ELECTRICAL POWER UTILIZATION AND TRACTION (21EE1414)

Module - 4
Electric Traction System
1. Introduction
2. Requirements of Ideal Traction System
3. Supply system for Electric Traction System
4. Train Movements
5. Mechanism of Train Movements
6. The Traction Motors
7. Traction Motor Control
8. Speed Control System of Traction Motors
9. Breaking of Electric Motors
10. Modern Trends in Electric Traction System
11. Automation in Electric Traction System.
MCQ
1. In case of______ free running & coasting periods are generally long.
(a) Mainline service (b) Urban service (c) Suburban service (d) All of the above
2. Which of the following is an advantage of electric traction over other methods of traction?
(a) Faster acceleration (b) No pollution problems (c) Better braking action (d) All
3. Long distance railways use which of the following?
(a) 200 V DC (b) 25 kV single phase AC (c) 25 kV two phase AC (d) 25 kV three phase AC
4. In tramways which of the following motors is used?
(a) D.C. shunt motor (b) D.C. series motor
(c) A.C. three phase motor (d) AC. single phase capacitor start motor
5. Electric locomotives in India are manufactured at___
(a) Jamalpur (b) Bangalore (c) Chittranjan (d) Gorakhpur
6. The frictional force always acts in the _________ direction of motion of the body.
(a) Opposite (b) Same (c) Perpendicular (d) Vertical
7. The value of area under acceleration-time graph is _________
(a) Velocity (b) Displacement (c) Force (d) Impulse
8. The value of area under force-time graph is _________
(a) Reaction (b) Change in momentum (c) Force (d) Torque
9. Full form of HVDC is _________
(a) High Voltage Direct Current (b) High Voltage Distribution Combination
c) High-Value Direct Current (d) High-Value Distribution Combination
10. Which of the following is the advantage of electric braking ?
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(a) It avoids wear of track (b) Motor continues to remain loaded during braking
(c) It is instantaneous (d) More heat is generated during braking

1. Introduction
Que. What is Electric Traction?
Traction
 A Traction system is that which involves the propulsion of wheels of vehicle on a track.
 It means the system become operated on a track.
 Traction is the friction between a drive wheel and the road surface.
Electric Traction
 Electric traction is meant for locomotion in which the driving (tractive) force is obtained
from electric motors (called as traction motors).
 It involves utilization of electric power for traction systems i.e., for railways, trams,
trolleys etc.
 For traction purposes mostly 3-Phase Induction motors and d.c series motors are used and
both have high starting torque, prevailing requirement for the high speed acceleration.
 The action of pulling something over a surface (especially a road or a track) is known as
traction.
 The action of drawing of vehicles by electric power derived from overhead wires, third
rail, storage batteries or diesel generators mounted on the vehicles is known as electric
traction.
 In simple words, the traction system which uses electric power for its operation is known
as electric traction.
 The electric traction system is widely used in electric trains, tramcars, trolley buses and
hybrid vehicles, etc.
Advantages:
 Due to cleanliness and pollution free, it can be used in underground railways.
 Starting torque is high, speed control is simple, braking is simple and efficient. By
regenerative
 braking can be pumped back into the supply and saving the electric energy
 Less maintenance than steam locomotive.
 Put into service immediately
 The coefficient of adhesion is high
 Center of gravity is lower than steam locomotive. Hence it runs faster at curved routes.
 Saving high grade of coal and diesel.
 Electric traction has high power-to-weight to ratio.
 The electrification of railway encourages rural electrification.
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Disadvantages:
 High capital cost in erecting overhead supply
 Power failure for few minutes can cause dislocation of traffic for hours
 Communication lines gets interference.
 Electric traction has high capital cost due to overhead equipment, so electric traction
becomes uneconomical unless heavy traffic is to be handled.
 In electric traction, a power failure for few minutes causes distortion in traffic.
 Electric traction can be used only at the places which are electrified.
 Electric traction is tied to electric routes.
 Power lines for electric traction causes disturbance in neighboring communication lines.
 In electric traction system, provision of negative booster is necessary, otherwise it results
in corrosion of underground pipes.

2. Requirements of Ideal Traction System

Que. Write a note on ideal requirements of Traction System
1. High adhesion coefficient, so that high tractive effort at the start is possible to have rapid
acceleration.
2. The locomotive or train unit should be self contained so that it can run on any route.
3. Minimum wear on the track.
4. It should be possible to overload the equipment for short periods.
5. The equipment required should be minimum, of high efficiency and low initial and
maintenance cost.
6. It should be pollution free.
7. Speed control should be easy.
8. Braking should be such that minimum wear is caused on the brake shoes, and if possible
the energy should be regenerated and returned to the supply during braking period.
9. A Traction should have high starting torque or effort so that high rate of acceleration is
obtained.
10. Traction should be as compact in size as possible.
11. The traction system should have large over load capacity for short duration of time.
12. It should minimum maintenance and there should be minimum wear and tear on the
equipment and component of the system.
13. It should have smooth braking system and it offers minimum wear on brake shoes.
14. Ideal traction system should have the capability of developing high tractive effort in order
to have rapid acceleration.
15. The speed control of the traction motors should be easy.
16. Vehicles should be able to run on any route, without interruption.

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3. Supply system for Electric Traction System

Que. Write a note on supply system for Electric Traction System.
 The system which use electrical power for traction system i.e. for railways, trams, trolleys,
etc. is called electrical traction.
 The track electrification refers to the type of source supply system that is used while
powering the electric locomotive systems. It can be AC or DC or a composite supply.
 Selecting the type of electrification depends on several factors like availability of supply,
type of an application area, or on the services like urban, suburban and main line services,
etc.
 The three main types of electric traction systems that exist are as follows:
1. Direct Current (DC) electrification system
2. Alternating Current (AC) electrification system
3. Composite system.

1- DC Electrification System
 The choice of selecting DC electrification system encompasses many advantages, such as
space and weight considerations, rapid acceleration and braking of DC electric motors, less
cost compared to AC systems, less energy consumption and so on.
 In this type of system, three-phase power received from the power grids is de-escalated to
low voltage and converted into DC by the rectifiers and power-electronic converters.
DC Traction System

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 This type of DC supply is supplied to the vehicle through two different ways:
1. 3rd and 4 the rail system operate at low voltages (600-1200V)
2. Overhead rail systems use high voltages (1500-3000V)
 The supply systems of DC electrification include:
1. 300-500V supply for the special systems like battery systems.
2. 600-1200V for urban railways like tramways and light metro trains.
3. 1500-3000V for suburban and mainline services like light metros and heavy metro trains.
 Due to high starting torque and moderate speed control, the DC series motors are extensively
employed in the DC traction systems. They provide high torque at low speeds and low
torque at high speeds.
Advantages
1. In case of heavy trains that require frequent and rapid accelerations, DC traction motors
are better choice as compared AC motors.
2. DC train consumes less energy compared to AC unit for operating same service conditions.
3. The equipment in DC traction system is less costly, lighter and more efficient than AC
traction system.
4. It causes no electrical interference with nearby communication lines.
Disadvantages
1. Expensive substations are required at frequent intervals.
2. The overhead wire or third rail must be relatively large and heavy.
3. Voltage goes on decreasing with increase in length.
2- AC Electrification System
 An AC traction system has become very popular nowadays, and it is more often used in
most of the traction systems due to several advantages, such as quick availability and
generation of AC that can be easily stepped up or down, easy controlling of AC motors, less
number of substations requirement, and the presence of light overhead catenaries that
transfer low currents at high voltages, and so on.
 The supply systems of AC electrification include single, three phase, and composite
systems.
 The Single phase systems consist of 11 to 15 KV supply at 16.7Hz, and 25Hz to facilitate
variable speed to AC commutation motors.
 It uses step down transformer and frequency converters to convert from the high voltages
and fixed industrial frequency.
 The Single phase 25KV at 50Hz is the most commonly used configuration for AC
electrification.
 It is used for heavy haul systems and main line services since it doesn’t require frequency
conversion.

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 This is one of the widely used types of composite systems wherein the supply is converted
to DC to drive DC traction motors.
AC Traction System

 Three phase system uses three phase induction motor to drive the locomotive, and it is rated
at 3.3.KV, 16.7Hz.
 The high-voltage distribution system at 50 Hz supply is converted to this electric motor
rating by transformers and frequency converters.
 This system employs two overhead lines, and the track rail forms another phase, but this
raises many problems at crossings and junctions.
Advantages:
1. Fewer substations are required.
2. Lighter overhead current supply wire can be used.
3. Reduced weight of support structure.
4. Reduced capital cost of electrification.
Disadvantages:
1. Significant cost of electrification.
2. Increased maintenance cost of lines.
3. Overhead wires further limit clearance in tunnels.
4. Upgrading needs additional cost especially in case there are bridges and tunnels.
5. Railway traction needs immune power with no cuts.
3- Composite System
 Composite System (or multi-system) trains are used to provide continuous journeys along
routes that are electrified using more than one system.
 One way to accomplish this is by changing locomotives at the switching stations.
 These stations have overhead wires that can be switched from one voltage to another.
 Another way is to use multi-system locomotives that can operate under several different
voltages and current types.
 In Europe, it is common to use four-system locomotives. (1.5 kV DC, 3 kV DC, 15 kV 16⅔
Hz AC, 25 kV 50 Hz AC).
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4. Train Movements
Que. Write a short note on Train Movements.
 The movement of trains and their energy consumption can be conveniently studied by means
of speed/time and speed/distance curves.
 As their names indicate, former gives speed of the train at various times after the start of the
run and the later gives speed at various distances from the starting point.
 Out of the two, speed/time curve is more important because
1. Its slope gives acceleration or retardation as the case may be
2. Area between it and the horizontal (i.e. time) axis represents the distance
travelled.
3. Energy required for propulsion can be calculated if resistance to the motion of
train is known
5. Mechanism of Train Movements
Que. Discuss mechanism of Train movements.
 The essential mechanism of an electric locomotive is shown in the figure below.

 Here, the armature of the driving motor has a pinion of the diameter d1 attached to it. The
tractive effort at the edge of the pinion is transferred to the driving wheel by means of a
gearwheel.
Let,
T = Torque exterted by the motor in Nm
F1 = Tractive effort at the pinion
Ft = Tractive effort at the wheel
γ = Gear ratio
d1 = Diameter of pinion
d2 = Diameter of gear wheel
D = Diameter of driving wheel
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η = Efficiency of power transmission from motor to driving axle

Hence, the torque exerted by the motor is given by,

Now, the tractive effort transferred to the driving wheel is,

 Equation (2) gives the value of tractive effort at the driving wheel.
 The maximum frictional force between the driving wheel and the track is equal to μW.
 Where, μ is the coefficient of adhesion between the driving wheel and the track and W is
the weight of the train on the driving axles, known as adhesive weight.
 The adhesive weight is defined as the total weight to be carried on the driving wheels.
 The slipping will not take place unless

 Therefore, for the motion of trains without slipping, the tractive effort should be less than
or at the most equal to μW.
 From the above discussion it is clear that the magnitude of the tractive effort that can be
employed for propulsion of train depends upon the weight coming over the driving wheels
and the coefficient of adhesion between the driving wheel and the track.

6. The Traction Motors

Que. Write a note on Traction Motors.
 A traction motor is a type of electric motor that is specifically designed for providing
propulsion in vehicles such as trains, electric vehicles (EVs), and hybrid electric vehicles
(HEVs).

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 Traction motors are the key components of complex propulsion systems that drive freight
locomotives and passenger transit vehicles.
 The operational performance of traction motors directly affects the efficiency and
dependability of services provided by Rail Transportation and Mass Transit industries.
 Therefore, reliable, long-lasting traction motors are the indispensable commodity sought
by sourcing managers and demanded by fleet operators
 It delivers torque to drive the wheels or axles of the vehicle, providing the necessary
traction to power the vehicle's movement.
 A traction motor is typically designed to operate at high efficiency and with high power
density, making it an important component in the powertrain of modern vehicles.
 In EVs and HEVs, the traction motor often serves as the sole source of propulsion, it is a
key component of an electric vehicle's powertrain and is responsible for delivering the
torque and power necessary for the vehicle to move.
 In traditional internal combustion engine vehicles, it is often used in conjunction with an
engine to provide additional power and efficiency.
Traction motors are used in a variety of applications
1. Electric Vehicles (EVs): The traction motor is the primary source of propulsion in EVs
and is responsible for delivering the power needed to drive the wheels.
2. Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs): In HEVs, the traction motor is used in conjunction with
an internal combustion engine to provide additional power and efficiency. The motor is
used to assist the engine during acceleration and to provide power during low-speed and
stop-and-go driving.
3. Trains: Traction motors are used in electric trains to provide propulsion and are typically
mounted directly on the axles of the train's wheels.

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4. Industrial Equipment: Traction motors are used in a range of industrial equipment, such
as electric forklifts and mining vehicles, to provide power for movement.
5. Elevators and Escalators: Traction motors are used to drive the movement of elevators and
escalators in commercial and residential buildings.
6. Material Handling Equipment: Traction motors are used in a variety of material handling
equipment, such as conveyor systems and automated guided vehicles, to provide the power
needed for movement.
7. Regenerative Braking: In EVs, the traction motor can also be used as a generator during
braking. When the driver applies the brakes, the motor slows down and generates electrical
energy, which is stored in the battery pack for later use. This helps to increase the vehicle's
overall efficiency and range.
7. Traction Motor Control
Que. Discuss traction motor control.
 The control of traction motors for starting and for smooth acceleration is very much
essential to avoid damage to the motors.
 The control equipment is provided for manual and automatic operation. Usually a master
controller is used for the purpose.
Speed-Time Curves:
 The curve drawn between speed and time is called the speed-time-curve. The speed-time
curve gives complete information of the motion of the train.
 The curve gives the speed at various instants after the start of run directly. Slop of the curve
at any point gives the acceleration at the corresponding instant or speed.
 The area covered by the curve, the time axis and the ordinates through the instants between
which the time is taken, represents the distance covered in the corresponding time interval.

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Speed-time curve mainly consists of

1. Initial acceleration
a. Constant acceleration or acceleration while notching up and
b. Speed curve running or acceleration on the speed curve
2. Constant speed run or free run
3. Coasting and
4. Retardation or braking
1. Acceleration period:
 From starting to the stage when locomotive attains maximum speed, the period is
known as acceleration period, as the vehicle is constantly accelerated. This is
represented by OA portion of the curve and time duration is t1.
2. Free running:
 During this period the motor develops enough torque to overcome the friction and wind
resistance and hence the locomotive runs at constant speed. This is shown by the portion
AB of the curve.
3. Coasting:
 When the locomotive is running at certain speed, if the motor is switch off, due to inertia
the vehicle will continue to run, of course with little deceleration due to friction and
windage.
4. Braking:
 The locomotive is retarded to stop it within short distance and at a particular spot. The
shape of the curve will change depending upon the distance between consecutive stations.
It is the curve drawn between speed of train in km/hour along y-axis and time in seconds
along x-axis.
 The speed time curve gives complete information of the motion of the train.
 This curve gives the speed at various times after the start and run directly.
 The distance travelled by the train during a given interval of time can be obtained by
determining the area between the curve and the time axis corresponding to this interval.
 A typical speed time curve for main line service is shown in fig.
This curve consists of five sections.
1. Notching up period (0 to t1)
 During this period of run (0 to t1), starting resistance is gradually cut so that the motor
current is limited to a certain value and the voltage across the motor is gradually increased
and the traction motor accelerates from rest.
 To cut the starting resistance, the starter handle has to be moved from one notch to another.
Hence this period is called notching up period.
 The acceleration is almost uniform during this period.

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 Now the torque decreases and speed increases according to the speed torque characteristics
of the motor.
 Now the acceleration gradually decreases with the increase in speed and finally reaches the
required torque for the movement of the train (at time t2).
3. Free running period (t2to t3).
 During this period i.e. t2 to t3 the power supplied to the motor is at full voltage and speed
of this period is constant, also during this period Power drawn from the supply is
constant.
4. Coasting period (t3to t4)
 At the end of free running period supply to the motor is cut off and the train is allowed to
run under its own kinetic energy.
 Due to train resistance speed of the train gradually decreases.
 The rate of decreasing of speed during this period is known as “coasting retardation”.
5. Braking or retardation period (t4to t5)
 At the end of coasting period the brakes are applied to bring the train to stop.
 During this period speed decreases rapidly and finally reduces to zero.

8. Speed Control System of Traction Motors

Que. Explain various methods of speed control of traction motors.
Rheostatic Control
 The basic traction motor circuit with rheostatic starting is shown in the figure below.

 A DC series motor can be started by connecting an external resistance in series with the
main circuit of the motor.
 At the starting instant, the back EMF developed by the motor is zero, thus the resistance
connected in series with the motor is maximum and is of such a value that the voltage-drop
across it with the full load rated current is equal to the line voltage.
 As the motor speeds up, the back EMF of the motor increases, therefore, the external
resistance is gradually reduced in order to maintain the current constant throughout the
starting and accelerating period.

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 In this method of starting and controlling of speed of DC traction motors, there is a

considerable loss of energy in the external circuit.
 The resistors used in this method are designed for short time rating and not for continuous
rating.
 It is because, they are required to carry the current only during starting of motors.
Therefore, the motor can have only one speed characteristic.
Series-Parallel Control
The chief disadvantage of wastage of electrical energy in the rheostatic control is partly
overcome in the series-parallel method, when there are two or more DC traction motors.
Step I
 Consider two DC series motors, the two motors are first connected in series with each other
and a starting or control resistance as shown in Figure-(a).
 The control resistance is gradually cut out by the controller as the motors attain the speed
and finally the control resistance is totally removed from the circuit, then each motor has
one half of the line voltage across it as shown in Figure-(b).
 In this way, the first running position of the motors is obtained. In this position for any given
value of armature current, each motor will run at half of its normal speed.
 Here, it can be noted that there is no external resistance in the circuit. Therefore, there is no
wastage of energy and so motors operate at an efficiency nearly equal to that obtainable
with full line voltage across the terminal of each motor.

Step II
 In the second step, the two motors are connected in parallel and in series with an external
variable resistance as shown in Figure-(c).
 This resistance is gradually cut out as the motors attain the speed and finally this resistance
is totally removed from the circuit as shown in Figure-(d).
 In this way, the second running position is obtained and in this position, each motor is
connected across the full line voltage.

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Field Control
 As the speed of the DC series motor is inversely proportional to the flux, assuming the line
voltage constant. Therefore, the speed of the motor can be changed by varying the flux.
 In case of DC series motor, the flux of the DC series motor can be changed either –
1. By connecting a variable resistance (known as diverter) in parallel with the series field
winding, refer Figure-1.
2. By cutting out some of the series field turns, refer Figure-2.

 Since, in both of the above cases, the flux can only be reduced, hence this method is also
known as field weakening method.
 By this method, speeds above the normal can be obtained and the speed can be increased
to the extent of 15 to 30% of the normal speed.
 Actually, the field control method is of no use for starting purpose.
 This method can only be used increasing the speed of the traction motors up to the extent
of 10 to 15% when they have attained maximum possible speed by series-parallel control
method.
Motor-Generator Locomotive Control
 The motor-generator set consists of a single-phase synchronous motor driving one or two
DC generators and an exciter on the same shaft.
 The M-G set is usually started and brought up to speed by a starting motor and
automatically synchronized when it attains speed.

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 The generator voltage can be regulated by means of field control from exciter.
 Thus, neither additional resistance is required in traction motor supply circuit nor series-
parallel control is required to obtain economical running speeds.
 Also, it saves rheostatic losses in the traction motor control.

9. Braking of Electric Motors

Que. Discuss various methods of braking of electric motors.
 The DC motors can be stopped using one of the following methods –
1. Mechanical (Friction) Braking
2. Electric Braking
 In mechanical braking, the motor is stopped due to friction between the moving parts of the
motor and the brake shoe.
 The mechanical breaking has several disadvantages as non-smooth stop, wear and tear of
moving parts, breaking power wasted as heat and greater stopping time etc.
 In electric breaking, the kinetic energy of moving parts of the motor is converted into
electrical energy which is either dissipated in a resistance or returned to the supply source.
Types of Electric Braking
There are three types of electric breaking methods of a DC motor
1. Rheostat Breaking or Dynamic Braking
2. Regenerative Braking
3. Plugging or Reverse Current Braking
Rheostat Breaking or Dynamic Braking
 In dynamic braking, the armature of running DC motor is disconnected from the supply
and is connected across a braking resistance Rb.
 However, the field winding is left connected to the supply.
 Hence, the motor now works as a generator and producing a breaking torque.
 This method is also known as rheostat braking since an external resistance Rb is connected
across the armature for the electric braking.
 During dynamic electric braking when the motor works as a generator, the kinetic energy
of moving parts of the motor is converted into electrical energy and is dissipated in the
form of heat in the breaking resistance Rb and the armature circuit resistance Ra.
 As a result, the motor is brought to standstill quickly.
 The dynamic breaking or rheostat breaking is an inefficient method of breaking since all
the generated energy is dissipated in the form heat in the resistance.

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Regenerative Braking
 In regenerative braking, the motor is operated as a generator so the kinetic energy of the
moving parts of the motor is converted into electrical energy. This electrical is then returned
to the supply source. This action slows down the motor.
 The regenerative braking is only possible when the driven load forces the motor to run at a
speed greater than the no-load speed with a constant field excitation. Under this condition,
the back EMF (Eb) of the motor is more than the supply voltage, which reverses the
armature current of the motor. Therefore, the motor now beings to operate as a generator
and the generated electrical energy is transferred to the supply source.
 The regenerative braking cannot be used for stopping the motor. It is just used for
controlling the speed above the no-load speed of the DC motors.
 The necessary condition for the regenerative braking is that the back EMF of the motor
must be greater than the supply voltage, so that the armature current is reversed and the
motoring operation is changed to the generating operation.
 The regenerative braking is mainly used to control the speed of DC motors driving the loads
such as electric locomotives, elevators, cranes and hoists etc.
Plugging or Reverse Current Braking
 In the plugging or reverse current braking, the connections of the armature are reversed so
that the motor tends to rotate in the opposite direction and provides the necessary braking
effect.
 When the motor comes to rest, the supply source must be disconnected otherwise the motor
will start rotating in the opposite direction.
 When the armature connections are reversed, the supply voltage and the back EMF will act
in the same direction.
 Hence, during the breaking the resultant voltage across the armature will be equal to
(V+Eb), which is approximately double of the supply voltage.
 This reverses the armature current and hence a high breaking torque is produced.
 To limit the armature current to a safe value, a current limiting resistor is connected in
series with the armature.
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 The plugging is a highly inefficient method of breaking since the power supplied by the
moving parts as well as power supplied by the source is wasted in resistances.
 The plugging is mainly used in controlling rolling mills, elevators, machine tools and
printing presses etc.

10. Modern Trends in Electric Traction System

Que. Write a note on modern Trends in electric Traction System.
 Magnetic levitation, maglev, or magnetic suspension is a method by which an object is
suspended with no support other than magnetic fields.
 Magnetic pressure is used to counteract the effects of the gravitational and any other
accelerations.
 Earnshaw's theorem proves that using only static ferromagnetism it is impossible to stably
levitate against gravity, but servomechanisms, the use of diamagnetic materials,
superconduction, or systems involving eddy currents permit this to occur.
 In some cases the lifting force is provided by magnetic support levitation, but there is a
mechanical bearing little load that provides stability. This is termed pseudo-levitation.
 Magnetic levitation is used for maglev trains, magnetic bearings and for product display
purposes
Mechanical constraint (pseudo-levitation):
 With a small amount of mechanical constraint for stability, pseudo-levitation is relatively
straightforwardly achieved.
 If two magnets are mechanically constrained along a single vertical axis, for example, and
arranged to repel each other strongly, this will act to levitate one of the magnets above the
other.
 Another geometry is where the magnets are attracted, but constrained from touching by a
tensile member, such as a string or cable.
Diamagnetism:

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 Diamagnetism is the property of an object which causes it to create a magnetic field in

opposition to an externally applied magnetic field, thus causing a repulsive effect.
 Specifically, an external magnetic field alters the orbital velocity of electrons around their
nuclei, thus changing the magnetic dipole moment.
 According to Lenz's law, this opposes the external field.
 Diamagnets are materials with a magnetic permeability less than μ0
Direct diamagnetic levitation:
 A substance that is diamagnetic repels a magnetic field. All materials have diamagnetic
properties, but the effect is very weak, and is usually overcome by the object's paramagnetic
or ferromagnetic properties, which act in the opposite manner.
 Any material in which the diamagnetic component is strongest will be repelled by a magnet.
 Earnshaw’s theorem does not apply to diamagnets. These behave in the opposite manner to
normal magnets owing to their relative permeability of μr < 1

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