Table of Contents

Network Quality of Service (QoS) 2

Flow Characteristics: 2
IntServ and DiffServ Models: 2
Techniques to Improve QoS: 3
Example 5

Network Multiplexing 5
Types of Network Multiplexing: 6
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): 6
2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): 6
3. Statistical Multiplexing: 7
Advantages of Network Multiplexing: 7
Disadvantages of Network Multiplexing: 8
Difference with Non-Multiplexing 8

Wireless Technologies 9
1. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) 9
2. GPRS (General Packet Radio Service): 9
3. UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System): 10
4. IEEE 802.11 (WiFi): 11
5. IEEE 802.15 (Bluetooth): 11
Network Quality of Service (QoS)

Network Quality of Service (QoS) refers to the ability of a network to provide predictable and consistent

performance to different types of traffic. It ensures that critical applications receive sufficient bandwidth, low

latency, and minimal packet loss, while non-critical traffic is appropriately managed to prevent degradation of

service.

Flow Characteristics:
1. Bandwidth: The amount of data that can be transmitted over a network connection in a given amount of time.

It is crucial for determining the capacity available for each flow.

2. Latency: The time it takes for data to travel from its source to its destination. Low latency is essential for

real-time applications like voice and video conferencing.

3. Jitter: Variation in packet delay, which can affect the quality of real-time applications. Minimizing jitter is

important for maintaining consistent performance.

4. Packet Loss: Occurs when packets transmitted across the network fail to reach their destination. Excessive

packet loss can degrade the quality of service, particularly for real-time applications.

IntServ and DiffServ Models:

1. Integrated Services (IntServ): IntServ aims to provide end-to-end QoS guarantees for individual flows by

reserving network resources along the path. It relies on the Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) to establish

reservations for each flow. IntServ requires routers to maintain per-flow state, which can be challenging to scale

in large networks.
2. Differentiated Services (DiffServ): DiffServ offers a scalable QoS solution by classifying traffic into

different classes or service levels and applying policies based on these classifications. It uses Differentiated

Services Code Point (DSCP) markings in the IP header to classify packets into traffic classes. Routers then

prioritize and treat packets differently based on their assigned class, allowing for more efficient resource

allocation.

Techniques to Improve QoS:

1. Traffic Prioritization: Assigning different priorities to various types of traffic ensures that critical

applications receive preferential treatment. For example, voice and video traffic may be given higher

priority than file downloads.

 IEEE 802.1p/Q: This is a standard for Ethernet networking that defines Quality of Service

(QoS) parameters at the data link layer (Layer 2). It allows for the prioritization of different types

of traffic by assigning them different priority levels (0-7). For example, voice traffic might be

assigned the highest priority level, ensuring it is processed before other types of traffic.

 Type of Service (ToS) Field: In the IP header, the ToS field can be used to indicate the priority

of the packet. Different values in the ToS field represent different levels of priority, allowing

routers to prioritize traffic accordingly.

2. Traffic Shaping: Regulating the flow of traffic to smooth out bursts and prevent congestion. This can

involve delaying packets to match the rate at which they can be processed, ensuring a more consistent

flow.

 Token Bucket: This is a traffic shaping technique that regulates the flow of packets by using

tokens. A token bucket has a certain capacity, and tokens are added to the bucket at a fixed rate.

Each packet requires a certain number of tokens to be transmitted. If there are not enough tokens

in the bucket when a packet arrives, it is either delayed or discarded.

  Leaky Bucket: Similar to the token bucket, the leaky bucket algorithm regulates the rate at

which packets are transmitted. However, in the leaky bucket algorithm, packets are transmitted at

a constant rate, and any excess packets are "leaked" or discarded.

3. Quality of Service (QoS) Policies: Implementing policies to govern how traffic is classified, prioritized, and

managed within the network. These policies can be based on factors such as application type, user identity, or

time of day.

 Policy-Based Routing (PBR): PBR allows network administrators to define policies that specify how

traffic should be routed based on criteria such as source IP address, destination IP address, or application

type. For example, a policy could be defined to route VoIP traffic over a dedicated, low-latency link

while directing web browsing traffic over a separate link.

 Class-Based QoS: Class-Based QoS (CBQoS) is a feature available in some routers and switches that

allows administrators to define QoS policies based on traffic classes. Traffic classes can be defined

based on criteria such as protocol, source or destination IP address, or DSCP markings.

4. Congestion Control: Employing mechanisms to detect and mitigate congestion before it degrades service

quality. Techniques such as Random Early Detection (RED) and Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN) help

routers manage congestion more effectively.

 Random Early Detection (RED): RED is a congestion avoidance mechanism that operates by

randomly dropping packets before the network becomes congested. By dropping packets before

congestion occurs, RED helps prevent network buffers from becoming saturated, which can lead to

increased latency and packet loss.

 Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN): ECN allows routers to notify endpoints of impending

congestion by setting a flag in the IP header of packets. When an endpoint receives a packet with the

ECN flag set, it can respond by reducing its transmission rate, helping to alleviate congestion before it

becomes severe.
5. Bandwidth Allocation: Allocating bandwidth based on the specific requirements of different applications or

user groups ensures that critical traffic receives sufficient resources to meet its needs.

 Quality of Service (QoS) Queuing: QoS queuing allows administrators to allocate bandwidth to

different traffic classes by implementing different queuing mechanisms. For example, a router might use

priority queuing to give real-time traffic such as VoIP packets the highest priority, ensuring they are

transmitted without delay.

 Rate Limiting: Rate limiting is a technique used to cap the bandwidth available to certain types of

traffic. For example, an administrator might configure a router to limit the bandwidth available to file

download traffic to prevent it from consuming all available bandwidth and degrading the performance of

other applications.

Example
Consider a network where both voice-over-IP (VoIP) calls and file downloads coexist. VoIP traffic requires low

latency and minimal jitter to maintain call quality, while file downloads can tolerate higher latency and

occasional packet loss.

In this scenario, DiffServ can be used to classify VoIP packets with a higher priority DSCP marking, ensuring

they receive preferential treatment over file download packets. Traffic shaping techniques can then be applied to

limit the bandwidth used by file downloads, preventing them from overwhelming the network and causing

congestion that would degrade VoIP call quality. Additionally, congestion control mechanisms such as RED

can be employed to manage congestion proactively and prevent packet loss during periods of high network

utilization.

Network Multiplexing
Network multiplexing is a technique used in computer networking to enable multiple data streams or signals to

share a single communication channel simultaneously. It efficiently utilizes network resources and enhances the
overall performance of the network. Here's a detailed breakdown covering its types, advantages, disadvantages,

and the key differences compared to nonmultiplexing techniques:

Types of Network Multiplexing:

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):
Description: FDM divides the available bandwidth into multiple nonoverlapping frequency bands, with each

band allocated to a different data stream.

Advantages:

Simplicity in implementation.

Supports analog and digital signals.

Independent data streams can utilize the entire bandwidth.

Disadvantages:

Susceptible to interference between frequency bands.

Inefficient when data streams have varying bandwidth requirements.

2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

Description: TDM allocates fixed time slots in a predefined sequence to different data streams. Each stream

gets exclusive access to the entire bandwidth for its designated time slot.

Advantages:

Efficient utilization of bandwidth.

Suitable for digital signals.

Less susceptible to interference compared to FDM.

Disadvantages:
 Limited scalability for accommodating additional data streams.

Synchronization issues may arise, especially in large networks.

3. Statistical Multiplexing:
Description: Statistical multiplexing dynamically allocates bandwidth based on the demands of the data

streams. It utilizes statistical analysis to determine the optimal allocation of resources.

Advantages:

Efficient utilization of bandwidth by adapting to varying data stream requirements.

Higher flexibility and scalability compared to TDM.

Suitable for bursty traffic patterns.

Disadvantages:

Requires more complex algorithms and overhead for resource management.

Quality of Service (QoS) may degrade under heavy load if not managed properly.

Advantages of Network Multiplexing:

1. Bandwidth Utilization: Multiplexing allows for efficient utilization of available bandwidth by enabling

multiple data streams to share the same communication channel simultaneously.

2. Cost-effectiveness: By multiplexing, it reduces the need for additional physical channels or infrastructure,

thereby reducing costs associated with network expansion.

3. Flexibility and Scalability: Multiplexing techniques provide flexibility in accommodating new data streams

or adjusting bandwidth allocation dynamically, making the network more scalable.

4. Improved Throughput: With multiplexing, the overall throughput of the network is enhanced as it enables

concurrent transmission of multiple data streams.

Disadvantages of Network Multiplexing:
1. Complexity: Implementing multiplexing techniques often requires more sophisticated hardware and software

components, leading to increased complexity in network management and maintenance.

2. Potential for Interference: Depending on the multiplexing technique used, there may be a risk of interference

between different data streams, especially in the case of FDM.

3. Synchronization Challenges: TDM and some forms of statistical multiplexing require precise synchronization

among data streams, which can be challenging to achieve, particularly in largescale networks.

4. Resource Allocation Overhead: Statistical multiplexing, in particular, introduces overhead for managing and

allocating resources dynamically, which can impact network performance under heavy loads.

Difference with Non-Multiplexing

Nonmultiplexing refers to the traditional approach where each data stream or signal is allocated a dedicated

communication channel without sharing it with other streams. The key differences between multiplexing and

nonmultiplexing techniques include:

1. Resource Utilization: Multiplexing efficiently utilizes network resources by allowing multiple data streams to

share the same channel, whereas nonmultiplexing dedicates separate channels for each data stream, which may

lead to underutilization of resources.

2. Scalability: Multiplexing techniques offer greater scalability as they can accommodate a larger number of

data streams without requiring additional physical channels, unlike nonmultiplexing where each new stream

necessitates a new channel.

3. Complexity: Multiplexing introduces complexity in managing shared resources and coordinating access

among multiple data streams, while nonmultiplexing is simpler to implement and manage since each stream has

its dedicated channel.

4. Efficiency: Multiplexing generally provides higher bandwidth efficiency compared to nonmultiplexing,

especially in scenarios where data streams have varying bandwidth requirements or experience bursty traffic

patterns.

Wireless Technologies
1. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)
Overview: GSM is a digital mobile telephony system that was developed to replace the analog cellular

network systems. It standardized the protocols for second generation (2G) cellular networks.

Frequency Bands: GSM operates in the 900 MHz and 1800 MHz bands in Europe, Asia, Africa, and

Australia, and in the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands in the Americas.

Multiple Access Technique: GSM uses Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) for channel access.

Key Features:

Digital Encryption: GSM introduced the use of encryption to secure calls and data transmissions.

SIM Cards: Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) cards are used for authentication and to store subscriber

information.

Short Message Service (SMS): GSM introduced text messaging capabilities.

Roaming: GSM enables subscribers to use their phones in different countries, provided roaming agreements

are in place between operators.

Evolution: GSM served as the foundation for further generations of mobile communication technologies,

including GPRS and EDGE.

2. GPRS (General Packet Radio Service):

Overview: GPRS is an enhancement of GSM that enables packetswitched data transmission over cellular

networks.
 Packet Switching: Unlike GSM, which uses circuitswitched connections, GPRS employs packet switching,

allowing for more efficient use of network resources.

Data Speeds: GPRS offers data speeds ranging from 56 Kbps to 114 Kbps, depending on network conditions

and configuration.

Always On Connectivity: GPRS enables "alwayson" connectivity, allowing users to stay connected to the

Internet without establishing a new connection for each data session.

Applications: GPRS paved the way for mobile Internet browsing, email access, and other dataintensive

applications on mobile devices.

Evolution: GPRS laid the groundwork for more advanced mobile data technologies, such as EDGE

(Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution).

3. UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System):

Overview: UMTS is a third generation (3G) mobile communication technology that offers higher data speeds

and capacity compared to GSM and GPRS.

WCDMA: UMTS is based on Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) technology, which

allows for higher data transmission rates and improved spectral efficiency.

Data Speeds: UMTS offers data speeds ranging from 384 Kbps to several megabits per second (Mbps),

depending on the network configuration and user equipment.

Multimedia Support: UMTS supports multimedia services such as video calling, video streaming, and

highspeed Internet access.

Global Roaming: UMTS enables global roaming capabilities, allowing subscribers to use their devices in

different countries where UMTS networks are available.

 Evolution: UMTS served as a stepping stone for the development of Long Term Evolution (LTE)

technology, which is commonly referred to as 4G.

4. IEEE 802.11 (WiFi):

Overview: IEEE 802.11 is a set of standards for wireless local area networking (WLAN) commonly known

as WiFi.

Frequency Bands: WiFi operates in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequency bands, with different standards

supporting various frequencies.

Multiple Standards: The IEEE 802.11 family includes various standards such as 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g,

802.11n, 802.11ac, and 802.11ax, each offering different data rates, frequency bands, and features.

Infrastructure and Adhoc Modes: WiFi networks can be set up in either infrastructure mode, where devices

communicate through an access point, or adhoc mode, where devices communicate directly with each other

without an access point.

Security: WiFi standards include security protocols such as WEP, WPA, and WPA2 to protect data

transmissions from unauthorized access.

Applications: WiFi is widely used for wireless Internet access in homes, businesses, public hotspots, and

various other settings.

Evolution: WiFi standards continue to evolve to support higher data rates, better coverage, and improved

efficiency, with newer standards like 802.11ax (WiFi 6) and 802.11be (WiFi 7) in development.

5. IEEE 802.15 (Bluetooth):

Overview: IEEE 802.15 is a set of standards for wireless personal area networking (WPAN), with Bluetooth

being the most widely known technology within this family.

Frequency Band: Bluetooth operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM band.

 Shortrange Communication: Bluetooth is designed for shortrange communication, typically up to 10 meters

(Class 2) or 100 meters (Class 1), depending on the Bluetooth class and version.

Profiles: Bluetooth specifications include various profiles that define the functionalities and protocols for

specific use cases, such as handsfree calling (HFP), stereo audio streaming (A2DP), and file transfer (FTP).

Low Energy Variant: Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), introduced in Bluetooth 4.0, is optimized for lowpower

applications, making it suitable for devices with limited battery capacity, such as wearables, IoT sensors, and

medical devices.

Pairing and Security: Bluetooth devices establish a secure connection through pairing, and encryption is

used to protect data transmissions.

Applications: Bluetooth is used for various applications, including wireless audio streaming, file transfer,

device connectivity (e.g., keyboards, mice), and IoT device communication.

Evolution: Bluetooth standards continue to evolve to support new features, improved performance, and

enhanced security, with Bluetooth 5.2 being the latest version at the time of writing.