Unit 2

Plate Boundaries
Table of Contents

Table of Contents 1

Introduction 3

Essential Questions 4

Review 4

Lesson 2.1: Divergent Plate Boundaries 5

Objectives 5
Warm-Up 5
Learn about It 6
Key Points 9
Web Links 10
Check Your Understanding 10
Challenge Yourself 11

Lesson 2.2: Convergent Plate Boundaries 12

Objectives 12
Warm-Up 12
Learn about It 13
Key Points 16
Web Links 17
Check Your Understanding 17
Challenge Yourself 18

Lesson 2.3: Transform Plate Boundaries 19

Objectives 19
Warm-Up 19
Learn about It 20
Key Points 22
Web Links 22
Check Your Understanding 23
Challenge Yourself 24
Lesson 2.4: Processes and Landforms along Plate Boundaries 25
Objectives 25
Warm-Up 25
Learn about It 26
Key Points 30
Web Links 30
Check Your Understanding 31
Challenge Yourself 32

Laboratory Activity 33

Performance Task 36

Self Check 38

Key Words 39

Wrap Up 40

Photo Credits 40

References 40

2
SCIENCE | GRADE 10

Unit 2
Plate Boundaries

Various processes taking place since the formation of Earth until today have
produced significant changes in the planet’s structure and composition. Earth has
an outermost layer composed of semi-rigid plates that are actively moving. They
are like puzzle pieces that fit together, and the zone between these plates are sites
of significant seismological activities on the planet.

Movements of Earth’s crust bring significant effect on the lithospheric structures.

The landforms we see today serve as clues on how this ever-changing planet works.
Knowing the processes on how the planet is changing its physical form helps us to
understand the Earth’s natural cycle and behavior. Also, knowing the changes help
us be more prepared for its effects.

3
 Essential Questions

At the end of this unit, you should be able to answer the following questions.

● What are plate boundaries?

● What are the different types of plate boundaries?
● How do plate boundaries move?
● What activities occur in plate boundaries?
● How do plate movements affect topographic structures on Earth’s crust?

Review

● The lithosphere is a strong rigid layer consisting of the upper mantle and
crust.
● The asthenosphere is a weak and ductile region in the mantle, which allows
the lithosphere to move as a separate component.
● There are seven major tectonic plates namely: North America, South
America, Pacific, African, Eurasian, Australian-Indian, and Antarctic
plates.
● Intermediate-sized plates are the Caribbean, Nazca, Philippine, Arabian,
Cocos, Scotia, and Juan de Fuca plates.

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 Lesson 2.1: Divergent Plate Boundaries

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● define divergent plate boundary;
● describe the movement process of the divergent boundary; and
● identify examples of the divergent boundary.

Earth has a natural way of recycling materials using different mechanisms and
processes. Objects are broken down or transformed into another material. We can
observe polar ice caps melting and splitting apart and later on becoming part of the
sea water. The same thing happens on Earth’s crust. The solid crust breaks and
moves apart. Have you ever wondered how Earth’s crust is being separated?

Warm-Up

Conveyor Belt
Materials:
● colored papers
○ red
○ brown

Procedure:
1. The class should be
divided into two
groups.
2. Each group should form a circle.
3. The teacher will alternately distribute the red and brown colored paper to
each student in the two circles.
4. The first group will move counter-clockwise while the second group should
move in a clockwise direction. Students will move 1 step every 3 seconds as
illustrated in the figure below.

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Guide Questions:
1. What happened after moving five steps? ten steps?
2. What are the other examples of things that have the same kind of
movement?
3. Does Earth also exhibit the same movement?
4. If you answered yes to the previous question, what do you think could be the
effect of such movement to the structures in the Earth’s surface?

Learn about It

Divergent boundaries are a zone in the Earth’s crust where the plates move away
from each other. It is also known as the spreading centers. It is where the
continents split apart and form new continental margins containing precious
resources of salt, natural gas, and petroleum.

Movements of the Divergent Boundaries

Divergent plate boundaries are considered as constructive margins because it's
where the new ocean floor is generated. Fractures are created in the oceanic
lithosphere as plates move away from each other, and the loss of overburden
pressure induces decompression melting in the hot asthenosphere. There is an
upward movement of the mantle to an area of low pressure enabling the rocks to
melt that form magma. This magma rises and fills the fractures in the spreading
center. As this hot rock cools in these fractures, it forms a new oceanic
lithosphere.

Fig. 1. Formation of new oceanic lithosphere along divergent boundaries

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Elevated areas in the seafloor forms
mountain system called the mid-ocean
ridge. These underwater mountains are
linked in chains with valleys known as a rift.
Example of which is mid-Atlantic ridge
located along the floor of the Atlantic ocean
and East Pacific rise located along the
Pacific Ocean. Mid-ocean ridges on Earth
are all connected forming the global
mid-oceanic ridge system. It is the most
extended topographic feature on Earth
which extends up to 65,000 km in length. It
is located in major ocean basins of the
world and represents 20% of the Earth’s
surface. Figure 2 shows the spreading of
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

Seafloor spreading is the main

mechanism operating along divergent
margins. It is a continuous process occurring in mid-oceanic ridges in which both
sides of the ridge move apart, causing decompression melting and widening (i.e.,
spreading) of the seafloor. This concept was first proposed in the 1960s by a
professor of geology at Princeton University named Harry Hammond Hess. In his
paper, “History of Ocean Basins”, he outlined the concept of molten rocks oozing up
from the Earth’s interior along mid-ocean ridges. Paleomagnetic studies and
radiometric dating performed during the 1960s convincingly supported the seafloor
spreading theory by showing that the age of oceanic crust increases systematically
away from the ridge in opposite directions.

On average, the rate of seafloor spreading in mid-oceanic ridges is 5 cm per year. In

the mid-Atlantic ridge, however, rates are found to be slow at 2 cm per year.
Spreading along the East Pacific rise is much faster at 15 cm per year. Although
these rates are small, they are enough to generate all the Earth’s ocean basins
within the past 200 million years.

The oceanic crust can record polarities due to the presence of magnetite minerals
in basaltic magmas. Magnetite aligns with the prevalent magnetic orientation at the
time of crystallization of the magma. As new crust is produced during a period of
normal magnetic polarity, they split into two and spread away from the ridge.

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Subsequent production of the new crust during a period of reversed magnetic
polarity will then form between older crusts with normal magnetic polarities.
Repetition of this splitting process forms an oceanic crust with bands of alternating
normal and reversed magnetism with age increasing away from the ridge.

Fig. 3. Alternating bands along mid-oceanic ridges showing rocks formed during
periods of normal and reversed magnetic polarities.

As new seafloor moves away from both sides of the ridge, more melts arise from
the asthenosphere. This process is repeated in a conveyor belt-like manner.

Fig. 4. A conveyor-like mechanism producing new ocean floors.

8
Divergent boundaries may also develop within continents. Spreading of landmasses
into two segments forms continental rifts. In time, these rifts widen to form new
seas. A modern example of a continental rift is the East African Rift. Continental
rifts are also known as rift valleys.

Fig. 5. The East African Rift showing the direction of movement of segments of
the landmass.

Key Points

● Divergent boundaries are a zone in the earth’s crust the plates move away
from each other
● Seafloor spreading is a continuous process occurring in mid-oceanic ridges
in which both sides of the ridge move apart. It is the main mechanism
operating along divergent margins.
● Movement in the boundaries induces decompression melting wherein an
upward movement of the mantle to an area of low pressure enabling the
rocks to melt forming magma forming the new oceanic lithosphere.
● Mid-Atlantic Ridge, East Pacific Rise, and East African rift are examples of
divergent boundaries that actively exhibit seismological movements that
create changes in Earth’s crust.

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 Web Links

For further information, you can check the following web links:

● Explore a portion of the Mid-Atlantic ridge found in Iceland by

watching this video link.
Waterlust. 2015. ‘Where the Earth Drifts Apart - A Waterlust Film About Diving Silfra, Iceland’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U3eT0qmPJbw .

● Learn some acts about divergent boundaries.

ScienceStruck. 2018. ‘Facts About the Divergent Plate Boundary Explained with a
Diagram.’
https://sciencestruck.com/facts-about-divergent-plate-boundary-with-diagram

Check Your Understanding

A. Fill in the blanks with the correct terms that satisfy the given analogies.
1. Charles Darwin: theory of evolution; __________: seafloor spreading theory.
2. convergent plate boundary: destructive margin; divergent plate boundary:
__________.
3. East African Rift: continental rift; East Pacific Rise: __________________.
4. together: convergent plate boundary; separate: __________________.
5. seafloor spreading: ____________________; subduction: trench-arc systems.

B. Match the given item in the first column with the terms in the second
column.
1. seafloor spreading theory a. spreading center
2. Mid-Atlantic Ridge b. Hess
3. East African Rift c. seafloor spreading
4. decompression melting and seafloor widening d. continental rifts
5. spreading of landmasses into two segments e. rift valleys

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 C. Modified True or False. Write true if the statement is correct. If false,
underline the text that makes the statement incorrect and write the correct
word or group of words on top of it.

1. The boundaries where plates move away from each other are called
divergent plate boundaries.
2. Divergent boundaries are located only along ocean ridges.
3. Seafloor spreading is the process occurring in mid-oceanic ridges in which
both sides of the ridge move apart, forming a new oceanic crust.
4. The elevated area in the seafloor where volcanism and high heat flow are
present is called the seafloor ridge.
5. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a spreading center.
6. Divergent boundaries may not develop within continents.
7. Continental rifts are formed through the spreading of landmasses.
8. When continental rifts continue to widen over the course of time, it could
form a new continent.
9. The seafloor spreading theory was proposed by Robert Dietz.
10. The rate of seafloor spreading in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge per year is much
faster than the spreading along the East Pacific Rise.

Challenge Yourself

Briefly answer the following.

1. Illustrate how divergent boundaries move.
2. Explain how oceanic crust can record polarities.
3. Why are divergent plate boundaries are considered as constructive
margins?
4. What are the effects of the movement of divergent boundaries on the
oceanic crust?
5. Provide three common examples of divergent boundaries and describe
how these boundaries affect oceanic structures within their region.

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 Lesson 2.2: Convergent Plate Boundaries

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● define the convergent boundary;
● describe the process of movement along the boundary; and
● identify the different types of convergent boundary.

The Philippines is one of the countries in Asia with the most volcanoes and
mountains. These land formations are mostly found in boundaries between two
tectonic plates. There are different plates surrounding the country that formed
active volcanoes and mountains. Have you ever wondered why there is only
part of the tectonic plate where mountains and volcanoes were formed?
What could be the reason behind this pattern?

Warm-Up

Clay Layers
Materials:
● modeling clay
● 2 wooden blocks
● paper

Procedure:
1. Flatten the modeling clay on a piece of paper using your palm.
2. Cut the clay into four strips (0.5 cm thick, 4 cm wide, 7 cm long.).
3. Put the strips on top of each other.
4. Cut the layer of strips in the middle.
5. Put a block of wood at each end of the clay and slowly push the two blocks
together.

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Guide Questions:
1. What happened to the strips of clay as they were pushed from the opposite
ends?
2. If the clay represents Earth’s crust, what do you think is formed?
3. How do you think this kind of movement affects the structure in Earth’s
surface?

Learn about It

Convergent plate boundaries are areas where tectonic plates move towards each
other. Along convergent plate boundaries within the oceanic lithosphere, portions
of oceanic crust descend into the mantle at a rate equal to the production of new
seafloor along divergent plate boundaries. Convergent plate boundaries are often
associated with subduction zones, where oceanic crust descends towards the
mantle due to differences in density of the subducting plate, the asthenosphere,
and the overriding plate.

Movements of Convergent Boundaries

Subduction
Subduction is the primary process operating in oceanic convergent margins. During
subduction, oceanic lithosphere is destroyed along trenches and is recycled back
into the asthenosphere. It is for this reason that convergent plate boundaries are
called destructive margins.

The manifestations of these subduction zones at the surface are the trench-arc
systems, which are deep and remarkably long troughs in the ocean floor. These
troughs form along the boundary between the two plates as the subducting plates
force the overlying plate to bend downward.

Arcs
Arcs are long, sublinear chains of volcanoes following the orientation of ocean
trenches. These were formed due to the introduction of volatile compounds (mainly
water derived from subducted pelagic minerals) into the hot asthenosphere wedge
between the two plates. The volatiles lower the melting temperature of the mantle
rocks, inducing flux melting; the magma rises into the overriding plate and
produces volcanism. The angle at which a plate subducts underneath another plate

13
depends largely on its age and density. Young and buoyant lithosphere tend to
have low angles of descent.

As the asthenosphere resists the downward motion of the subducting plate, stress
is produced in the cool interior of the subducting plate. This generates earthquakes
along an inclined seismic zone called Wadati-Benioff zone.

Fig. 6. Subduction along a trench-arc system.

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Types of Convergent Plate Boundaries
There are three main types of convergent plate boundaries classified according to
the type of plates involved and their associated landforms. These are
oceanic–continental (O-C), oceanic-oceanic (O-O), and continental-continental
(C-C).

In oceanic-continental convergent margins, the denser oceanic crust subducts

under the lighter continental crust. This process forms continental volcanic arcs.

Fig. 7. Oceanic plate subducting under a lighter continental plate.

In oceanic-oceanic convergent margins, the older and much denser plate

subducts under the younger plate. This process forms volcanic island arcs.

Fig. 8. Converging oceanic plates form volcanic island arcs.

15
Convergent plate boundaries may also develop through the collision of two
continental plates (continental-continental convergent margin). The buoyancy of
continental lithosphere inhibits subduction. Instead, the collision causes
deformation of rocks along the margins. This process forms mountain ranges with
linear elevated regions.

Fig. 9. Mountain range formed through the collision of two continental plates.

Key Points

● The primary process operating in oceanic convergent margins is subduction.

During this process, the oceanic lithosphere is destroyed along trenches and
is recycled back into the asthenosphere. It is for this reason that convergent
plate boundaries are called destructive margins
● Arcs are long, sublinear chains of volcanoes following the orientation of
ocean trenches.
● There are three main types of convergent plate boundaries. These are
oceanic–continental (O-C), oceanic-oceanic (O-O), and
continental-continental (C-C)
○ Oceanic-continental convergent margins - This process forms
continental volcanic arcs.
○ Oceanic-oceanic convergent margins - This process forms volcanic
island arcs.
○ Continental-continental - This process forms mountain ranges with
linear elevated regions.

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 Web Links

For further information, you can check the following web links:

● To learn more about three main types of plate boundaries, you

may check this link.
Tracy Derrenbacher and TEDEd. n. d. ‘Convergent plate boundaries’.
https://ed.ted.com/on/VUFFsVP9

● To read more about convergent plate boundaries, you may

check this link.
BBC Biteszie. 2018. ‘Plate boundaries.’
https://www.bbc.com/education/guides/zt9y2p3/revision/3

Check Your Understanding

A. Identify the following terms being described in each item.

1. The area where tectonic plates move towards each other.
2. Zone where earthquakes are generated during the converging.
3. The type of a convergent plate boundary that forms volcanic island arcs.
4. The long, sublinear chains of volcanoes that are formed due to the
introduction of volatiles into the hot asthenosphere wedge between two
plates.
5. The primary process operating in the oceanic convergent margins.
6. Other term used to refer to convergent plate boundaries.
7. The type of a convergent plate boundary that forms continental volcanic
arcs.
8. The type of convergent plate boundary that forms mountain ranges.
9. Deep and long troughs in the ocean floor manifesting the process of
subduction in the convergent margins.
10. It is where oceanic crust descends towards the mantle due to differences in
density of the subducting plate, the asthenosphere, and the overriding
plate.

17
 B. Write true if the statement is correct. Otherwise, write false.
1. Convergent plate boundaries are the same as the subduction zones.
2. The older the plate, the denser it is.
3. A subduction zone is where oceanic crust descends towards the mantle.
4. Arcs are formed when volatiles are introduced into the hot asthenosphere
wedge.
5. There are four main types of convergent plate boundaries.
6. Arcs are long, sublinear chains of mountains.
7. Continental volcanic arcs are formed in the continental-continental
convergent margins.
8. Wadati-Benioff zone is where the earthquakes are generated during the
converging of two tectonic plates.
9. Deduction is the primary process operating in oceanic convergent
margins.
10. Convergent plate boundaries are also called destructive margins.

Challenge Yourself

Briefly answer the following questions.

1. What are the examples of the three main types of convergent plates?
2. What are plates converging in the Pacific plate? Identify the type of converging
plate.
3. Describe how volcanic island arcs in the Philippines are formed? What plates
are involved?
4. What are the Wadati-Benioff zones in the Philippines? Explain how
earthquakes can be generated in those areas.
5. What are the possible effects of the activities in the convergent zone on our
daily lives?

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 Lesson 2.3: Transform Plate Boundaries

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● learn the process of plate movements along transform
boundary;
● describe the effects of transform boundary movement; and
● determine the location of some transform boundaries on Earth.

Pacific plate, with its interaction with other continental plates, produces active
chains of volcanoes in this region of the planet. Formation of volcanoes is present
along the west and north of the Pacific plate. On the other hand, there are major
gaps at the eastern side of the plate that are equally active but without volcanic
eruption occurring. An example of this is San Andreas fault in California. Have you
ever wondered why there are no volcanoes along the stretch of San Andreas
fault?

Warm-Up

Clay Layers II
Materials:
● modeling clay
● paper

Procedure:
1. Flatten the modeling clay on a
piece of paper using your palm.
2. Cut the clay into four strips (0.5 cm thick, 4 cm wide, 7 cm long.).
3. Put the strips on top of each other.
4. Cut the layer of strips in the middle.
5. Move the clay using your hand at opposite directions.

19
Guide Questions:
1. What happened to the strips of clay as they were pushed towards opposite
directions?
2. If the clay represents the Earth’s crust, what do you think is formed?
3. How do you think this kind of movement affects the structure in the Earth’s
surface?
4. What is the difference between the result of this activity and the previous
lesson’s activity?

Learn about It

Along transform plate boundaries or transform

faults, plates slide past one another in a horizontal
motion parallel to the plate boundary separating
the two plates. These boundaries connect the
other plate boundaries, accommodating the
opposite movements of the plates on each side of
the transform. Beyond the connected boundaries,
the transform boundary ceases and becomes an
inactive fracture zone.

Transform boundaries are conservative margins.

In these regions, no production or destruction of
crust occurs. There is no upwelling of magma that
is why there is no active volcanism. The existence
and nature of transform faults were discovered by
Canadian geologist John Tuzo Wilson in 1965,
proposing that these faults connect two spreading
centers or, less commonly, two trenches. Wilson was
able to form the concept of transform boundaries as knowledge on the dynamics
and seismicity of the oceans increased. Most transform faults are found along the
ocean floor in which they offset segments of the mid-oceanic ridge systems,
resembling a step-like pattern. Active transform faults are generally defined by
weak and shallow earthquakes. Most of the transform faults lie only between
two offset ridge segments and few occur on land. This includes the popular San
Andreas Fault. This fault extends to up to 1,300 km in length. The Pacific Plate has

20
been grinding horizontally past the North American Plate for 10 million years along
this boundary.

Instead of volcanism, areas

near transform faults
experience earthquakes.
Fault zones and fracture
zones are formed in this type
of boundary.

Fault zones are areas where

rocks are being broken and
weakened by ongoing fault
action. Displacement on the
rocks is discernable.

Fracture zones occur as

curvilinear breaks in the
seafloor; they are traces of
the transform boundary past
the ridges and trenches which
no longer experience
movement. Transform faults
provide the mechanism for
the displacement and
eventual transport of newly
created crust in ridges
towards sites of destruction
(i.e. trenches and subduction
zones).

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 Key Points

● Transform boundaries are conservative margins. In these regions, no

production or destruction of crust occurs.
● Most transform faults are found along the ocean floor, in which they offset
segments of the mid-oceanic ridge systems, resembling a step-like pattern.
● Active transform faults are generally defined by weak and shallow
earthquakes
● Instead of volcanism, areas near transform faults experience earthquakes.
● Fault zones are areas where rocks are being broken and weakened by
ongoing fault action. Displacement on the rocks are discernable

Web Links

For further information, you can check the following web links:

● Visit this link to know more about the San Andreas Fault in
California.
History Channel. 2017. ‘How The Earth Was Made S1 E1 - San Andreas Fault‘
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aKYkIgm55QI

● Do you want to understand more about transform fault? Visit

this link.
ScienceStruck. 2018. ‘Understanding Transform Boundary: Definition and Useful
Examples’. https://sciencestruck.com/transform-boundary-definition-examples

22
 Check Your Understanding

A. Match the given item in Set A to the ones in Set B.

Set A Set B
1. San Andreas Fault a. curvilinear breaks in the seafloor
2. Fault Zones b. locations where plates sliding past one
3. Transform Plate Boundary another
4. Wilson c. areas where rocks are being broken
5. Conservative Margins d. North American Plate and Pacific Plate
6. Fracture zones e. Other term for transform plate
7. Horizontal motion boundary
8. San Andreas Fault’s length f. the existence and nature of transform
9. Canadian geologist faults
10. Active transform faults g. John Tuzo Wilson
h. 1 300 k
i. 1 200 km
j. direction of motion occurring in the
transform faults
k. weak and shallow earthquakes

B. Write true if the statement is correct. If false, underline the text that makes the
statement incorrect and write the correct word or words on top of it.
1. In transform plate boundaries, there are frequent upwellings of magma.
2. Earthquakes often occur in areas near the conservative margins.
3. Transform faults are only found along the ocean floor.
4. San Andreas Fault forms the tectonic boundary between Eurasian Plate and
the North American Plate.
5. Transform plate boundaries are plates sliding past each other.
6. Fault zones and fracture zones are formed in transform faults.
7. There is a lot of production and destruction of crust occurring in the
conservative margins.
8. San Andreas Fault is a transform plate boundary.
9. The existence and nature of transform faults were discovered by a
Canadian geologist named Jonas Wilson.
10. There is often no volcanism occur in transform plate boundaries.

23
 Challenge Yourself

Briefly answer the following questions.

1. What are the events that take place during the horizontal driving motion of
transform plate boundaries?
2. Why is the San Andreas considered a popular fault and how it was formed?
3. What is the importance of being aware of transform faults and their
characteristics?
4. What are the similarities and differences between the fault and fracture
zones?
5. Why do areas near transform faults experience earthquakes instead of
volcanism?

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 Lesson 2.4: Processes and Landforms along
Plate Boundaries

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● learn the process of land formation along plate boundaries.

Have you ever climbed a mountain and seen the fascinating rock formations as you
reach its peak? In some mountains in the Philippines like Bulacan, some rock
formations include fossils of shellfish embedded on it. Experts explain that these
mountains are previously land masses under the ocean that eventually subduct
and became mountains or hills that we are seeing right now. How do these land
masses move up and down?

Warm-Up

Imagine What’s Within

Materials:
● bond paper
● color pens or pencils

Procedure:
1. Fold the bond paper into half.
2. On the first half of the paper, draw
different land formations found at the
different parts of the world
3. On the other half, draw the different land formations that you think are
present under the Pacific oceans
4. Compare and explain to the class what you draw.

25
Guide Questions:
1. What are the common landforms that you know?
2. How is it different compared to those that are present under the oceans?
3. How do you think these structures were formed?

Learn about It

Most tectonic processes occur along the three types of plate boundaries, namely:
divergent, convergent, and transform plate boundary. Each produces distinct
landforms and structures.

Processes in the Divergent Plate Boundaries

Divergent plate boundaries are home to landforms including continental rifts and
oceanic ridges.

Continental Rifts
Continental rifting occurs within a continent and is caused by opposing tensional
forces that stretch and thin the lithosphere, causing the outermost crustal rocks to
break through normal faulting, thus forming what is known as a continental rift.

Horizontal stretching is accompanied by an initial uplift as the low-density hot

asthenosphere, now experiencing less overlying pressure from the thinned
lithosphere, rises. As these tectonic tensional forces continue to pull the plates
apart, broken crustal fragments sink, generating an elongated depression called
continental rift valleys.

Oceanic Ridges

Fig. 12. The global ridge system where new oceanic crust is formed.

26
New ocean basins may form between two rifted continents once the lithosphere
thins sufficiently for magma to erupt along an axis. The North Atlantic Ocean basin
formed 180 million years ago due to the separation of North America from Africa
and Eurasia. The oceanic ridge system refers to the elevated areas of the seafloor
characterized by high heat flow and volcanism. It is the Earth’s longest mountain
range, covering roughly 20% of the planet’s surface. It has a length of >65,000 km, a
width of 10001600 km, a crest elevation of ~3 km, and a slope of about 0.4 degrees.
Included in this system are the East Pacific Rise, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and the
Mid-Indian Ridge.

Fig. 13. Formation of a continental rift, oceanic ridges, and ocean basins along
divergent plate boundaries.

Processes in Convergent Plate Boundaries

Convergent plate boundaries form different landforms and involve different
processes depending on the type of plates involved in the collision.

In oceanic–continental (O-C) convergence, the dense oceanic plate subducts

underneath the buoyant continental plate. As the subducting slab (oceanic plate)
reaches a depth of about 100 km, partial melting is initiated in the overlying
asthenosphere wedge. This is due to the water present in the subducting slab
which lowers the melting temperatures of the overlying rocks. O-C convergence
gives rise to landforms known as continental volcanic arcs. These continental arcs
are mostly rhyolitic-dacitic in composition. A popular example is the Andes
mountains formed from the subduction of the Nazca plate beneath the South
American continent.

27
 Fig. 14. Volcanic island arcs and associated trenches along the Pacific Ring of Fire.

In oceanic-oceanic (O-O) convergence, two oceanic plates converge, with the

denser and colder plate subducting under the buoyant plate. Flux melting also
occurs in this instance. This forms volcanic island arcs, or simply, island arcs.
These arcs are mostly basaltic-gabbroic and dioriticandesitic. Most island arcs
are located along the Pacific Ring of Fire. These include the Aleutian, Mariana,
Tonga, and Philippine Arc which are relatively young island arcs. Adjacent to these
island arcs is the Aleutian trench, Mariana trench, Tonga trench, and Philippine
trench.

The third type of convergent boundary is the continental-continental (C-C)

convergence. This involves a buoyant landmass (continents, arcs) moving towards
the margin of another buoyant landmass due to the subduction of an intervening
seafloor. Since continental plates have low densities, no subduction occurs
between the two plates. Instead, a collision between them ensues, the continental
fragments are shortened horizontally and thickened vertically, and the subducted
oceanic plate detaches, marking the end of subduction. This collision results in the
progressive uplift of a mountain belt (i.e. an orogeny), which marks the closing of an
ocean basin. These long mountain belts along convergent margins are called
orogenic belts. A perfect example of a modern orogenic belt is the Himalayan

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Mountain Range which formed as India collided with Eurasia 50 million years ago.
The collision caused the indentation of Asia, resulting in mountain ranges that wrap
around India. Collisions produce larger continents. Supercontinents Pangaea and
Rodinia are considered to have formed via the collision of continental fragments. In
fact, almost all major continents display evidence of being composed of a collage of
terranes accreted during tectonic collisions.

Fig. 15. Transform boundaries along mid-oceanic ridges forming a step-like

pattern. Active transform faults that generate earthquakes are restricted only in
zones between two offset ridge segments.

Processes in the Transform Plate Boundaries

Transform plate boundaries which are characterized by horizontal motion along
transform fault systems parallel to the boundary separating two plates form fault
systems around the world. Transform faults are part of curvilinear breaks in the
seafloor known as fracture zones. These are zones of intensely faulted and
fractured oceanic crust generally oriented perpendicular to the oceanic ridge axis
or ocean trenches and parallel to the plate motion. Earthquake activity is
restricted only to the transform portion of fracture zones that lies between offset
ridge segments or trenches. Transform boundaries can also occur in continental
lithosphere. An example of this is the San Andreas Fault System in California
which is characterized by active strike-slip fault systems.

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 Key Points

● Divergent plate boundaries are home to landforms including continental

rifts and oceanic ridges.
● Convergence gives rise to landforms known as continental volcanic arcs
● In oceanic-oceanic convergence, forms volcanic island arcs, or simply,
island arcs.
● Continental-continental (C-C) convergence involves a buoyant landmass
(continents, arcs) moving towards the margin of another buoyant landmass
due to the subduction of an intervening seafloor forming orogenic plate
● Transform faults are part of curvilinear breaks in the seafloor known as
fracture zones.

Web Links

For further information, you can check the following web links:

● Wondering how underwater fault lines under would look like.

Watch this link.
EVNautius. 2016. ‘Fault Lines, Fractures, and "Trenchy McTrenchface.’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WfxXy03kqN0

● Know more about volcanoes formed underwater due to plate

boundary movement. Explore the underwater ring of fire. Visit
this link.
User:oceanexplorergov. 2012. ‘Submarine Ring of Fire 2006: Mariana Arc Highlight
Video’ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QwTr0dw2FbQ

30
 Check Your Understanding

A. Identify in which boundary the landforms are found. Put DB for divergent, CB
for convergent, and TB for transform.
1. Himalayan Mountain Range
2. San Andreas Fault
3. Andes Mountains
4. Mid-Atlantic Ridge
5. East Pacific Rise

B. Write true if the statement is correct, and false if otherwise.

1. Andes Mountains is formed after the convergence of an oceanic plate and
a continental plate.
2. Convergent plate boundaries are home to landforms including continental
rifts and oceanic ridges.
3. Collision of plates can produce larger continents.
4. Transform plate boundaries are much prone to earthquakes than
volcanism.
5. Orogenic belts may be formed in divergent plate boundaries.

C. Identify the following terms.

1. The elevated areas of the seafloor characterized by high heat flow and
volcanism.
2. Convergence of two plates wherein the dense oceanic plate subducts
underneath the buoyant continental plate.
3. The type of boundary where continental rifts and oceanic ridges are
formed.
4. Curvilinear breaks in the seafloor.
5. The long mountain belts along convergent margins.
6. The type of convergence in which the denser and colder oceanic plate
subducts under the buoyant oceanic plate.
7. The landform formed after the convergence of an oceanic plate and a
continental plate.
8. The type of convergence involving two buoyant landmasses.
9. The landform formed after the convergence of two oceanic plates.
10. The type of boundary in which two plates slide past one another.

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 Challenge Yourself

Briefly answer the following questions.

1. What are the similarities and differences of continental rifts and oceanic
ridges?
2. What are the processes happening in the different types of convergent
boundaries?
3. What is the Ring of Fire and how it was formed?
4. What are the limitations of the transform faults in terms of generating
earthquake activities?
5. What places in the Philippines are relatively safe and earthquake free? Explain
why are these places earthquake free.

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 Laboratory Activity

Activity 2.1
Continents in the Sand

Objectives
At the end of this laboratory activity, the students should be able to:
● demonstrate the movements of plates; and
● show the effects of movements along plate boundaries.

Materials and Equipment

● 6 pieces of 11” × 17” cardboard paper
● 6 cups of dry sand
● marker

Procedure
1. Prepare three sets of cardboard, 2 pieces for each setup.
2. Do the following setups below.
3. Predict what will happen when they pull the papers towards the direction of
the arrows. Once the prediction was recorded, move the papers about 1
inch at a time. Describe the movement of the sand and the changes that
occurred.

Setup 1
1. For the first setup, take one cardboard
and lay it on a flat surface.
2. Lay another piece of cardboard on top
of the first in such a way that it overlaps
about 50% of the cardboard.
3. Draw an arrow on either side pointing
in opposite directions.
4. Place sand on the paper covering a
roughly square area about 0.5” thick.

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Setup 2
1. Position the two cardboard paper
perpendicular to each other.
2. Draw arrows pointing at the opposite
directions
3. Cover the area where the papers
intersect with dry sand
4. Spread the sand covering roughly a
square area of about 0.5” thick.

Setup 3
1. Position the papers the same way as
setup 2.
2. Draw arrows pointing toward each
other
3. Cover a square area with 0.5” dry sand

Data and Results

Table 1. Movement of the sand in the three setups.

After moving After moving After moving
Setup Prediction
1” 2” 3”

Guide Questions
1. What types of boundaries do setups 1, 2 and 3 represent?
2. Compare the movements of the sand during the experiment with the actual
movement of plate boundaries.
3. What landforms were developed after the experiments?

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 Activity 2.2
Land Formations and Plate Movements

Objectives
At the end of this laboratory activity, the students should be able to:
● identify different plate boundaries surrounding the Philippines; and
● show the different land formations and activities between boundaries;

Materials and Equipment

● Philippine map showing different plates, letter size (8.5” × 11”)
● 3 clear acetate paper (8.5” × 11”)
● colored marker

Procedure
1. Place a clear acetate paper over the Philippine map. You may visit the
following links as reference for the map of the Philippines and plate
boundary maps.

U.S. Geological Survey. 2010. ‘Seismicity of the Earth 1900‒2012

Philippine Sea Plate and Vicinity.’
https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2010/1083/m/

Vokaty, Michelle. n.d. ‘The Philippine Sea Plate.’

https://tectonicsofasia.weebly.com/philippine-sea-plate.html

2. Draw the border of plate surrounding the Philippines. Mark and identify the
type of plate boundary.
3. Put another acetate on top and mark the volcanoes along the plate
boundaries.
4. Repeat the procedure this time marking the mountain formations.
5. Present the map of the Philippines with boundaries and plotted locations of
the land formations.

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Data and Results

Table 2. Land formation in the Philippines along plate boundaries.

Plate Boundaries Volcanoes Mountains

Guide Questions
1. What is the most common land formations along the plate boundaries
surrounding the Philippines?
2. What type of plate boundaries is present near the Philippines?
3. How will you relate the type of boundaries to the different landforms present
in the area?

Performance Task

Philippine Sea Plate Infographics

The Philippine Sea Plate is comprised of oceanic lithosphere that lies beneath the
Philippine Sea. North of the Philippine Sea Plate is Okhotsk Plate at the Nankai
Trough. In the east, it meets the Pacific Plate at the Izu-Ogasawara Trench. On the
other hand, sea plate is bounded by the Caroline Plate and Bird's Head Plate to the
south. To the west of the plate interacts with the Philippine Mobile Belt at the
Philippine Trench and the East Luzon Trench. To the northwest, the Plate meets on
the Okinawa Plate, and southern Japan on the Amurian Plate.

Goal
● Your group’s goal is to disseminate information about the movement and
activities of the Philippine plate boundary.

36
Role
● You are a group of young researchers aiming to spread awareness about
plates surrounding the Philippines and the activities happening on its
boundaries.

Audience
● Your audience is your schoolmates and the school teachers and staff.

Situation
● The challenge is to catch the attention of the audience using the infographics
showing the data of the activities around the Philippine plates in a simpler,
and more creative way.

Product, Performance, and Purpose

● You will create infographics that show and describe the movement and
activities of the Philippine plate boundary.

Standards and Criteria

● Your performance will be graded by the following rubric.

Below Needs Successful Exemplary

Criteria Expectations, Improvement Performance Performance
0% to 59% 50% to 74% 75% to 99% 100%

Content. Details not Details are Details are Details

presented. presented but Presented. And the can be easily
Detailed and related
Content is not there contents understood.
to the task
related to the are some content are related Content is
task. that are not related to the
related to the task.
task. Additional
supporting details
are presented.

Organization Presentation of Presentation was Presentation was Presentation was

data and info was done but in a done smoothly but done clearly.
Skills.
not done disorganized and the concepts are Concepts were
Presentation of data illogical manner. presented in such presented in a
and information was a way that should logical manner
done in an organized be rearranged for and easily
manner. better understandable
understanding by the audience.

37
Creativity and No figures used The figures did not The figures and The concepts and
match information concepts were figures were
Appropriateness.
being presented integrated in the integrated in
Subject matter and Task but properly an organized and
figures were properly presented. logical way.
integrated into the
presentation. Additional
Concepts related
to the task
were presented.

Self Check

At the end of this unit, each student is expected to have a better understanding of
the plate boundaries and the different processes happening in these regions. Put a
check on each box if you agree to the given statements.

Check I can…

discuss the different types of plate boundaries.

explain the movement process of plate boundaries.

explain the process of land formations along the plate boundary.

describe the land formations formed along the plate boundary.

list down examples of the different types of plate boundaries.

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 Key Words

Arcs These are long, sublinear chains of volcanoes following

the orientation of ocean trenches.
Continental rift This is a theory that explains how continents shift
position on Earth's surface.
Convergent boundary This is the region where tectonic plates collide with each
other.
Divergent boundary This is the region where tectonic plates are moving away
from each other.
Fracture zone This is the linear oceanic feature resulted from the action
of offset mid-ocean ridge axis segments.
Mid-ocean ridge This is the underwater mountain system formed by plate
tectonics.
Seafloor spreading This is the formation of the new oceanic crust through
upwelling of magma.
Subduction This is a process that takes place at convergent
boundaries of tectonic plates where one plate moves
under another and is forced or sinks into the mantle due
to gravity.
Transform boundary This is the region where tectonic plates slide past each
other.

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 Wrap Up

Types of Plate Boundaries

Photo Credits

Earth seafloor crust age 1996 - 2, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration is marked as public domain, on Wikimedia Commons.

References

Carlson, Diane H. and Charles C. Plummer. 2009. Physical Geology: Earth Revealed,
8th Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Hefferan, Kevin, and John O’Brien. 2010. Earth Materials. United Kingdom:
Wiley-Blackwell Publishing.

King, Hobart. “Transform Plate Boundary.” Geology.com. Accessed May 11, 2017.
http:// geology.com/nsta/transform-plate-boundaries.shtml

Levin, Harold L. 2013. The Earth Through Time. United States of America: John Wiley
& Sons Inc.

Marshak, Stephen. 2009. Essentials of Geology 3rd Edition. New York: W.W. Norton &
Company.

Stephen J. Reynolds, et al. 2013. Exploring Geology, 3rd Edition. United States:
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Tarbuck, Edward J., and Frederick J. Lutgens. 2015. Earth Science. New Jersey:
Pearson Prentice Hall.

United States Geological Survey. 1999. “J. Tuzo Wilson: Discovering transforms and
hotspots” Accessed May 11, 2017.
https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/Wilson.html

United States Geological Survey. 2014. “Understanding Plate Motions” Accessed

May 1, 2017. https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/understanding.html

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