Chapter 1: Formal Logic Discrete Structures

- Are the abstract mathematical structures used to

Structure represent discrete objects and relationships
- Something that is being established (gawa na) between these objects.
- The only thing we need to do is analyze how the - Include set, permutations, relations, graphs, trees,
process are being done and executed and finite—state machines.
- We are entitled to relate the first statement to
Discrete another statement to see the relationship between
- They are the same in a way that they are different. them.

Discrete Structure Algorithmic Thinking

- We are about to know what must be the difference - Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī is the man
of the same process that we are about to do. behind algorithm. (introduced algorithm to be able
- The process can be identified through the structure to solve a problem in a step-by-step arrangement.)
that is being given. - Certified classes of problems are solved by the
- Being distinct to each other specification of an algorithm.

Logic Application and Modelling

- Is answerable by yes or no, true or false. - Discrete mathematics has applications to almost
every conceivable are of study.
Introduction to Logic - There are many applications to computer science
and data networking.
Mathematics can be broadly classified into two - Modelling: we are following a pattern.
categories:
What is a Logic?
Continuous mathematics It is technically defined as “the science or study of how
- Continuous number line or the real numbers. to evaluate arguments and reasoning.”
- Almost always an infinite set of numbers.
Logical Reasoning
Discrete Mathematics - It is used in mathematics to probe theorems
- Involves distinct values; between any two points,
there are a countable number of points. Mathematical Logic (symbolic logic)
- If we have a finite set of objects, the function can - It is a branch of mathematics with close
be defined as a list of ordered pairs. connections to computer science.
- Involves discrete elements that use algebra and
arithmetic. Four Divisions:
- A very good tool for improving reasoning and 1. Set Theory
problem-solving capabilities. 2. Model Theory
3. Recursion Theory
- Algebra: is a branch of mathematics that deals 4. Proof Theory
with different types of equations. (ex. Quadratic,
linear equation, functions, real numbers, Mathematical Logic
proper/improper fraction)
- Arithmetic: being represented by addition, Definition: methods of reasoning, provides rules and
subtraction, multiplication, and division. There must techniques to determine whether an argument is valid.
be an operation within a given equation.
Theorem: a statement that can be shown to be true
Goals of Discrete Mathematics (under certain conditions)

Mathematical Reasoning Example: if x is an even integer, then x+1 is an odd

- Includes discussion of mathematical logic which integer. (This statement is true under the condition that x
serves as a foundation for the subsequent is an integer is true.)
discussion of method of proof. Let x = 98
x+1 =
Combinatorial Analysis (combine) 98+1 = 99
- An important problem-solving skill; is the ability to
count or enumerate objects.
- Includes the discussion of basic techniques of
counting.
A statement or a proposition is a declarative sentence Conjunction
that is either true or false, but not both. - Let p and q be statements. The conjunction of p
and q, written p^q, is the statement formed by
There must always be a constant variable that joining statements p and q using the word “and”
represents propositions. (P, Q, R) - The statement p^q is true if both p and q are true;
otherwise p^q is false.
Uppercase letters denote propositions
- P: 2 is an even number (true) P Q P^Q
- Q: 7 is an even number (false) F F F
- R: A is a vowel (true) F T F
T F F
The following are not propositions: T T T
- P: My cat is beautiful.
- Q: My house is big. Disjunction
- Let p and q be statements. The disjunction of p
Truth Value and q, written p˅q, is the statement formed by
One of the values “truth” (T) or “falsify” (F) assigned to a joining statements p and q using the word “or”
statement. - The statement p˅q is true if at least one of the
statements p and q is true; otherwise p˅q is false.
Ex. - The symbol ˅ is read “or”
1. Manila is the capital of the Philippines. (T)
2. What day it is? (T) P Q P˅Q
3. Help me, please. (F) F F F
4. He is handsome. (T) F T T
T F T
Logical Connectives
T T T
Proportional Variable
Negation
- It is a variable which used to represent a
- The negation of the statement p is denoted by ~p
statement.
where ~ is the symbol for not.
- If p is true, the symbol ~ is read as not, ~ is false
Logical Connectives
- Are used to combine simple statement which are
P Q ~P ~Q
referred as compound statement.
- and, or, if then, not, if and only if, exclusive-or F F T T
F T T F
Compound Statement T F F T
- It is a statement composed of two or more simple T T F F
statements connected by logical connectives.
- 1+1 = 2 AND 2+5 = 7 Conditional or Implication
- Let p and q be statement. The statement “if p then
Simple (atomic) statement q” is called an implication or condition.
- A statement which is not compound. - The conditional statement p → q is false only when
- 1+1 = 2 p is true and q is false.
- 2+5 = 7 - The implication “if p then q” is written p → q
- p is called the hypothesis; q is called the
Logical Connectives conclusion.

1. Conjunction (^) = and, but, also, in addition, P Q P→Q

moreover F F T
2. Disjunction (˅) = or F T T
3. Negation (~) = not, it is false that, it’s not the case T F F
that T T T
4. Conditional (→) = if then, only if, therefore, if,
whenever, is weaker than, is necessary condition. Bi-conditional (bi-implication)
5. Bi-conditional (↔) = if and only if, is equivalent to, - Let p and q be statement. The statement “p if and
is necessary and sufficient to. only if q” is called an bi-implication or bi-
6. Exclusive-or (⨁) = exclusive or conditional.
- If p and q are true or both false, then p ↔ q is true.
- If p and q have opposite truth values, then p ↔ q is
false.
 - The bi-conditional “p if and only if q” is written p ↔ 1. (~p ^ q) → q
q
P Q ~P (~P ^ Q) (~P ^ Q) → Q)
P Q P↔Q F F T F T
F F T F T T T T
F T F T F F F T
T F F T T F F T
T T T
Logical Equivalence
Exclusive-or
- The exclusive-or of the statement p and q is the Logically Implies
compound statement p exclusive-or q. - An equation is considered as logically implies if p
- Symbolic, p xor q, where xor is the symbol for → q is tautology.
exclusive-or. - if then; conditional
- If p and q are true or both false, the p xor q is false.
- If p and q have opposite truth values, then p xor q Logically Equivalent
is true. - An equation is considered as logically implies if p
↔ q is tautology.
P Q P⨁Q - if and only if; bi-conditional
F F F
F T T
T F T
T T F

Precedence of logical connectives is:

• ~ = highest (NOT)
• ^ = second highest (AND)
• ˅ = third highest (OR)
• → = fourth highest (IF THEN)
• ↔ = fifth highest (IF AND ONLY IF)

Truth Tables

1. ~p ˅ ~q

P Q ~P ~Q ~P ˅ ~Q
Variation of Conditional Statement
F F T T T
F T T F T
Implication
T F F T T
T T F F F - Let p: Today is Sunday and q: I will wash the car.
- Conditional: p → q:
2. p → (p ↔ ~q) - If today is Sunday, then I will wash the car.
P Q ~Q (P ↔ ~Q) P → (P ↔ ~Q)
- The converse of this implication is written q → p
F F T F T
- If I was the car, then today is Sunday.
F T F T T
T F T T T
- The inverse of this implication is written ~p → ~p
T T F F F
- If today is not Sunday, then I will not wash the car.
Compound Statement
- The contrapositive of this implication is written ~q
→ ~p
1. Tautology – if all outputs are true.
- If I do not wash the car, then today is not Sunday.
2. Contradiction – if all outputs are false.
3. Contingency – there must be a false and true
output.