FOURIER SERIES REPRESENTATION OF PERIODIC SIGNALS

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EXPONENTIAL FOURIER SPECTRA
 Fourier coefficients 𝑎𝑘 are complex in general. To plot 𝑎𝑘 as a function of 𝜔, we
express them in terms of their magnitudes |𝑎𝑘 | and phases ∢𝑎𝑘 .
 The magnitudes |𝑎𝑘 | versus 𝜔 are called the magnitude spectrum and the phases
∢𝑎𝑘 versus 𝜔 are called the phase spectrum.
 The two plots together are the frequency spectra of the signal
 Since the Fourier series only has frequency components at integer multiples of the
𝜔0 , the frequency spectra is discrete in the independent variable (𝜔).
 The frequency spectra of a signal constitute the frequency-domain description of x(t),
in contrast to the time-domain description, where x(t) is specified as a function of
time.
2
Example
Consider the following three continuous-time signal

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 𝑡 = 16 + 12 cos 3𝑡 − + 8 cos 6𝑡 − + 4cos(9𝑡 − )
4 2 4

• Determine the exponential Fourier series coefficients of x(t).

• Plot the magnitude spectrum |𝑎𝑘 | and the phase spectrum ∢𝑎𝑘 over 𝜔.

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Solution
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑥 𝑡 = 16 + 12 cos 3𝑡 −
4
+ 8 cos 6𝑡 −
2
+ 4 cos 9𝑡 −
4
, 𝑇 = 𝑙𝑐𝑚 , ,
3 3 9
=
3
, 𝜔0 = 2𝜋 =3
3

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑗(3𝑡− 4 ) −𝑗(3𝑡− 4 ) 𝑗(6𝑡− 2 ) −𝑗(6𝑡− 2 ) 𝑗(9𝑡− 4 ) −𝑗(9𝑡− 4 )
𝑥 𝑡 = 16 + 6 𝑒 +𝑒 +4 𝑒 +𝑒 + 2(𝑒 +𝑒 )

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
−𝑗( 4 ) 𝑗(3𝑡) 𝑗( 4 ) −𝑗(3𝑡) −𝑗( 2 ) 𝑗(6𝑡) 𝑗( 2 ) −𝑗(6𝑡) −𝑗( 4 ) 𝑗(9𝑡) 𝑗( 4 ) −𝑗(9𝑡)
𝑥(𝑡) = 16 + 6𝑒 𝑒 + 6𝑒 𝑒 + 4𝑒 𝑒 + 4𝑒 𝑒 + 2𝑒 𝑒 + 2𝑒 𝑒

𝑎0 = 16
𝜋 𝜋
−𝑗( 4 ) 𝑗( 4 )
𝑎1 = 6𝑒 , 𝑎−1 = 6𝑒
𝜋 𝜋
−𝑗( 2 ) 𝑗( 2 )
𝑎2 = 4𝑒 , 𝑎−2 = 4𝑒

𝜋
−𝑗( )
𝜋
𝑗( )
Note: for real x(t), the magnitude spectrum is an even function of ω and
𝑎3 = 2𝑒 4 , 𝑎−3 = 2𝑒 4 the phase spectrum is an odd function of ω
4
WHAT IS A NEGATIVE FREQUENCY?

By definition, the frequency (number of repetitions per second) is a positive quantity.

We can use Euler’s equation to interpret a negative frequency −𝜔0 as:

𝑒 ±𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔0 𝑡 ± 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔0 𝑡

This equation clearly shows that the frequency of exponentials 𝑒 ±𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 is |𝜔0 |

A more satisfying way of looking at the situation is to say that exponential spectra are a
graphical representation of coefficients 𝑎𝑘 as a function of ω. Existence of the spectrum
at 𝜔 = −𝑛𝜔0 is merely an indication that an exponential component 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 exists in
the series
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Example
Find the exponential Fourier series and sketch the corresponding spectra for the
impulse train 𝛿𝑇0 (𝑡) depicted below

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Solution
The unit impulse train can be expressed as

The exponential Fourier series is given by

𝑎𝑛

where
𝑎𝑛

𝛿𝑇0 (𝑡) = 𝛿(𝑡) in the interval of integration (−𝑇0 /2, 𝑇0 /2), thus

𝑎𝑛

The exponential Fourier series

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Fourier spectra of impulse train

𝑎𝑛

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CONTINUOUS-TIME LTI SYSTEM RESPONSE TO PERIODIC
INPUTS

CT system function:

𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔

from the linearity property,

9
Example
Consider a continuous-time LTI system whose impulse response is

ℎ(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢(𝑡).

If the input to this system is a periodic signal

1 2
𝑥 𝑡 = 1 + cos 2𝜋𝑡 + cos 4𝜋𝑡 + cos(6𝜋𝑡)
2 3

determine the corresponding system output y(t).

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Solution
∞
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = න ℎ(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞
−𝑡 −𝑗𝜔𝑡
1
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = න 𝑒 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 =
0 1 + 𝑗𝜔
1 2 1 1
𝑥 𝑡 =1 2𝜋𝑡 + cos 4𝜋𝑡 + cos 6𝜋𝑡 , 𝑇 = 𝑙𝑐𝑚 1, , = 1, 𝜔0 = 2𝜋
+ cos
2 3 2 3
1 𝑗(2𝜋𝑡) −𝑗(2𝜋𝑡)
1 𝑗(4𝜋𝑡) −𝑗(4𝜋𝑡)
1 𝑗(6𝜋𝑡)
𝑥 𝑡 =1+ 𝑒 +𝑒 + 𝑒 +𝑒 + (𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑗(6𝜋𝑡) )
4 2 3
1 𝑗(2𝜋𝑡) 1 −𝑗(2𝜋𝑡) 1 𝑗(4𝜋𝑡) 1 −𝑗(4𝜋𝑡) 1 𝑗(6𝜋𝑡) 1 −𝑗(6𝜋𝑡)
𝑥 𝑡 =1+ 𝑒 + 𝑒 + 𝑒 + 𝑒 + 𝑒 + 𝑒
4 4 2 2 3 3
𝑎0 = 1
1 1
𝑎1 =
4
, 𝑎−1 = 4
1 1
𝑎2 = , 𝑎−2 =
2 2
1 1
𝑎3 = , 𝑎−3 =
3 3
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Solution
3

𝑦 𝑡 = ෍ 𝑎𝑘 𝐻(𝑗𝑘𝜔0 ) 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝜔0 𝑡
𝑘=−3
Let 𝑏𝑘 = 𝑎𝑘 𝐻(𝑗𝑘𝜔0 )
𝑏0 = 1
1 1 1 1
𝑏1 = ( ), 𝑏−1 = ( )
4 1+𝑗2𝜋 4 1−𝑗2𝜋
1 1 1 1
𝑏2 = ( ), 𝑏−2 = ( )
2 1+𝑗4𝜋 2 1−𝑗4𝜋
1 1 1 1
𝑏3 = ( ), 𝑏 = ( )
3 1 + 𝑗6𝜋 −3 3 1 − 𝑗6𝜋

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FILTERING

 In a variety of applications, it is of interest to change the relative amplitudes of the

frequency components in a signal or perhaps eliminate some frequency components
entirely, this process is referred to as filtering.
 As we have seen, the Fourier series coefficients of the output of a continuous-time
LTI system are those of the input multiplied by the frequency response of the system
𝐻(𝑗𝜔).
 Consequently, filtering can be conveniently accomplished through the use of
continuous-time LTI systems with an appropriately chosen frequency response
𝐻(𝑗𝜔).

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FREQUENCY-SELECTIVE FILTERS

 Frequency-selective filters are a class of filters specifically intended to

accurately or approximately select some bands of frequencies and reject
others.
 The use of frequency selective filters arises in a variety of situations. For
example, if noise in an audio recording is in a higher frequency band
than the music or voice on the recording is, it can be removed by
frequency-selective filtering

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TYPES OF FILTER

 There are several basic types of filter are widely used and have been given names
indicative of their function.
 Lowpass filter is a filter that passes low and attenuates or rejects higher frequencies.
 Highpass filter is a filter that passes high frequencies and attenuates or rejects low ones
 Bandpass filter is a filter that passes a band of frequencies and attenuates frequencies
both higher and lower than those in the band that is passed.
 In each case, the cutoff frequencies are the frequencies defining the boundaries
between frequencies that are passed and frequencies that are rejected.

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Frequency Response of Ideal Filters
Lowpass

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EXAMPLES OF CONTINUOUS-TIME FILTERS DESCRIBED BY
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
A Simple RC Lowpass Filter
suppose that we take the capacitor voltage 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) as the output

In order to determine its frequency response 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 , the input voltage

𝑣𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 then the output voltage 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 .

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Frequency Response of a Lowpass Filter

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A Simple RC Highpass Filter
As an alternative to choosing the capacitor voltage as the output
in our RC circuit, we can choose the voltage across the resistor.

In order to determine its frequency response 𝐺 𝑗𝜔 , the input voltage

𝑣𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 then the output voltage 𝑣𝑟 (𝑡) = 𝐺 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 .

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Frequency Response of a Highpass Filter

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FREQUENCY RESPONSE AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
REPRESENTATIONS OF LTI SYSTEMS

Consider the general form of a causal LTI differential system

𝑁 𝑀
𝑑𝑘 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑘 𝑥(𝑡)
෍ 𝑎𝑘 = ෍ 𝑏𝑘 , 𝑁≥𝑀
𝑑𝑡𝑘 𝑑𝑡 𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑘=0
One can show that 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) is given by
σ𝑀
𝑘=0 𝑏𝑘 (𝑗𝜔)
𝑘
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑁
σ𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 (𝑗𝜔)𝑘

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