Socialization

In sociology, socialization (Modern English; or socialisation - see spelling differences) is the

process of internalizing the norms and ideologies of society. Socialization encompasses both
learning and teaching and is thus "the means by which social and cultural continuity are
attained".[1]: 5 [2]

Socialization is strongly connected to developmental psychology.[3] Humans need social

experiences to learn their culture and to survive.[4]

Socialization essentially represents the whole process of learning throughout the life course and
is a central influence on the behavior, beliefs, and actions of adults as well as of children.[5][6]

Socialization may lead to desirable outcomes—sometimes labeled "moral"—as regards the

society where it occurs. Individual views are influenced by the society's consensus and usually
tend toward what that society finds acceptable or "normal". Socialization provides only a partial
explanation for human beliefs and behaviors, maintaining that agents are not blank slates
predetermined by their environment;[7] scientific research provides evidence that people are
shaped by both social influences and genes.[8][9][10][11]

Genetic studies have shown that a person's environment interacts with their genotype to
influence behavioral outcomes.[12]

It is the process by which individuals learn their own societies culture.

History

Notions of society and the state of nature have existed for centuries.[1]: 20 In its earliest usages,
socialization was simply the act of socializing or another word for socialism.[13][14][15][16]
Socialization as a concept originated concurrently with sociology, as sociology was defined as
the treatment of "the specifically social, the process and forms of socialization, as such, in
contrast to the interests and contents which find expression in socialization".[17] In particular,
socialization consisted of the formation and development of social groups, and also the
development of a social state of mind in the individuals who associate. Socialization is thus both
a cause and an effect of association.[18] The term was relatively uncommon before 1940, but
became popular after World War II, appearing in dictionaries and scholarly works such as the
theory of Talcott Parsons.[19]
Stages of moral development

Lawrence Kohlberg studied moral reasoning and developed a theory of how individuals reason
situations as right from wrong. The first stage is the pre-conventional stage, where a person
(typically children) experience the world in terms of pain and pleasure, with their moral decisions
solely reflecting this experience. Second, the conventional stage (typical for adolescents and
adults) is characterized by an acceptance of society's conventions concerning right and wrong,
even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. Finally, the post-
conventional stage (more rarely achieved) occurs if a person moves beyond society's norms to
consider abstract ethical principles when making moral decisions.[20]

Stages of psychosocial development

Erik H. Erikson (1902–1994) explained the challenges throughout the life course. The first stage
in the life course is infancy, where babies learn trust and mistrust. The second stage is
toddlerhood where children around the age of two struggle with the challenge of autonomy
versus doubt. In stage three, preschool, children struggle to understand the difference between
initiative and guilt. Stage four, pre-adolescence, children learn about industriousness and
inferiority. In the fifth stage called adolescence, teenagers experience the challenge of gaining
identity versus confusion. The sixth stage, young adulthood, is when young people gain insight
into life when dealing with the challenge of intimacy and isolation. In stage seven, or middle
adulthood, people experience the challenge of trying to make a difference (versus self-
absorption). In the final stage, stage eight or old age, people are still learning about the challenge
of integrity and despair.<[21] This concept has been further developed by Klaus Hurrelmann and
Gudrun Quenzel using the dynamic model of "developmental tasks".[22]

Behaviorism

George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) developed a theory of social behaviorism to explain how
social experience develops an individual's self-concept. Mead's central concept is the self: It is
composed of self-awareness and self-image. Mead claimed that the self is not there at birth,
rather, it is developed with social experience. Since social experience is the exchange of
symbols, people tend to find meaning in every action. Seeking meaning leads us to imagine the
intention of others. Understanding intention requires imagining the situation from the other's
point of view. In effect, others are a mirror in which we can see ourselves. Charles Horton Cooley
(1902-1983) coined the term looking glass self, which means self-image based on how we think
others see us. According to Mead, the key to developing the self is learning to take the role of the
other. With limited social experience, infants can only develop a sense of identity through
imitation. Gradually children learn to take the roles of several others. The final stage is the
generalized other, which refers to widespread cultural norms and values we use as a reference
for evaluating others.[23]

Contradictory evidence to behaviorism

Behaviorism makes claims that when infants are born they lack social experience or self. The
social pre-wiring hypothesis, on the other hand, shows proof through a scientific study that social
behavior is partly inherited and can influence infants and also even influence foetuses. Wired to
be social means that infants are not taught that they are social beings, but they are born as
prepared social beings.

The social pre-wiring hypothesis refers to the ontogeny of social interaction. Also informally
referred to as, "wired to be social". The theory questions whether there is a propensity to socially
oriented action already present before birth. Research in the theory concludes that newborns are
born into the world with a unique genetic wiring to be social.[24]

Circumstantial evidence supporting the social pre-wiring hypothesis can be revealed when
examining newborns' behavior. Newborns, not even hours after birth, have been found to display
a preparedness for social interaction. This preparedness is expressed in ways such as their
imitation of facial gestures. This observed behavior cannot be contributed to any current form of
socialization or social construction. Rather, newborns most likely inherit to some extent social
behavior and identity through genetics.[24]

Principal evidence of this theory is uncovered by examining Twin pregnancies. The main
argument is, if there are social behaviors that are inherited and developed before birth, then one
should expect twin foetuses to engage in some form of social interaction before they are born.
Thus, ten foetuses were analyzed over a period of time using ultrasound techniques. Using
kinematic analysis, the results of the experiment were that the twin foetuses would interact with
each other for longer periods and more often as the pregnancies went on. Researchers were able
to conclude that the performance of movements between the co-twins was not accidental but
specifically aimed.[24]

The social pre-wiring hypothesis was proved correct, "The central advance of this study is the
demonstration that 'social actions' are already performed in the second trimester of gestation.
Starting from the 14th week of gestation twin foetuses plan and execute movements specifically
aimed at the co-twin. These findings force us to predate the emergence of social behavior: when
the context enables it, as in the case of twin foetuses, other-directed actions are not only
possible but predominant over self-directed actions."[24]
Types

Primary socialization

Primary socialization occurs when a child learns the attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to
individuals as members of a particular culture. Primary socialization for a child is very important
because it sets the groundwork for all future socialization. It is mainly influenced by immediate
family and friends. For example, if a child's mother expresses a discriminatory opinion about a
minority or majority group, then that child may think this behavior is acceptable and could
continue to have this opinion about that minority or majority group.

Secondary socialization

Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning what is the appropriate behavior as a
member of a smaller group within the larger society. Basically, it involves the behavioral patterns
reinforced by socializing agents of society. Secondary socialization takes place outside the
home. It is where children and adults learn how to act in a way that is appropriate for the
situations they are in.[25] Schools require very different behavior from the home, and children
must act according to new rules. New teachers have to act in a way that is different from pupils
and learn the new rules from people around them.[25] Secondary socialization is usually
associated with teenagers and adults and involves smaller changes than those occurring in
primary socialization. Examples of secondary socialization may include entering a new
profession or relocating to a new environment or society.

Anticipatory socialization

Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of socialization in which a person "rehearses"

for future positions, occupations, and social relationships. For example, a couple might move in
together before getting married in order to try out, or anticipate, what living together will be
like.[26] Research by Kenneth J. Levine and Cynthia A. Hoffner identifies parents as the main
source of anticipatory socialization in regard to jobs and careers.[27]

Resocialization

Resocialization refers to the process of discarding former behavior-patterns and reflexes while
accepting new ones as part of a life transition. This can occur throughout the human life-span.[28]
Resocialization can be an intense experience, with individuals experiencing a sharp break with
their past, as well as a need to learn and be exposed to radically different norms and values. One
common example involves resocialization through a total institution, or "a setting in which people
are isolated from the rest of society and manipulated by an administrative staff". Resocialization
via total institutions involves a two step process: 1) the staff work to root out a new inmate's
individual identity; and 2) the staff attempt to create for the inmate a new identity.[29][30] Other
examples include the experiences of a young person leaving home to join the military, or of a
religious convert internalizing the beliefs and rituals of a new faith. Another example would be
the process by which a transsexual person learns to function socially in a dramatically altered
gender-role.

Organizational socialization

Organizational Socialization Chart

Organizational socialization is the process whereby an employee learns the knowledge and skills
necessary to assume his or her role in an organization.[31] As newcomers become socialized,
they learn about the organization and its history, values, jargon, culture, and procedures. Acquired
knowledge about new employees' future work-environment affects the way they are able to apply
their skills and abilities to their jobs. How actively engaged the employees are in pursuing
knowledge affects their socialization process.[32] New employees also learn about their work
group, the specific people they will work with on a daily basis, their own role in the organization,
the skills needed to do their job, and both formal procedures and informal norms. Socialization
functions as a control system in that newcomers learn to internalize and obey organizational
values and practices.

Group socialization

Group socialization
Group socialization is the theory that an individual's peer groups, rather than parental figures,
become the primary influence on personality and behavior in adulthood.[33] Parental behavior and
the home environment has either no effect on the social development of children, or the effect
varies significantly between children.[34] Adolescents spend more time with peers than with
parents. Therefore, peer groups have stronger correlations with personality development than
parental figures do.[35] For example, twin brothers with an identical genetic heritage will differ in
personality because they have different groups of friends, not necessarily because their parents
raised them differently. Behavioral genetics suggest that up to fifty percent of the variance in
adult personality is due to genetic differences.[36] The environment in which a child is raised
accounts for only approximately ten percent in the variance of an adult's personality.[37] As much
as twenty percent of the variance is due to measurement error.[38] This suggests that only a very
small part of an adult's personality is influenced by factors which parents control (i.e. the home
environment). Harris grants that while siblings do not have identical experiences in the home
environment (making it difficult to associate a definite figure to the variance of personality due to
home environments), the variance found by current methods is so low that researchers should
look elsewhere to try to account for the remaining variance.[33] Harris also states that developing
long-term personality characteristics away from the home environment would be evolutionarily
beneficial because future success is more likely to depend on interactions with peers than on
interactions with parents and siblings. Also, because of already existing genetic similarities with
parents, developing personalities outside of childhood home environments would further
diversify individuals, increasing their evolutionary success.[33]

Stages

Individuals and groups change their evaluations of and commitments to each other over time.
There is a predictable sequence of stages that occur as an individual transitions through a group:
investigation, socialization, maintenance, resocialization, and remembrance. During each stage,
the individual and the group evaluate each other, which leads to an increase or decrease in
commitment to socialization. This socialization pushes the individual from prospective to new,
full, marginal, and ex member.[39]

Stage 1: Investigation This stage is marked by a cautious search for information. The individual
compares groups in order to determine which one will fulfill their needs (reconnaissance), while
the group estimates the value of the potential member (recruitment). The end of this stage is
marked by entry to the group, whereby the group asks the individual to join and they accept the
offer.

Stage 2: Socialization Now that the individual has moved from a prospective member to a new
member, the recruit must accept the group's culture. At this stage, the individual accepts the
group's norms, values, and perspectives (assimilation), and the group may adapt to fit the new
member's needs (accommodation). The acceptance transition-point is then reached and the
individual becomes a full member. However, this transition can be delayed if the individual or the
group reacts negatively. For example, the individual may react cautiously or misinterpret other
members' reactions in the belief that they will be treated differently as a newcomer.

Stage 3: Maintenance During this stage, the individual and the group negotiate what contribution
is expected of members (role negotiation). While many members remain in this stage until the
end of their membership, some individuals may become dissatisfied with their role in the group
or fail to meet the group's expectations (divergence).

Stage 4: Resocialization If the divergence point is reached, the former full member takes on the
role of a marginal member and must be resocialized. There are two possible outcomes of
resocialization: the parties resolve their differences and the individual becomes a full member
again (convergence), or the group and the individual part ways via expulsion or voluntary exit.

Stage 5: Remembrance In this stage, former members reminisce about their memories of the
group and make sense of their recent departure. If the group reaches a consensus on their
reasons for departure, conclusions about the overall experience of the group become part of the
group's tradition.

Gender socialization

Henslin contends that "an important part of socialization is the learning of culturally defined
gender roles".[40] Gender socialization refers to the learning of behavior and attitudes considered
appropriate for a given sex: boys learn to be boys and girls learn to be girls. This "learning"
happens by way of many different agents of socialization. The behavior that is seen to be
appropriate for each gender is largely determined by societal, cultural, and economic values in a
given society. Gender socialization can therefore vary considerably among societies with
different values. The family is certainly important in reinforcing gender roles, but so are groups -
including friends, peers, school, work, and the mass media. Social groups reinforce gender roles
through "countless subtle and not so subtle ways".[40] In peer-group activities, stereotypic gender-
roles may also be rejected, renegotiated, or artfully exploited for a variety of purposes.[41]

Carol Gilligan compared the moral development of girls and boys in her theory of gender and
moral development. She claimed that boys have a justice perspective - meaning that they rely on
formal rules to define right and wrong.[42][43] Girls, on the other hand, have a care-and-
responsibility perspective, where personal relationships are considered when judging a situation.
Gilligan also studied the effect of gender on self-esteem. She claimed that society's socialization
of females is the reason why girls' self-esteem diminishes as they grow older. Girls struggle to
regain their personal strength when moving through adolescence as they have fewer female
teachers and most authority figures are men.[23]
As parents are present in a child's development from the beginning, their influence in a child's
early socialization is very important, especially in regard to gender roles. Sociologists have
identified four ways in which parents socialize gender roles in their children: Shaping gender
related attributes through toys and activities, differing their interaction with children based on the
sex of the child, serving as primary gender models, and communicating gender ideals and
expectations.[44]

Sociologist of gender R.W. Connell contends that socialization theory is "inadequate" for
explaining gender, because it presumes a largely consensual process except for a few "deviants",
when really most children revolt against pressures to be conventionally gendered; because it
cannot explain contradictory "scripts" that come from different socialization agents in the same
society, and because it does not account for conflict between the different levels of an
individual's gender (and general) identity.[45]

Racial socialization

Racial socialization, or racial-ethnic socialization, has been defined as "the developmental

processes by which children acquire the behaviors, perceptions, values, and attitudes of an
ethnic group, and come to see themselves and others as members of the group".[46] The existing
literature conceptualizes racial socialization as having multiple dimensions. Researchers have
identified five dimensions that commonly appear in the racial socialization literature: cultural
socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust, egalitarianism, and other.[47] Cultural
socialization, sometimes referred to as "pride development", refers to parenting practices that
teach children about their racial history or heritage.[48] Preparation for bias refers to parenting
practices focused on preparing children to be aware of, and cope with, discrimination. Promotion
of mistrust refers to the parenting practices of socializing children to be wary of people from
other races. Egalitarianism refers to socializing children with the belief that all people are equal
and should be treated with common humanity.[47] In the United States, white people are
socialized to perceive race as a zero-sum game and a black-white binary.[49]

Oppression socialization

Oppression socialization refers to the process by which "individuals develop understandings of

power and political structure, particularly as these inform perceptions of identity, power, and
opportunity relative to gender, racialized group membership, and sexuality".[50] This action is a
form of political socialization in its relation to power and the persistent compliance of the
disadvantaged with their oppression using limited "overt coercion".[50]
Language socialization

Based on comparative research in different societies, and focusing on the role of language in
child development, linguistic anthropologists Elinor Ochs and Bambi Schieffelin have developed
the theory of language socialization.[51] They discovered that the processes of enculturation and
socialization do not occur apart from the process of language acquisition, but that children
acquire language and culture together in what amounts to an integrated process. Members of all
societies socialize children both to and through the use of language; acquiring competence in a
language, the novice is by the same token socialized into the categories and norms of the
culture, while the culture, in turn, provides the norms of the use of language.

Planned socialization

Planned socialization occurs when other people take actions designed to teach or train others.
This type of socialization can take on many forms and can occur at any point from infancy
onward.[52]

Natural socialization

Natural socialization occurs when infants and youngsters explore, play and discover the social
world around them.[53] Natural socialization is easily seen when looking at the young of almost
any mammalian species (and some birds).[54] On the other hand, planned socialization is mostly
a human phenomenon;[55] all through history, people have made plans for teaching or training
others.[56] Both natural and planned socialization can have good and bad qualities: it is useful to
learn the best features of both natural and planned socialization in order to incorporate them into
life in a meaningful way.[57]

Political socialization

Socialization produces the economic, social, and political development of any particular country.
The nature of the compromise between nature and nurture also determines whether society is
good or harmful.[58] Political socialization is described as "the long developmental process by
which an infant (even an adult) citizen learns, imbibes and ultimately internalizes the political
culture (core political values, beliefs, norms and ideology) of his political system in order to make
him a more informed and effective political participant."[59]

A society's political culture is inculcated in its citizens and passed down from one generation to
the next as part of the political socialization process. Agents of socialization are thus people,
organizations, or institutions that have an impact on how people perceive themselves, behave, or
have other orientations. In contemporary democratic government, political parties are the main
forces behind political socialization.[59]

Socialization enhances business, trade, and foreign investment globally. Building technology is
made easy, is improved and carried out due to the ease with which interaction in interest services
and media work can be connected. Citizens must instil in themselves excellent morals, ethics,
and values and must preserve human rights or have sound judgment to be able to lead a country
to a higher developmental level in order to construct a decent and democratic society for nation-
building. Developing nations can transfer agricultural technology and machinery like tractors,
harvesters, and agrochemicals to enhance the agricultural sector of the economy through
socialization.[60]

Positive socialization

Positive socialization is the type of social learning that is based on pleasurable and exciting
experiences. Individual humans tend to like the people who fill their social learning processes
with positive motivation, loving care, and rewarding opportunities. Positive socialization occurs
when desired behaviors are reinforced with a reward, encouraging the individual to continue
exhibiting similar behaviors in the future.[52]

Negative socialization

Negative socialization occurs when socialialization agents use punishment, harsh criticisms, or
anger to try to "teach us a lesson"; and often we come to dislike both negative socialization and
the people who impose it on us.[52] There are all types of mixes of positive and negative
socialization, and the more positive social learning experiences we have, the happier we tend to
be—especially if we are able to learn useful information that helps us cope well with the
challenges of life. A high ratio of negative to positive socialization can make a person unhappy,
leading to defeated or pessimistic feelings about life.[52]

Bullying can examplify negative socialization.[61]

Institutions

In the social sciences, institutions are the structures and mechanisms of social order and
cooperation governing the behavior of individuals within a given human collectivity. Institutions
are identified with a social purpose and permanence, transcending individual human lives and
intentions, and with the making and enforcing of rules governing cooperative human behavior.[62]
Productive processing of reality

From the late 1980s, sociological and psychological theories have been connected with the term
socialization. One example of this connection is the theory of Klaus Hurrelmann. In his book
Social Structure and Personality Development,[63] he develops the model of productive processing
of reality. The core idea is that socialization refers to an individual's personality development. It is
the result of the productive processing of interior and exterior realities. Bodily and mental
qualities and traits constitute a person's inner reality; the circumstances of the social and
physical environment embody the external reality. Reality processing is productive because
human beings actively grapple with their lives and attempt to cope with the attendant
developmental tasks. The success of such a process depends on the personal and social
resources available. Incorporated within all developmental tasks is the necessity to reconcile
personal individuation and social integration and so secure the "I-dentity".[63]: 42 The process of
productive processing of reality is an enduring process throughout the life course.[64]

Oversocialization

The problem of order, or Hobbesian problem, questions the existence of social orders and asks if
it is possible to oppose them. Émile Durkheim viewed society as an external force controlling
individuals through the imposition of sanctions and codes of law. However, constraints and
sanctions also arise internally as feelings of guilt or anxiety.

See also

Acculturation Behavioral sink

Cultural assimilation Respect

Discourse Social integration

Functional illiteracy Socialization of animals

Indoctrination Social skills

Memetics Structure and agency

Positive psychology TPI-theory

Sharing Truth

Shyness Value (personal and cultural)

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54. Baldwin 2001: "Natural socialization is easily seen when looking at the young of almost any
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55. Baldwin 2001: "Planned socialization is mostly a human phenomenon [...]."

56. Baldwin 2001: "[...] all through history, people have been making plans for teaching or training others."

57. Baldwin 2001: "Both natural and planned socialization can have good and bad features: It is wise to
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now transfer agricultural technology and equipment like tractor, harvesters, and agro-chemical
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Further reading

Library resources about

Socialization

Resources in your library (https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Socialization)

Bayley, Robert; Schecter, Sandra R. (2003). Multilingual Matters, ISBN 1853596353, 978-1853596353

Bogard, Kimber (2008). "Citizenship attitudes and allegiances in diverse youth". Cultural Diversity and
Ethnic Minority Psychology. 14 (4): 286–96. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.14.4.286 (https://doi.org/10.1037%2F
1099-9809.14.4.286) . PMID 18954164 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18954164) .

Duff, Patricia A.; Hornberger, Nancy H. (2010). Language Socialization: Encyclopedia of Language and
Education, Volume 8. Springer, ISBN 9048194660, 978-9048194667

Kramsch, Claire (2003). Language Acquisition and Language Socialization: Ecological Perspectives –
Advances in Applied Linguistics. Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 0826453724, 978-
0826453723

McQuail, Dennis (2005). McQuail's Mass Communication Theory: Fifth Edition, London: Sage.

Mehan, Hugh (1991). Sociological Foundations Supporting the Study of Cultural Diversity. National Center
for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning.

White, Graham (1977). Socialisation, London: Longman.