$12. Permutations. Definition. Suppose S is a 1 elements. Then a one-one mapping vy « onto itself is called a permutation of degree n- (Meerut 1989, 5, The number of elements in the finite set S is known as the degree of permutation 8) Symbol for a permutation, Let S = (ay, 42,43 a,,} be a finite set having distinct elemen,, Iff:S + S and fis one-one onto, then fis @ permutation of degree n. Let f (ay) = by. f (aa) = Daf (a3) = ba» Af (dq) = by Where (By, ayo Bgl = {4y,ay, ie, by bz, ---vby is nothing but some arrangement of the n elements of S- line notation to write this permutation. finite set having n distinc 4,) We find it convenient to introduce a two In thi ie ole a in this notation, we write f= (i by bs row is the/-image of the element of the first row lying directly abo. ie, each element in the second it If S = (1,2,3,4} isa finite set having four elements, then read JenG 3d de are all permutations of degree 4. Here in the permutation the elements 1,2, 3,4 have been replaced respectively by the elements 2, 4, 1, 3. Thus f (1) = 2, f (2) = 4B) = 1,F 4) = 3. In other words sec clement in the first row is to be replaced by the element directly below it in the second row Equality of two permutations. Two permutations fand § of degree n are said to be equal i ve have f(a) =g (a) ¥ a ES. po 23. 4 43: For example, iff = ( aa 1) andg = i 2) are two permutations of degree 4, then we have /= g. Here we see that both and g replace 1 by 2, 2 by 3, 3 by 4 and 4 by 1. (ay A dys Op), : txt en } is a permutation of degree n, we can write it im several ways Te 1 2 °3 'n, interchange of columns will not change the permutation. Thus we can write ie ea a as ve Gy) (Bq Mp > 2) (On Ona 4) te By by Pal We F1 =~ Pa) Un Pete Oa by Therefore if f and g are two permutations of degree n, then we can always write g in such awa) that the first row of g coincides with the second row of f. 4 33 4 123 4) 2 For example iff = (5 aa 3) andg = (, Ao 1) are two permutations of degree 4, by interchanging columns we can write g=(3 ; 2) : Total number of distinct permutations of degree n. If S is a finite set having " aists¢ elements, then we shall have n ! distinct arrangements of the elements of S. Therefore there W n'! distinct permutations of degree n. If P,, be the set consisting of all permutations of degree Mad the set P, will have n ! distinct elements. This set P, is called the symmetric set of permutation’ degree n. Sometimes it is also denoted by S,,. Thus P, = (ff is a permutation of degree n}. The set P; of all permutations of degree 3 will have 3! ie., 6 elements. Obviously= ioe. a. | =f 3) (8 2 3) a2 3) 2 3) 123) A 2 3 | ' nth 2 3) 21 IC 3 a} 2 eb 3 (3 1 alte Identity ion. If 1 is a permutation of degree n such that I replaces each element by the element itself, then Lis called the identity permutation of degree n. mms 7 (! 3. ") or (41 82 5-49) (by by eM Yay ay ay... y) lO, by by tion of degree n. Product or Composite of two permutations, The prod it ie 2 cof two . The product or composite of two permutations f and of degree n denoted by fg, is obtained by first carrying out the operation aed ‘yp and then by 8 Suppose P,, is the set of all permutations of degree n. Let ay a, 43... (by by by... se [pt f2 7%) anagem (Pt 2 b3--by 1 P28 C1 2 Cg only be any two elements of P,,. Here the permutation g has been written in such a way that the first row of g coincides with the second row of f. If the product of the permutations f and g is denoted multiplicatively ie., by fg, then by definition > b, ‘} is the identity permuta- fenlt oe. For, f replaces a, by b, and then g replaces b, by c, so that fg replaces a, by ¢). Similarly fg replaces a, by €2, 43 BY C3, -.. dy DY Cy Obviously fg is also a permutation of degree n. Thus the product of two permutations of degree nis also a permutation of degree n. Thereforefg EP, ¥f,g € P,.- 1.23 123) Example 1. Let f= ( 3 3) ande= (3 7 1) be two permutations of degree 3. Then 124 2 3) (1 2 3) 3 AI 2 3) fe=(j 3 a 3 1) (i 3 I 13) (2 1 3) 12 3) 2 3) (1 2 3/23 1) 23). 7 rb 0G5 2-65 0624 (2 1) Obivously fg # gf. The reason is that fg replaces 1 by 2 while gf replaces 1 by 3. So fg cannot be equal to gf. . Thus we see that multiplication of permutations is not is seneral a 4 1 Example 2. Le f= (5 g 3 8 2) ana g=(j 3 as 3) 26 00 permutations of de- gree 5, To obtain fg there is no necessity that we should write g in such a way that the first row of g Sincides with the second row of f. pe hafia 1 by Zand g replaces 2 by 2. Therefore fg replaces 1 by 2. Again f replaces aye an Lee ee a wherelaro fg replaces 2 by 4. Further f replaces 3 by 4 and g replaces 4 by Sstherefote fg replaces 3 by 5. Proceeding in this way we get Swed 330) ws. Sroups of PP of all permutations on n symbols isa finite group of order n t with respect weap of mappings as the operation. For n = 2, this ee leat nae sauelseiean———— Proof. Let S = {a,,42,- a,) bea finite set having n distinct elements. my Par OH ) be a permutation of degree n. Here elements by, b3, «1b, Of the second row are simply an arrangement of the n elemeny 44, A, .... @, OF the set S. The elements of the set S can be arranged in n ! different ways. Therefore we shall have », distinct permutations of degree n. If P, be the set of all permutations of degree n, then P, hag distinct elements. Ay Aq dn) ag (by dpa) pa Et Let f= bi bye BBE™ Les cyney Ye any two permutations of degree n. Then jy definition of product or composite of two permutations, denoted multiplicatively, we have a, Ay...4,) as far Se Obviously, fg is also a permutation of degree n, Since C,,C2,-..¥C, iS nothing but ay arrangement of the same n elements 4}, 42, ..-+4q of the set S. Thus fg € P, ¥f,g € P,,. Therefore P,, is closed with respect to the composition known as product of two permutations. Associativity. Permutation multiplication is associative. Let ay @...4,\ by by... by) t (cy Cg lea mame . meee lay Cy Spans Cy 5 dyydyy nnd are simpy be any three permutations of degree n where By, Day 02. 5 Dy Cys Cayo different arrangements of the same n elements 41, 43, -..» Aq mee tent 204): Cy Cy Oy fay yy) (Dy by -sBy) (yg prerey caida ie VY ty ale Ssh) fr para a (a aa Thus (fgh =f (gh). id by se Existehce of Identity. veut {i % < or (i 3 | 1 4 a2 ...4, be the identity permutation of degree n. Then I € P,,. iG aay It rh ne is any element of P,,, we have ay yy) (Dy Dye By) (yy. i. bi er bi mame] aan of ft Mag) By gn) (3 My aban 29 aif ( J fr b of) (os a ° “ la, ay... 4,ee Identity permutation / is the identity element a Batvonen neat Mata {n if rn) be any element of P,. 1% ‘n, Hae (Or band, oe Then f fa, a... a,| 4l80 an element of P, since /~ ! is also a permutation of deg | q.Wehave 2° 1 ppd (2 82) (by By. dy) (ay ay nn also ff (i 03.04) lk tgitay} =| ) mu po tpe (PE Prey) (ay ay ay weft Pa On) 41 42-044) [dy b, 105 by by. 2. 7 lis the inverse of f. Hence P, is a group of order n ! with respect to product of permutations as composition. i Ifm = 1, the set P,, has only one element and every group of order 1 is abelian. ; Itn = 2, the set P,, has 2! ie, 2 elements and every group of order 2 is again abelian. ‘Now we shall show that ifn > 2, P, is non-abelian. Let a (1 2 3..m-1 w a(l 23 4acn-1 om Yah Aas i) ande= (3 13 4cnqi1 a} te the two permutations of degree n, when n > 2. Then myfl 2 Seno], 9 a (12.3 4..n-1 om i B (i 3 4 5) ander = (5 245.0 4) Obviously fg x gf. Therefore P,, is non-abelian if n > 2. Nees Ife J" is obtained by interchanging the two rows off. Thus fis (a; 42 a3 by by by 4, 2 be a permutation of degree m, then the inverse of fie, ey ea! Note 2. If we are to write the set of all permutations of degree n, it is immaterial whatever Gubols we use to denote the elements of the set S. We can use numbers 1, 2, 3,.... of we can ase 18 G1, @,....,,, OF any symbols. Note 3, The group P,, of all permutations of degree n is called the symmetric group of degree tite symmetric group of order n!. DE Cyetic permutations. bepowetinition. Suppose fis a permutation of degree n on a set S having n distinct elements, Let it » Possible to arrange m elements of the set S in a row in such a Way that the S-image of each element ren 0m is the element which follows it, the fimage of the last element is the fist clement and the a "8 m elements of the set $ are let unchanged by f Then fis called a cyclic permutation ne 9 Of tength m or an m-cycle. (Meerut 1988 s) the length of a cycle we mean the number of objects permuted by the cycle, 12536 lie. Lc fas For example the permutationf=() 4 5 1 ¢ 3) "lic. I'can be represented oy uns it 124 3) whiel that each element in the bracket is replaced by the element followi nat rt Semen aieeoibeat by the first element and the missing elements 5 and 6 weiteh icq “84. Thus 1 is replaced by 2, 2 by 4, 4 by 3, 3 by 1, 5 by S and 6 by 6. The length of this cycle by by ae)‘ 12 3.5 4.8 —~ Similarly the permutation g = ( 4465 i) is cyclic. We can write it in the form of the . . a 45 6) which is of length 6. However, the permutation h = (2 + 5 4 8) isnot cyclic. Permutations represented by cycle. (1 3 4 2 6) isa cycle of length 5. Suppose it re a permutation of degree 9 on a set S consisting of the elements 1, 2, ..., 9. Then the per represented will be 13426578 9 (3 4261578 4) ie. the image of each element in the cycle (1 3 4 2 6) is the element which follows it, the ima, of the last element 6 is the first element 1 and the missing elements 5, 7, 8, 9 are their image, themselves. However if the cycle (1 3 4 2 6) represents a permutation of degree 6 on six symbols 1, 2,3 4,5, 6 then the corresponding permutation will be (3 3426 3) Preseny, Mutation 3 4, 2,6 1.5) > Important Note. A cycle does not change by changing the place of its elements provided they cyclic order is not changed. Thus (1234) = (2341) = 3.412) = (4123). Also (12) = (21),(23) = (32). Transposition. Definition. A cycle of length two is called a transposition. (Meerut 1983 >) Thus the cycle (1 3) is a transposition. It will represent a permutation in which the image ot 1 is 3, the image of 3 is 1 and the remaining missing elements are unchanged. If the transposition (2 3) is a permutation of degree 3 on three symbols 1, 2, 3 then the corresponding permutation will be ( A 2) . Accycle of length one means that the image of the element involved is the element itself and the missing elements are left unchanged. Thus all the elements are left unchanged. Therefore ever? cycle of length one will represent the identity permutation. ‘Multiplication of Cycles. We multiply cycles by multiplying the permutations representet by them. For example if the cycles (12 3) and (5 6 4 1) represent permutations of degree 6 on st symbols 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6, then 123456564123 123)(5641)= 2 3)¢ ee ST ae el etate ea} a()2345 6_ (2 ais Gee 4) = (123564). Since a cycle of length one represents the identity permutation, therefore (1) (234) (6) = (234). /Disjoint Cycles. Two cycles are said to be disjoint if they have no symbols in common. For example (1 35) and (2.6 8 9) are disjoint cycles while (1 3 4) and (23 56) are not disjitt Theorem. If f and g are two disjoint cycles, then fg = je Hes comers sjoint cycles, then fg = gf ie., the product of the disjoint Proof. The cycles f and g have no symbols c s ed 1) axe ett unchanged yi is common. Therefore the elements permu' enpeey asic y 8 and also the elements permuted bygtemain the same under f. Therefo® Now we shall give an example to illustrate this theorem,oo $a = (12 3)andg = veaf= (123) cf wi represent two permutations on S symbols 1.2. Then wb sage 2345 234 5) (4 s}\i 23 5 4) 315 47(s ef 512 a0 234 5412 3)( )-4 5023" \ of a cyclic permutati «do presen : iow Inverse ‘ation. To prove that (123 “le <1... 321) ie, to write sreinverse of @ cycle we should write its elements in ewan ona a s proof, We have (1 2 3...n)(n...3 2 1) a (i 2 3..m-1 nym "5 2 Wf 2 38) 2 ‘| (23 an 1) (nt a4 1 7 (i 23 4-1 9 . Alo 3 21)(123..mM aL (123...m)-'[email protected] 21). In particular every transposition is its own inverse. If(1 2) is a transposition , then (1 2)~ 1! = (2 1) =(1 2). Inverse of a product of cyclic permutations, If f and g are any two cycles, then we have (fe) = 87 tf Valso (fghy 1 =h~' gobs. ‘ Iff and g are disjoint cycles then (fg)~! = (gf)~ 1 =f-"g7 ‘Thus [(123) (45) (26)]- ! = 26)" 1 (45)-1 (1 2 3) Also [(1 3,5) (2 4)? = (1 3 5) 1(24)- 1 = (5 3:1) (42). We shaif now give some important results on the product of permutations. 1. Every permutation can be expressed as a product of disjoine cycles. Verification. Let f= ( errura oe 2) be a permutation of degree 9 on the se 11,2... 9}- We have f = (4) (6) (123) (5879). Explanation. First we put down cycles of length one with the help of elements which remain ‘| unchanged under f. " Then we start with an element which is not left unchanged. Thus we start with 1. After | we ‘rite the image of 1 which is 2. After 2 we write the image of 2 which is 3. After 3 we do not write } any clement but we close the bracket since the image of the last element 3 is the first element | of the bracket. . oh #29 231) 5 4 = (62) (54) G21). | Now we start a new bracket. In this bracket we write an element which has not yet been written. we write 5. After 5 we write the image of 5 which is 8. After 8 we write the image of $ which is 7.After 7 we write the image of 7 which is 9. After 9 we close the bracket since the image of 9is the first clement 5. Now our work is finished since each element has been included in one or the other bracket Since cycles of length one represent identity permutation, therefore we can omit them. Thus we can write f = (123) (5879). ; : Also we can write f= (5879) (123) because product of disjoint cycles is commutative, Theogem 2, Every cycle can be expressed as a product of transpositions in infinitely many ways. Verification, Consider the cycle (1 2 3...1) of length. By actual calculation we see that (123...m=( 2(1 3) (1 4). (Eat) (1a) More generally the n-cycle (a, 423 + 4n) = (Ay 4) (43) --- (@) @y) The =(23)(2 5)(2 4): Since 35 5 2 ooe A nuctore we can write (2354) = (35) 34) 32). Also ‘=Identity permutation. * Weos write (235 ‘ye (23) (1.2) (21) 25) 24).~ 5 3) (35.2) is also identity permutation Awecah aris e 35.4) = (2354) (253) (352) = (23) 25) (24) (25) 23) 35) G2, Now consider the 5-cycle (12345 ). We have (12345) = (12) (13) (14) (15) = (12) 24) (42) (1 3) (12) (21) (14) (15). Thus every cycle can be expressed as a product of transpositions in infinitely many ways, by, we see that in the case of any cycle the number of transpositions is either always odd oF always eve, ‘Theorem 3. Every permutation can be expressed as a product of transpositions in infinite mary ways. ~” Combining together the results of theoret this theorem. § 15. Even and odd permutations. i Definition. A permutation is said to be an even permutation if it can be expressed as a product of an even number of transpositions; otherwise it is said to be an odd permutation. (Meerut 1984, 5 This definition will be meaningless if a permutation can be expressed sometimes as a produc, ofan odd number of transpositions and sometimes as a product ofan even number of transpositions, So we have the following theorem : Theorem: A permutation cannot be both even and odd ie., if a permutation f is expressed asa product of transpositions then the number of transpositions is either always even or always odd. (Meerut 1987) Proof. Consider the polynomial P in n distinct symbols x1,22, ...,%, defined as the produ of all factors of the type x, ~ xj where i . ‘Therefore if ¢; # ¢), then fe; # fej. ‘Thus the m odd permutations f¢1,...,_ are distinct elements of P,. But we have supposeq that P, contains exactly k odd permutations. Therefore m cannot be greater than k. Thus msk. Similarly, we can show that the k even permutations 10,,/0 P,, Therefore, we must have ksm. oat (1) fo, ate distinct elements of From (1) and (2), it follows that m = k= a , Note. If 4y is the set of all even permutations of degree n then A, CP, and 4,, contain elements. The set A, is called an Alternating set of permutations of degree n. (Meerut 1988 P) Group of all even permutations of degree n. \ ‘Actheorem. The set A, ofall even permutations of degree n forms a finite group of order a with respect to permutation multiplication. (Meerut 1988P, 94, 2001) Proof. The product of two even permutations is also an even permutation. Therefore the set A, is closed with respect to multiplication of permutations as composition. ‘We know that multiplication of permutations is an associative composition. If is the identity permutation of degree n then / is an even permutation. Therefore / <4, Now we have If =f=fI ¥fEAn- ©. Lis the identity element. Let f be any even permutation of degree n. If f~ 1 js the inverse of f in the group of all permutations of degree n, then f~ 1 js also an even permutation because f~ =I (aneven permutation). Thus f € A,, > that there exists f—} € A, such that f—~ \pert=ff-'. every clement of A, possesses inverse. The total number of all even permutations of degree n is 5 : ! Thus there are 7 elements in the set A,,. - Ay forms a finite group of order %* with respect to multiplication of permutations Note. The product of two odd permutations is an even permutation. ‘Therefore the set of all odd permutations is not closed with respect to multiplication. Therefore it will not be a grouP Solved Examples Ex. 1. Write the following permutations as the product of disjoint cycles : Wl2345678 ore. Om ss iets eG 30502: Sol. (a) We have =O M12345B89 of fa 2345/8% omitting cycles of length 1 as they represent identity permutation. (b) Wehave g=(1625)(3 4).We re \ Laat Express the following permutations as the product of disjoint cycles @ PC 2VENL67 RHA), () g=(1.2)(1.2 3)(1 2h © A=C32904HR5 1) sot. (a) We shall start with the clement 1. Under the first cycle 1 goes to 2, under the second 1 p goes 10 2, under the third evele 2 goes to 2 and under the fourth cycle 2 goes to 2. Therefore | ankevane permutation f; 1 goes to 2. Now we are to find the image of 2 under f. In the first cycle 2 as to 10 each of the other three cycles 3 is left unchanged. Therefore under f, 2 goes to 3. Now £ ‘are to find the image of 3 under f. In the first cycle 3 goes to I, in the second 1 goes to 1, in the | Wad Lgoes 10 6 and in the fourth 6 goes to 6. Thus 3 goes to 6 under f, Now the image of 6 under ys 7. The image Of 7 under f is 8, the image of 8 under f is 9. Now in the first two cycles 9 is left iastanged. In the third cycle 9 goes to 1 and in the fourth 1 goes to 5. Therefore 9 goes to 5 under Now under f the element 5 goes to 4 and 4 goes to 1 Since we started with the element 1, therefore we stop at this stage and thus we have obtained spefirst cyele as (123678954), Since this single cycle contains all the symbols, therefore f is a cyclic permutation and we have f=(12367895 4), (b) We have g = (1 3 2), (©) Wehave h=(1 2) 354). Ex.3._ Determine which of the following are even permutations : @ f=(1 2 3)(1 2).6) g=(12345)23)45) © &=(12)(13)(1 4)@ 5). Sol (a) We can write f= (1 2)(1 3)(1 2). The number of transpositions is 3 ie., odd. Therefore fis an odd permutation. () We can write g = (1 2)(1 3) (1 4)(1 5)(1. 21.3) (4 5). ‘The number of transpositions is 7 ie., odd. Therefore g is an odd permutation. (©) A= (1 2)(1 3)(1 4) 2 5). The number of transpositions is 4 ie., even. Therefore A is an ‘een permutation. Ex.4. Show that the set P of all permutations on three symbols 1, 2,3 is a finite non-abelian Poup of order 6 with respect to permutation multiplication as composition. (Kanpur 1981; Lucknow 81; Meerut 83, 89 P) Sol. We have P3 = {I, (12), (23), (3 1), (123), (132)} where / is the identity permutation. There are 6 elements in the set Ps. Let I= fy, (12) =fy, (23) =f. 31) =f, (123)= fe, (132) = f,, We now prepare a composition table for Ps. Product of | f, fr ty Sy fs Ss permutations fh |h h ho oh & te h |h hf hk oh ts a: of ee Riek he ee iG een ee fer | hte Bl he he Por Preparing this composition table we have actually multiplied the permutations. ThusSafs = (12) (23) = (132) =o, fafa = (12) G1) = (123) =f, ffs = (23) (23) =identity permutation = f,, fofs = (123) (123) = (132) = fe, and so on. Since all the entries in the table are elements of P3, therefore P, is closed with respect 4, multiplication of permutations. Multiplication of permutations is an associative composition. The identity permutation f, is the identity element since Shi =flih =f = Sv hils = fs = fof and so on. Every element possesses inverse. The inverse of f; is f;, the inverse of f; is f,, the inverse of fais fa, the inverse of fy is f,, the inverse of f; is f, and the inverse of fe is fz. [Note that fe fg =f, =fofs, therefore fs! = f,and f=! = f.). The composition is not commutative since f, f, = f and ff, = fs. Thus fy fy # fay. P, isa finite non-abelian group of order 6 with respect to permutation multiplication. Ex. 5. Prove that the set Az of three permutations (a), (abc), (ac b) on three symbols a,b, ¢ forms a finite abelian group with respect to the permutation multiplication. (Meerut 1988 P) Sol. Let (a) = identity permutation = f,, (abc) = fy, (acb) = fy. We shall now prepare the composition table, the composition being denoted multiplicatively. Product of hi h fs ermutations We have ff = (abc) (abc) = (acb) = fz, fy fs = (abc) (acb) = (a) (b) (c) = identity permutation = f, , and so on All the entries in the table are elements of Aj. Therefore Ay is closed with respect (©) multiplication of permutations. Multiplication of permutations is an associative composition. ‘Jf; is the identity element. Each element possesses inverse. We have fr! = fy, fy! =fyfs }=f,- The composition is commutative since the corresponding rows and columns of the com tion table are identical. The number of elements in the set A, is 3. In fact A, is the set of alle permutations of degree 3. © Ag is the finite abelian group of order 3 with respect to permutation multiplication. Ex. 6. Write down all the permutations on four symbols 1, 2, 3, 4. Which of these permutat! are even ? Sol. There will be 4 !i.e., 24 permutations of degree 4. If P, is the set of all these permutato then Pg = {(1)s(12), (13), (14), (23), (24), (34), (123), (132), (124), (142), (134), (143), (234) 28) (12) (34), (23) (14), (31) (24), (1234), (1243), (1324), (1342), (1423), (1432)pro raqis the set of all even permutations of degree 4, then Aqwill have} x 41 Le., 12 elements ao ((1), (123), (132), (124), (142), (134), (143), (234), (243), (12) (34), (23) (14), 31) (24)) px. 7. Show that the four permutations 1, (ab), (cd), (ab) (cd) on four symbols a, b, c, d form a je abelian group with respect to the permutation multiplication. (Meerut 1988) sol. Let T= fy) (ab) = fay (cd) = fy, (ab) (cd) = Sy. TO prepare the composition table, we verve that f2 and f; are transpositions, Therefore ff, hhh ah. Also f, and f; are disjoint cycles, therefore, hh =hh =Sy Further, fzf4 = (ab) (ab) (cd) = I (cd) = (cd) = fy, fii similarly, f4f4 = (cd) (ab) (cd) = (cd) (cd) (ab) = I (ab) = (ab) = Sg, (+ (ab) (cd) = (cd) (ab)]. Also f4f4 = (ab) (cd) (ab) (cd) = (ab) (ab) (ed) (cd) = (1) (I) = 1 =f,. Similarly making all other calculations, the composition table is Product of permutations f Sy h h fi ta fs hL h ts fi h ts Sa h h fi From the table it is clear that (i) All the entries in the composition table are elements of the given set. Therefore the “osure axiom is satisfied. (ii) fis the identity element. (iti) Each element possesses inverse. In fact >! =fy.fp' =fy fo =fy.fc' =f, (iv) The composition is commutative. Further the multiplication of permutations is an associative composition. en “the given set is a finite abelian group of order 4 with respect to the permutation multiplica-