can
older adults can communicate and ICTs have on older adults?

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interact with each other58,59. According to A number of existing studies have
SeniorNet, the online community now has addressed the positive effects of ICTs on

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over 39,000 members from various older adults’ independence, social
nations and over 600 active discussion networks, psychological well-being, and
groups that cover a wide range of topics63. social status. For instance, researchers

June 2003,
Since its launch, SeniorNet has been a propose that information technology has
very useful research site for researchers the potential to empower older adults64, to
who are concerned about the influences of enhance their social status (and,
computerized networks on older adults, as consequently, the quality of the aging
a number of empirical studies have experience)65, and to increase their
shown55,58-61. For instance, in a study that independence, integration in society,
293
explored computer-mediated social interpersonal contact, opportunities to
support among older adults, the contribute productively to society, control
qualitative analysis of downloaded over their environment, self esteem, and
SeniorNet conversations and the open- the quality as well as the length of life66
ended questions of an online survey found Overall, ICTs can be used not only to treat

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recurring social support themes60. The illness of older adults but also to maintain
quantitative part of this study – based on their wellness44. However, more empirical
an online survey -- also generated work that systematically examines these
interesting results: for instance, satisfying theoretical hypotheses is necessary.
online relationships positively correlate to
frequency of use -- namely, the more older How can ICTs help older adults to
adults use the Internet, the more satisfied contribute their time, energy, and
they are with their online support network, intelligence to society and the
and vice versa61. environment? An innovative Internet-
based program suggests that ICTs can
Overall, although several researchers have facilitate older adults’ participation in
explored how computers and the Internet environmental protection. The program,
may affect older adults’ online and offline developed by the Environmental Alliance
social networks, research on older adults’ for Senior Involvement (EASI) and with the
experiences in computerized social collaboration of the Department of
networks is still an understudied area so Environment and Aging of Pennsylvania,
far and further attention is needed. involves an online database that contains
water and habitat monitoring information.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS Older volunteers are trained to conduct
As demonstrated above, the new field of relevant scientific tests to monitor the
aging and ICTs currently focuses on a very water quality at over 500 sites in
limited number of topics. Many crucial Pennsylvania, and to input the results into
 Computers and the Internet

the online database67. In another project, the mouse that requires fine motions of the
the Internet is used to connect middle- wrist might cause physical damage to
school students who are studying recent older adults15.
history, with older adults who have lived
through and can provide knowledge about What are the causes and consequences
recent history. The results suggest that of the digital divide between older and
online interactions between older and younger adults?
younger people have changed the latter’s It is important to realize that improved
attitudes toward studying history and design and training can only affect the
empathy for older adults68. These two experiences of those older adults who
programs offer good examples of how ICTs have access to computers and the Internet.
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may help older adults to keep making For older adults who do not have
contributions to society even after computer and Internet access, the first
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retirement. thing to do is to provide access for them.

Statistics in various countries have shown
Among empirical work that examines the that older adults’ access to computers and
June 2003,

positive effects of ICTs, an ethnographic the Internet are significantly lower than
research project explored how adult their younger counterparts. Therefore, one
children and elderly parents in dispersed ought to ask, why? What kinds of forces --
families interact via email, the telephone, social, cultural, economic, political,
and transportation technologies. In technical, physical, synergistically or
particular, the study explored technology- independently -- have inhibited older
294
based interactions between adult Jewish adults’ access to new technologies? And,
Americans who immigrated to Israel and what can be done to ensure that older
their senior parents who remained in the adults will have equal access to new
US. The findings suggest that ICTs have technologies? These are the first questions
helped to reinforce family ties and social scientists needs to ask, and,
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intergenerational affections in distant unfortunately, these are also currently

living and dispersed families69. understudied issues.

However, previous research tends to Public access at public facilities like

neglect the possibilities that technology libraries and museums is a good way
might negatively affect older adults. “How to provide older adults with free access
can our society assure that older persons to computers and the Internet17. However,
exercise sufficient judgment in using this will not be so helpful for older adults
information technology?” 44, p.435 In other with walking disabilities, which accounts
words, how can our society ensure that for a large number of the older population.
older persons would not be overdepen- Also, public facilities often have time
dent on technology? Unfortunately, critical constraints (they open and close at certain
questions like this are rare in the published times), which means older adults whose
literature. Often positive effects of only access to ICTs is at those public
technology are the default setting of locations cannot have unlimited access
research; potential negative influences are to computers. This significantly weakens
ignored. This literature review has found the so-called ‘any where, any time’
that few studies address the potential value of the Internet. Without this
negative effects of ICTs on older adults. convenience, older users’ experiences
One exception is a study on older adults’ with ICTs will be less satisfactory, and,
use of the computer mouse, which warned consequently, they will be less motivated
that use of computer input devices such as to learn and use ICTs.
 Computers and the Internet

Recent research on the digital divide has have shown. However, it is important to
expanded from the original focus on keep in mind that most existing design and
access to include the ways the Internet is training recommendations have not been
used70,71. For instance, a recent review tested systematically and thoroughly, as
article defines the ‘digital divide’ as some human factors practitioners have
‘inequalities in access to the Internet, warned28-29. Therefore, more systematic –
extent of use, knowledge of search empirical and theoretical -- exploration of
strategies, quality of technical connections new guidelines and thorough examination
and social support, ability to evaluate the of existing ones are still necessary.
quality of information, and diversity of
uses’70. Therefore, for those older adults Furthermore, human factors researchers

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who already have access to computers propose that theories of psychology and
and the Internet, one needs to consider, cognitive aging can, and should, guide

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what are their actual experiences with technical design and training23,72.
learning and using computers and the However, this approach itself cannot offer
Internet? How is older adults’ use of new any guarantees that designers will

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ICTs different from that of younger adults? necessarily follow the proposed
As discussed above, existing research, guidelines. To do so, certain social
especially human factors research, has mechanisms, such as policy interventions,
made significant contributions to are necessary. Also, in most cases young
exploring this question. However, human designers fail to develop senior-friendly
factors research often takes place in the products not because they do not want to
295
well-controlled laboratory or quasi- but because they are not aware of older
experimental setting, which is very people’s special needs. Therefore,
different from the actual settings where intergenerational educational settings,
older adults interact with computers and where older and younger students can sit
the Internet. Therefore, more empirical in the same classroom and take the same

w w w. g e r o n t e c h j o u r n a l . n e t
and theoretical research that takes an course at the same time, may help
ethnographic approach and conducts designers to design senior-friendly
deep qualitative analysis to explore older interfaces and software. The success of
adults’ actual experiences with ICTs in such a program -- the “Elder Connection”
various social settings is necessary. intergenerational program -- supports this
point73. Clearly, in this program,
What can be done to ensure that older integrating older adults into higher
adults’ learning and use of ICTs will be education systems facilitates intergene-
easier? rational interactions between older and
Human factors researchers suggest that younger people. Consequently, younger
senior-friendly design and training students – future scientists, engineers,
interventions, guided by theories of designers, and manufactures – become
psychology and cognitive aging, can more aware of the existence and special
facilitate older adults’ learning and using needs of older adults at a very early stage
of ICTs. Therefore, they are dedicated to of their professional development, and,
exploring various guidelines for interface later in their careers, are more likely to
and system design, and training materials design and develop technologies that
and strategies that take into serious better satisfy older adults.
consideration older adults’ special visual,
perceptual, motor, and cognitive These kinds of intervention are clearly
conditions. This approach has produced beyond the scope of the human factors
valuable results, as the above discussions approach – after all, older adults’
 Computers and the Internet

interactions with technologies are also logical determinism: because technologies

affected by social and cultural factors (e.g., are independent of society and their
changes in their social and financial impacts on society are inevitable and
circumstances due to retirement), which irresistible, it is only necessary and
cannot simply be resolved by technical possible to study the impact of techno-
interventions as human factors practi- logies on those people. This vision ignores
tioners have suggested. Therefore, it is various social forces that shape techno-
important that other disciplines such as logical innovation and development, and,
political science and education pay consequently, leaves older people in a
serious attention to the field of aging and passive and vulnerable position. On the
ICTs. contrary, social constructivism, a major
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theoretical approach of STS, considers

Also, to facilitate older adults’ learning and how various social forces shape
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use of ICTs, it is important to develop technological innovation and develop-

computer applications that match older ment. By examining the technological
adults’ special interests. Older adults, due content or the “black box” of technology,
June 2003,

to their special situation, have different social constructivism challenges the

needs and interests for computer distinctions between the social and the
applications. For instance, research technical. It suggests that technological
indicates that older adults are more likely development, contrary to the claims of
than their younger counterparts to search technological determinists, is embedded
for health and medical information on the in, rather than separate from, the larger
296
World Wide Web, and develop such social context. Social constructivism
hobbies as genealogy46,74. Are there any reveals the possibility of social selection
other particular computer applications that among various technological choices or
might satisfy older adults’ special needs? alternatives. In other words, technologies
Previous research that examines older do not follow predetermined develop-
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adults’ use of common computer tasks is mental patterns that are out of human
too general in this sense; more research control; rather, technologies are shaped by
that aims at exploring and developing various social factors and, as such, are
‘senior-appropriate’ applications is potentially subject to social constraints. By
necessary. fully acknowledging the active and
creative role that social forces have played
What influences can older adults have and are playing in technological
on technological developments? innovation and development, social
Currently, most research that explores the constructivism has revealed the possi-
relationship between older adults and ICTs bilities of democratic technological choice
are conducted in such fields as and control75-79. In sum, based on the rich
psychology, cognitive and behavioral literature on the social shaping of
science, and gerontology. One common technology, it is also necessary and
feature of those studies is that they often important to ask, in addition to how
explore the impact of technology on older technologies affect older adults: how can
adults, yet ignore the possibilities of how older adults shape the design and
the aging population might actively shape development of technologies? As Mary
technological choice and development. In Furlong, the founder of SeniorNet,
the language of science and technology suggests: “Perhaps the greatest challenge
studies (STS), the trend of current research will be envisioning how these
on the influence of technologies on older technologies can harness the wisdom and
adults reflects the tradition of techno- talents of our older adults. Not only are
 Computers and the Internet

they a growing demographic group but ‘Thousand Elders’ – to serve as consumer

they are also an important resource for the advisers to improve the design and
continuing vitality and collective memory development of domestic technologies81.
of our society.” 58, p. 152 However, it is important to keep in mind
that this approach – that older adults
How can older adults help to guide the could/should serve as consumer advisers
design and development of ICTs? or peer instructors -- is not sufficient,
Cyril Brickfield asks: ‘To what extent can because this approach does not touch and
older people help guide technological therefore cannot change deep, structural
developments that may impinge on their factors that have caused older adults’
daily lives?’ 52, p. 31 His own answer is that marginalized position in technological

No 4
older people could serve as ‘consumer design and development. In other words,
advisers’ to help designers and Brickfield’s approach still leaves older

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manufacturers to understand the needs of adults in a vulnerable position: for
older adults and to produce more instance, how seriously designers and
desirable products, and that older people manufacturers will take senior advisers’

June 2003,
could be ‘instructors’ to help their age suggestions is a big question. Also, being a
peers to diminish fears or skepticism of consumer adviser or peer instructor still
new technologies. Also, Brickfield means that older adults cannot participate
suggests that retired scientists and in the early stages of the design and
engineers as well as other older development process of new technologies;
professionals can help guide technological consequently, the choices that older adults
297
development. One such example is have are limited. More importantly, the
‘Senior Scientists and Engineers (SSE)’, a SSE is a good way to organize older
Washington DC-based volunteer organization scientists, engineers, and other profes-
consisting of older professionals. At the time sionals; but it has left behind ‘lay’ older
when Brickfield wrote the article, SSE had people. After all, it is not just the

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just started constructing a small (offline) responsibility (and right) of experts – old or
community that could support and young – to contribute to and guide
facilitate their missions. In 1998, with a grant technological developments.
from the National Science Foundation, the
group built an online community that To ensure older adults’ participation in the
allows members to interact across time design and development of technologies,
and space80. This form of (online and it is important to overcome structural –
offline) community is another way that social, political, economic, institutional,
older adults can help to shape and ideological – barriers that prevent
technological innovation and develop- older adults from participating in
ment. technological design and development.
Richard Sclove’s approach is valuable for
Brickfield has asked the right questions – this purpose82. Sclove is an STS scholar
older adults are not only affected by new who emphasizes the importance of citizen
technologies in various ways but also can, participation in every stage of the design
and should, contribute to steer and development of democratic techno-
technologies; and his suggestions are a logies. One of his main arguments is that
good start for this long journey. For technologies qualify as a type of social
instance, researchers at the Center for structure in that they function politically
Applied Gerontology at the University of and culturally in a manner comparable to
Birmingham in the United Kingdom have other, more commonly recognized kinds
established a panel of older adults – the of social structure such as laws, dominant
 Computers and the Internet

political and economic institutions, and resides in humanity”: “No one knows
systems of cultural belief. Combining this everything, everyone knows something…
vision with Benjamin Barber’s notion of If you are tempted to judge someone as
‘strong democracy’, Sclove develops the ignorant, look for the context in which his
theory of a ‘democratic politics of knowledge can be turned into gold” 83,
technology’: ‘If citizens ought to be p.13-14. As a result, ‘the other’, no matter

empowered to participate in determining her/his social status, profession, and

their society’s basic structure, and educational background, is a source of
technologies are an important species of knowledge: s/he knows something that I
social structure, it follows that do not know, and therefore can contribute
technological design and practice should to, in one way or another, the constructing
No 4

be democratized’ 82,p.26-27. This theory of intelligent human communities. For

entails two corresponding elements: a) Levy, in the knowledge space, the ethical
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democratic procedures for developing b) and aesthetic aspects of collective

democratic technologies. Procedurally, intelligence are of the same importance as
Sclove suggests, citizens ought always to its technological and economic
June 2003,

have extensive opportunities to participate dimensions. Although Levy does not

in technological research, development, specifically address older individuals, his
and design to shape the evolving framework certainly applies to this social
technological order. Substantively, the group.
resulting technologies ought to be
compatible with strong democracy. What are the major barriers that currently
298
inhibit older adults’ involvement in
Are ‘lay’ citizens capable of participating steering technological development?
in and shaping technological design and Human factors research reminds us that
development? Sclove holds that nonexpert current technical design and training is not
citizens are, indeed, ‘in every sense the age-appropriate. To move one step further,
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experts.’ Although he does not specifically one ought to ask, why weren’t senior-
address older people, his framework friendly design and training available in
certainly can be applied to this the first place? Or, to say it slightly
population. Pierre Levy’s notion of differently, why was the older population
‘collective intelligence’ also supports the excluded from the design and develop-
idea that everyone, including older adults, ment of technologies?
possesses particular knowledge and
expertise that technical experts do not STS scholars suggest that an understanding
have83. Levy addresses the significance of of power asymmetries and social relations
collective intelligence in the newly formed among different social groups can help us
knowledge space. In the information era, to understand the shaping of technological
he argues, knowledge becomes the development84-86. For instance, one major
primary driving force of society and approach of social constructivism -- the
history. This creates a new anthropological social construction of technology (SCOT)
space -- the knowledge space. In this new approach -- holds that the negotiations
space, the rules of social interaction and among ‘relevant social groups,’ which refer
the identities of human beings are to those institutions, organizations, and
reconstructed. The redefined social bond organized or unorganized groups of
will be based on reciprocal individuals that are affected in one way or
apprenticeship, shared skills, imagination, another by the artifact, affect technological
and collective intelligence. This is design and development76-78. Langdon
because, Levy suggests, “all knowledge Winner, among many other scholars,
 Computers and the Internet

suggests that, although it is important to and producers of those projects – namely,

notice the existence and influence of the technically interested male. Berg’s
relevant social groups in the developmental work clearly shows that although women
process of a technological artifact, it is also are a relevant social group, their interests
important to notice the absence of other have been ignored in the smart house
social groups and, more importantly, to ask projects. As Berg puts it, women as a
the question of why those groups are social group are “relevant but absent” in
absent. He asks: “Who says what are the design and development of these
relevant social groups and social interests? housing technologies87,p.310. Similarly,
What about groups that have no voice but older adults as a social group are currently
that, nevertheless, will be affected by the also “relevant but absent” from

No 4
results of technological change? What of technological design and choice. Looking
groups that have been suppressed or at power asymmetries and social relations

Vo l 2 ,
deliberately excluded? How does one therefore can help to reveal structural
account for potentially important choices barriers that inhibit older people’s
that never surface as matters for debate and involvement in steering technological

June 2003,
choice?” 86, p.369 Clearly, these are also the innovation and development.
questions we need to consider if we intend
to address the barriers that inhibit older The diversity of the older population
people’s involvement in technological The older population is a diverse one, and
innovation and development. includes individuals of different
nationality, ethnicity, cultural background,
299
Following this direction, feminist studies gender, education, class, profession,
of technology provide a promising health status, even age, etc. Therefore, it is
approach that age studies can borrow. In important to study the independent and
particular, the notion of ‘relevant but synergistic influences of these variables on
absent’ social groups, as developed by older adults’ learning and use of ICTs. A

w w w. g e r o n t e c h j o u r n a l . n e t
Anne-Jorunn Berg87, is of special impor- good example is the ‘mediation model,’
tance for understanding older people’s which considers the impact of four factors
positions in the social shaping of new -- age, education, computer knowledge,
technologies. Berg analyzes the design and computer anxiety -- on older people’s
and development of three smart house computer interest88. Based on previous
prototypes and finds that, although the literature, this model proposes that age
home is traditionally considered to be the and education would affect older adults’
domain of women, none of the three computer knowledge and computer
prototypes have taken into account anxiety, and the latter two would be the
women’s desires and needs. Indeed, direct predictors of older adults’ computer
housework – which is traditionally interest – in short, the impact of age and
associated with women and includes tasks education on older adults’ computer
such as cooking, washing, cleaning, interest would be fully mediated by
tidying, and mending – is almost computer knowledge and computer
completely ignored. The designers and anxiety. The results partly supported the
producers of those projects – often male -- hypothesized mediation model. In
simply do not have any interest in particular, the results suggested that age
housework, probably at least partly was negatively related to both computer
because they do not know too much about knowledge and computer interest, and
housework. And the primary target positively correlated with computer
consumers of the smart home are those anxiety. Educational level was positively
who share the same image as the designers associated with computer knowledge and
 Computers and the Internet

computer interest, and negatively related declines in joint range of motion of the
to computer anxiety. Also, computer wrist and grip strength. The results warned
knowledge was negatively correlated with that use of computer input devices such as
computer anxiety and positively related to a mouse that requires fine motions of the
computer interest, whereas computer wrist might cause physical damage to
anxiety was negatively related to older adults, especially older men15. A
computer interest. However, the data qualitative study reported the experiences
indicated that computer knowledge and of six older Australian women with
computer anxiety could not fully explain computers and the Internet. Those older
age-related variance in older people’s women were willing and able to use new
computer interest. This suggested that the ICTs to communicate with their families
No 4

oversimplified model ignored other and friends, and to maintain their

potential predictors of older adults’ independence and personhood90.
Vo l 2 ,

computer interest, such as gender, class,

and health status. Although this study has CONCLUSION
limitations, it signals an important starting Available research suggests that older
June 2003,

point for building up useful theoretical adults’ experiences with ICTs are different
frameworks that take into consideration from those of younger adults in many
the synergistic influence of various factors ways. Are those differences generational
on older adults’ learning and use of ICTs. or trans-generational phenomena? In other
words, will those differences disappear or
Gender-related issues remain among future generations of older
300
Among the diverse factors that affect older adults? It is well documented that the slow
adults’ experiences with technologies, adoption of ICTs among the current
gender deserves special attention for at generation of older adults is to a large
least two reasons. First, the older extent due to lack of training and
population consists of more older women knowledge in the workplace and at
w w w. g e r o n t e c h j o u r n a l . n e t

than older men, since women often schools. Therefore, it is not unreasonable
outlive men. Second, older women to suspect that, since today’s younger
experience aging differently from older generations in general have more
men89. Currently, however, research on experiences with ICTs at school and work,
older adults either ignores gender and as these generations age, they will be more
gender-related issues, or considers gender familiar and comfortable with computers
as a variable that could be simply added and the Internet than the current
on to existing frameworks. In particular, in generation of older adults. However, as
the area of aging and ICTs, few studies some scholars have suggested, we should
have explored and compared older be cautious in viewing the digital divide as
women’s and older men’s experiences a generational phenomenon71. After all,
with ICTs. This literature review has found older adults’ interactions with ICTs are
only a handful of studies that specifically embedded in and therefore influenced by
consider gender-related issues. For complex social and cultural contexts. If
instance, an empirical study addressed the the context remains the same, then the
impact of age- and gender-related changes interactions between older adults and ICTs
in motor and musculo-skeletal systems on might as well remain the same. For
older adults’ use of computers and instance, if future prices of computer
associated input devices such as the equipment and Internet access are too
mouse. The results of the experiment high for future generations of older adults
indicated that older adults, especially who have limited financial resources after
older men, experienced significant retirement, then it is likely that those older
 Computers and the Internet

adults, even though they might have had In Dillon R, editor. Individual Differences
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