INTRODUCTION: ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN THE WORLD

English originated in England in the 5th century and developed from the Germanic languages
spoken by the minority tribes of Anglo-Saxon settlers- the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. It was
spoken primarily on the British Isles and initially influenced by Latin, Norse, Celtic. Later in
15th century, influences from Greek and French became noticeable, following the Norman
conquest of England in the 10th century. By the end of the 17th century, English had evolved until
this present time into a global language arising from colonization and industrial revolution.
Since then, the English language has continued to evolve and adapt over time, reflecting its
diverse linguistic influences and its status as a global language.
English is the native language of several countries, primarily the United States, United Kingdom,
Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. It is spoken as a first language by millions of people in
these nations. Today, it is estimated that there are approximately 360 to 400 million native
speakers of English worldwide. However, when considering non-native speakers, the number
significantly increases. It is estimated that there are over 1.5 billion non-native English speakers
globally.

In the same vein, owing to colonial exploration and globalization, English has since become an
international language spoken in different regions of the world by non-native speakers. In many
countries of the world today, English is widely learned as a second language and is used as a
lingua franca for communication between people of different linguistic backgrounds. It is taught
in schools and used for various purposes such as business, education, travel, and international
relations. The number of non-native English speakers continues to grow, reflecting the global
importance and influence of the English language.

Such terms as New Englishes, World Englishes, International English, Global English, English
as a Lingua Franca (ELF), English as Foreign Language (EFL), International English, and
English as Second Language (ESL) refer to non-native varieties of the English Language. New
Englishes refers to the emerging varieties or versions of the English language that have
developed in different regions around the world. As English has spread globally, it has
undergone changes in vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, and usage in various contexts and
cultures. New Englishes are influenced by local languages, cultural practices, and the specific
needs of the communities where they are spoken.

New Englishes are characterized by their unique features, including distinct accents, idiomatic
expressions, and vocabulary influenced by local languages. Examples of New Englishes include
Indian English, Nigerian English, Singaporean English, Jamaican English, and many others.

These varieties of English are not considered deviations from the "standard" forms of English but
are recognized as legitimate and valuable linguistic expressions. They reflect the creativity,
adaptability, and cultural diversity of English as a global language. The study of New Englishes
is an area of sociolinguistics that explores the development, features, and sociocultural aspects of
these evolving forms of English.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE SPREAD OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN THE
WORLD

Owing to the history of English Language, several factors have contributed to the growth and
significance of English as a world language.

1. Colonisation: The British Empire played a significant role in spreading the English
language across the globe. During the colonial era, English was introduced to numerous
countries in West Indies and Africa, which eventually adopted it as an official or widely
spoken language even after gaining independence.
2. Economic and Political Influence: English-speaking countries, particularly the United
States, have had substantial economic and political influence in the 20th and 21st
centuries. This influence has contributed to the widespread use and importance of the
English language in international contexts. English is mostly used as a language of
international communication.
3. Globalization and Technology: The rise of globalization and advancements in
technology, particularly the internet, have further promoted the use of English as a global
language. English serves as the dominant language of the internet, facilitating
international communication, trade, and cultural exchange.
4. English Language Teaching: English language teaching is a thriving industry worldwide,
with millions of people enrolling in language courses, participating in language exchange
programs, or hiring English tutors to improve their proficiency. In some countries where
English is second language, it is used as language of instruction and learning at different
levels of education.
5. English as a Lingua Franca: in multilingual/ multicultural countries, like Nigeria, English
serves as a lingua franca, enabling people from different linguistic backgrounds to
communicate with each other. Non-native speakers often use English to communicate
internationally when their native languages differ.
6. English Dominance in Science and Research: English is the predominant language used
in scientific research and academia. Most scientific articles, conferences, and journals are
conducted in English, making it essential for researchers to have a strong command of the
language.
7. Number of Speakers: English is estimated to have over 1.5 billion speakers worldwide,
including both native and non-native speakers. It is the third most common native
language, after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish, but it is the most widely spoken second
language.

DETERMINANTS OF VARIETIES OF ENGLISH

1. Despite the global prominence of the English Language, it is important to recognize and
appreciate the diversity of languages spoken around the world. Multilingualism and the
preservation of native languages are crucial for maintaining cultural heritage and
fostering understanding among different communities. The varieties of English, also
 known as English dialects, can vary based on a number of determinants. These varieties
often have distinct vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar, but they are generally
mutually intelligible.
These determinants include:

1. Geographical Location: English dialects can be influenced by the geographical region in

which they are spoken. For example, British English, American English, Australian
English, and Canadian English all have distinct features and vocabulary specific to their
respective regions.
2. Historical Factors: Historical events and cultural influences play a significant role in
shaping English dialects. For instance, the colonization of different regions by the British
Empire led to the development of various English varieties, such as Indian English and
Nigerian English, which bear traces of both English and local languages.
3. Socioeconomic Factors: Social and economic factors can influence the development of
English dialects. The socio-economic status of speakers, educational opportunities, and
urban versus rural environments can all contribute to linguistic variations within a given
region or community.
4. Ethnic and Cultural Diversity: The ethnic and cultural makeup of a region can contribute
to linguistic variations. For instance, African American Vernacular English (AAVE) in
the United States has distinctive features influenced by African linguistic and cultural
traditions.
5. Contact with Other Languages: Contact with other languages can lead to the
incorporation of loanwords, grammatical structures, and pronunciation patterns into
English dialects. For example, Singaporean English and Indian English have been
influenced by local languages like Malay, Mandarin, Tamil, and Hindi.
6. Educational and Standardization Policies: Educational policies and efforts to standardize
the language can also shape English dialects. The existence of a standardized variety,
such as Received Pronunciation (RP) in the UK or General American (GA) in the United
States, influences language use and pronunciation norms.

It is important to note that these determinants are not mutually exclusive, and multiple factors
often interact to shape the varieties of English spoken in different regions and communities.
Additionally, English dialects can continue to evolve and change over time due to ongoing
social, cultural, and linguistic influences.

STANDARD AND NONSTANDARD VARIETIES OF ENGLISH

Standard and nonstandard varieties of English refer to different forms of the English language
that vary in terms of grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and usage. These variations are
influenced by factors such as geography, social class, ethnicity, and education. Here's an
overview of standard and nonstandard varieties of English:
 1. Standard English: Standard English is a variety of English that is widely accepted as the
norm and is typically associated with educated speakers, formal writing, and official
communication. It serves as a standard for clarity, consistency, and mutual intelligibility
across different English-speaking regions. Features of Standard English include:
 Grammar and Syntax: Standard English follows prescriptive grammar rules and syntactic
conventions. It typically adheres to subject-verb agreement, standard word order, and
standard verb tenses.
 Vocabulary: Standard English uses a lexicon that is widely recognized and understood. It
often includes words and phrases commonly used in formal contexts and literary works.
 Pronunciation: Standard English pronunciation is typically based on Received
Pronunciation (RP) in the UK or General American English (GAE) in the US. However,
regional accents and variations still exist within Standard English.
2. Nonstandard English: Nonstandard English refers to various forms of English that deviate
from the linguistic norms of Standard English. These variations may be influenced by
regional dialects, social and cultural factors, and informal speech contexts. Nonstandard
English includes:
 Regional Dialects: Different regions have their own distinctive dialects that deviate from
Standard English. These dialects have specific pronunciation patterns, vocabulary
choices, and grammatical features. Examples include Southern American English,
Cockney English, or Caribbean English.
 Vernacular and Colloquial Speech: Nonstandard English may encompass informal and
colloquial language use, which includes slang, informal vocabulary, and relaxed
grammar. Vernacular forms can vary widely depending on the social group and cultural
context.
 Ethnic and Cultural Varieties: English varieties spoken by particular ethnic or cultural
groups may deviate from Standard English due to unique linguistic features, code-
switching, or the influence of the speakers' heritage languages.
 Sociolects and Idiolects: Nonstandard English can be associated with specific social
groups, such as working-class communities or youth subcultures, which develop their
own distinctive speech patterns, vocabulary, and slang.

It's important to note that nonstandard varieties of English are not inherently inferior or incorrect;
they simply differ from the norms of Standard English. Nonstandard varieties reflect the
linguistic diversity and cultural richness of English-speaking communities. Sociolinguistic
research explores the usage, perception, and sociocultural implications of both standard and
nonstandard varieties of English, aiming to understand and appreciate the dynamic nature of the
language.

FEATURES OF STANDARD AND NONSTANDARD VARIETIES OF ENGLISH

Features of Standard English and nonstandard varieties of English can differ in several aspects,
including grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and usage. Here are some general features
associated with each:
Features of Standard English:

1. Grammar and Syntax:

 Adherence to prescriptive grammar rules and conventions.
 Consistent subject-verb agreement, verb tenses, and standard word order.
 Use of standard pronouns, articles, prepositions, and conjunctions.
2. Vocabulary:
 Usage of widely recognized and accepted words and phrases.
 Emphasis on formal and academic vocabulary.
 Minimal use of slang or colloquial expressions.
3. Pronunciation:
 Based on Received Pronunciation (RP) in the UK or General American English
(GAE) in the US, characterized by neutral or non-regional accents.
 Clear articulation of sounds and stress patterns.
 Minimal variation in vowel and consonant pronunciations.
4. Usage and Register:
 Appropriate for formal writing, official communication, and professional settings.
 Reliance on standard written conventions and formal speech.
 Emphasis on clarity, precision, and mutual intelligibility.

Features of Nonstandard Varieties of English:

1. Grammar and Syntax:

 Deviation from prescriptive grammar rules and conventions.
 Variation in subject-verb agreement, verb tenses, and word order.
 Nonstandard use of pronouns, articles, prepositions, and conjunctions.
2. Vocabulary:
 Incorporation of colloquial language, slang, or regional expressions.
 Usage of informal or vernacular vocabulary.
 Inclusion of words and phrases specific to particular social, ethnic, or cultural
groups.
3. Pronunciation:
 Regional accents and variations.
 Different vowel and consonant pronunciations influenced by local dialects or
cultural speech patterns.
 Intonation patterns and rhythm distinct from Standard English.
4. Usage and Register:
 More prevalent in informal spoken communication and informal writing.
 Reflective of regional, social, or cultural identity.
 Can be associated with specific social groups, communities, or subcultures.

It is important to note that the features mentioned above are generalizations, and the actual
characteristics of standard and nonstandard varieties of English can vary across regions,
communities, and individual speakers. Language variation is complex and influenced by
numerous factors, including geography, social class, ethnicity, and education.
 SPOKEN AND WRITTEN VARIETIES OF ENGLISH
The English language has many spoken and written varieties, often referred to as dialects. These
dialects differ in terms of pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and even cultural influences.
Here are some of the major spoken and written varieties of English:

1. British English: This is the variety of English spoken in the United Kingdom. It includes
regional variations such as Cockney, Geordie, and Scouse. British English is also the
basis for the standard written form of English in the UK.
2. American English: This is the variety of English spoken in the United States. It has
regional dialects such as Southern American English, New York City English, and
Boston English. American English is also widely used in written form, including in
literature and media.
3. Canadian English: This is the variety of English spoken in Canada. It shares similarities
with both British and American English but also has its own distinctive features.
Canadian English has some regional variations, such as Newfoundland English.
4. Australian English: This is the variety of English spoken in Australia. It has its unique
accent and vocabulary, influenced by the country's history and geography. Australian
English is also used in written form, including in literature and media.
5. New Zealand English: This is the variety of English spoken in New Zealand. It has
similarities to Australian English but also has its own distinct features. New Zealand
English is used in both spoken and written forms.
6. Indian English: English is one of the official languages of India, and Indian English is
influenced by the country's diverse linguistic and cultural heritage. It has its own
vocabulary, pronunciation patterns, and grammatical structures.
7. South African English: This is the variety of English spoken in South Africa. It is
influenced by the country's multilingualism, with vocabulary and pronunciation
influenced by Afrikaans, Zulu, and other languages.
8. Singaporean English: English is one of the official languages of Singapore, and
Singaporean English has developed its unique features influenced by Chinese, Malay,
Tamil, and other languages spoken in the region.
These are just a few examples of the spoken and written varieties of English. It's important to
note that within each of these varieties, there can be further regional variations and dialects.
Additionally, English is spoken as a second language in many countries, resulting in variations
influenced by local languages and cultures.

Spoken English has several characteristics that distinguish it from written English. Here are some
key features of spoken English:

1. Informality: Spoken English tends to be more informal compared to written English.

Conversations among friends, colleagues, or family members often involve relaxed and
casual language, including contractions, slang, and colloquial expressions.
2. Pronunciation: Spoken English may vary in terms of pronunciation, with different accents
and regional variations. Native speakers often have their unique way of pronouncing
certain words, and intonation patterns can convey meaning, such as emphasizing certain
words or expressing emotions.
3. Reductions and Connected Speech: In spoken English, certain sounds, syllables, or even
whole words may be reduced or omitted for the sake of fluency and efficiency. For
example, "going to" may be pronounced as "gonna," and "I want to" can be reduced to "I
wanna." Connected speech refers to the way words are linked together, with changes in
sounds and stress patterns to facilitate smooth and rapid speech.
4. Repetition and Filler Words: Spoken English often includes repetitions of words or
phrases for emphasis or clarification. Fillers such as "um," "uh," "like," and "you know"
are commonly used in conversation to give speakers time to think or indicate uncertainty.
5. Interaction and Turn-taking: Spoken English is typically interactive, involving a back-
and-forth exchange between speakers. There are conventions for turn-taking, where
speakers take their turns to contribute to the conversation. This includes using strategies
like interrupting politely or using backchanneling expressions (e.g., "uh-huh," "yeah") to
show engagement.
6. Nonverbal Communication: Spoken English is complemented by nonverbal
communication, including gestures, facial expressions, and body language. These
 nonverbal cues can add meaning, convey emotions, or enhance the overall
communication.
7. Contextual Understanding: In spoken English, there is often a reliance on contextual
understanding. Speakers may use implicit references, shared knowledge, or contextual
clues to convey meaning, assuming that listeners will understand the intended message.
8. Repairs and Corrections: Spoken English allows for repairs and corrections during the
conversation. If a speaker makes a mistake or realizes a miscommunication, they can
quickly clarify or correct themselves without disrupting the flow of the conversation.

These characteristics of spoken English make it dynamic, interactive, and adaptable to different
social situations and contexts. It is important to note that spoken English can vary greatly across
different regions, social groups, and settings, resulting in a rich tapestry of linguistic diversity.

Written English has distinct characteristics that set it apart from spoken English. Here are some
key features of written English:

1. Formality: Written English tends to be more formal compared to spoken English. It

follows standard grammar rules and conventions, and the language is typically more
precise and structured. It is commonly used in formal documents, academic papers,
professional communication, and literature.
2. Standardization: Written English often adheres to a standardized form, such as the rules
of grammar, punctuation, and spelling. This standardization allows for consistency and
clarity in written communication, ensuring that the message is understood by a wide
audience.
3. Complex Sentence Structures: Written English allows for the use of complex sentence
structures, including compound and complex sentences. Writers have the freedom to
construct longer sentences with multiple clauses to convey intricate ideas and
relationships.
 4. Vocabulary: Written English tends to employ a wider range of vocabulary compared to
spoken English. Writers have more time to consider their word choices and may use more
formal or technical terms depending on the context. Written English also allows for the
use of idiomatic expressions and literary devices.
5. Lack of Nonverbal Cues: Unlike spoken English, written English lacks nonverbal cues
such as gestures, facial expressions, and tone of voice. Writers must rely solely on words
to convey their message and ensure clarity. They often need to provide enough context
and explanation to ensure that readers understand their intended meaning.
6. Editing and Revision: Written English allows for editing and revision. Writers can review
their work, make corrections, rephrase sentences, and improve the overall clarity and
coherence of their writing. This process of revision helps to refine the written piece
before it is shared with others.
7. Permanent Record: Written English creates a permanent record of communication. Once
written, the words can be preserved and referred to later, allowing for reflection, analysis,
and documentation. This permanence also means that written English is subject to
scrutiny and can be used as a reference in legal, academic, and professional contexts.
8. Lack of Immediate Interaction: Unlike spoken English, written English does not involve
immediate interaction or real-time feedback. Readers need time to process the written
text, and there is often a delay between the writing and the response. This requires writers
to anticipate the reader's understanding and address potential questions or concerns
through clear and concise writing.

These characteristics of written English make it a valuable tool for documentation, formal
communication, academic writing, and literature. While written English follows specific rules
and conventions, it can still exhibit variations depending on the purpose, audience, and style of
writing.

REGIONAL VARIETIES OF ENGLISH

The English language is not a single homogeneous phenomenon, but a complex of many
different and interpenetrating varieties of language in use in all kinds of situations in many parts
of the world. The geographical-regional varieties of English maybe either internationally
recognized variants (e.g. British English and American English) or intra-national dialects (e.g.
Cockney or Yorkshire within BE). The geographical-regional variations of English represent, as
it were, a horizontal differentiation of language.
Regional varieties of English refer to the different ways English is used within specific
geographic regions of the world. These varieties are influenced by factors such as history,
culture, migration patterns, and contact with other languages.
Broadly, the regional varieties are classified as native varieties and international varieties.
The native varieties cover regions where the English Language is the mother tongue, i.e. first
language. Such regions include Britain, America, Canada, Australia, New Zealand. The term
"New Englishes" refers to varieties used in regions, especially former British colonies, where
English is second language and is influenced by the mother tongues in such regions. English in
such countries is interchangeably used as Foreign English, English as Second Language,
International English. Such regions include Africa, Asia and West Indies. Hence, we refer to
Nigerian English, Indian English, Singapore English, Ghanian English, and so forth.

Here are few characteristics of British and American English:

1. Differences in Phonetics
i. Received Pronunciation is peculiar to British English and General American is the
pronunciation recognized in American English. Within the American English
variety, we have Eastern American variety, Southern American variety, in addition
to the General American variety. The British English variety has Cockney spoken
in London; Geordie, spoken in New Castle; and Scouse, spoken in Liverpool.
ii. Differences in individual sounds. In the pronunciation of the vowels of dance, fast
and glassAmericans pronounce these words with a sound /æ/ as in cat. In contrast,
British people will pronounce these words as /da:ns/, /fa:st/ and /gla:s/.

Secondly, another noticeable difference can be found in the pronunciation of words like for, door
and car. In
America, these words are pronounced with r sound as a fricative, whereas in England it is silent
except in
expressions like far away and the door opens when a linking r is naturally inserted.
Thirdly, Americans pronounce words like dock, fog and hot with a low backsound /a/ like the
vowel sound in car
and father shortened. On the contrary, British people will pronounce it as /ɔ/ sound.
Fourthly, in American English, words like dew, duke and new with the /ju:/ sound reduced to /u:/.
Finally, in American English, people traditionally speak out every syllable. However, in British
English, people tend to omit some of the syllables. One case is that words ending with–ary or–
ory in American English are pronounced as four-syllabled words, whereas in British English are
pronounced as three-syllabled words.
iii. 3 Differences in Stress
It may be noted that word-stress is weaker in American English than in British English.
Consequently, American speech is more monotonous, but at the same time is generally more
distinct.
American English tends to put the stress on the first syllable but also puts a secondary stress on
the later syllable and pronounces the remaining syllable more distinctly.
iv. Differences in vocabulary. Firstly, words ending with–er in American English have the ending
as–re in British English. For example, in
British English, theatre, centre, metre, fibre, litre are spelled as theater, center, meter, fiber, liter
in American
English. Several other examples abound: lift, tap, and flat (BrE), as against elevator, faucet,
and apartment (AmE).
v. In grammar, the differences between BrE and AmE verb usage. In British English the verb get
has its past participle got, while American English speakers use gotten as its past q1
participle. For example:
I wish I could have gotten here sooner. (AmE)
I wish I could have got here sooner. (BrE)
Another difference in grammar is in the use of relative clause marker. In American English,
people tend to use the word that, for example:
I saw the man that arrived from Italy yesterday.
That refers to the man who arrived from Italy yesterday. In varieties of British English, it’s not
unusual to find that
replaced by which. For example:
Please hand me the coffee cup, which is over to the left side of the table.
Or: Please hand me the coffee cup to the left side of the table. (with no marker at all )
lso, in grammar, there is a noticeable difference in the Use of Preposition and Article.
In American English, people generally do not use the preposition on before a day of the week or
a specific date. in British English people do use it. For example:
She started her vocation Monday. (AmE)
She started her vocation on Monday. (BrE)
On the contrary, Americans tend to use the definite article “the
more often than in British English.
The patient was in the hospital. (AmE)
The patient was in hospital. (BrE)

We shall now discuss the Nigerian English as a variety of world Englishes.

NIGERIAN ENGLISH
English, due to its long stay in Nigeria, has been adopted and appropriated by Nigerians and is
used as the language of education and made to fulfill all the roles normally reserved for the
mother tongue. This has made most Nigerian families to force their children to acquire English
as their first, second and foreign language. In such families, it is a serious offence for such
children to speak any of the indigenous languages. English Language which came into Nigeria
during the colonial era is no longer the same. It has lost a measure of its foreignness which led to
the birth of another form of English that is widely acclaimed and popularly called Nigerian
English (NE). According to Eka (2000: 15), it is that variety of world Englishes learnt, spoken
and/or written by Nigerians who are born and/or brought up within the Nigerian environment.
Adegbija (2004: 20) referred to this process of rebirth of English to suit the Nigerian
environment as “domestication of English in Nigeria”. In his words, “the term “domestication”,
in the context of English in Nigeria, connotes “home – grown”, “made native”, “adapted and
tamed” to suit the Nigerian environment”. Udofot traced the reason for the Nigerianization of the
English Language to its co-existence with over 400 local languages in Nigeria as well as its use
for expressing Nigerian experiences and situations (2000: 7). Also Bamgbose (1995: 26) has
earlier observed that, “The English Language has been pidginized, nativized, acculturated and
twisted to express unaccustomed concepts and modes of interaction”. From the foregoing, we
can safely say that Nigerian English has a robust history as there have been many analytical
studies to synthesize its phonology, lexis, semantics, syntax and communicative form. This new
form of English is widely accepted and has developed features which distinguish it as an
identifiable and legitimate subset of world Englishes.

Due to agelong coexistence of the English Language, which acts as a second language, with over
400 Nigerian languages, it is expected to see varieties of NE evolve, reflecting the cultural and
linguistic peculiarities of the various geographical regions in Nigerian. Hence, “it is an
established language and communication truth that whenever a language leaves its original home
and settles down in another geographical region, it must acquire the local colour of its new
environment”. Eka (2000:70)
This regional differences in the Nigerian English has attracted the attention of a number of
linguists who have attempted classifying the varieties of Nigerian English. On the spoken
Nigerian English aspect, Bamgbose (1982, 1995), Eka (1985, 1993, 2000), Udofot (1997, 2002,
2003, 2004, 2007), agreed with Banjo (1996) who based his classification on formal education.
He classified spoken Nigerian English into four varieties:
1. Variety one is spoken by people with elementary school education and semi-
literate people. It is marked by a high rate of negative transfer from the
phonological system of the mother tongue and so it is not acceptable even by
Nigerians.
2. Variety two is spoken by post primary school leavers. In this variety mother
tongue interference is minimal but the speakers do not make vital phonemic
distinctions. The brand is largely intelligible and nationally acceptable.
3. Variety three is associated with university education. The speakers make vital
phonemic distinctions and the variety is accepted and understood nationally
and internationally.
4. Variety four is described as being identical with standard British English but is
ridiculed in Nigeria for being artificial.
EXAMPLES OF FEATURES OF NIGERIAN ENGLISH
Phonology
#reduced vowel system: there is no distinction between vowels /i:/ and /i/ in Nigerian English
such that the words beat /bi:t/ and bit /bit/ are both realized as [bit].\
#monothongisation of diphthongs and triphthong e.g. away is produced as /dwei /by native
speakers but as [dwe] or [e`we] in Nigerian English. (iii) word final consonants are often
devoiced as in was /wdz/ produced as [was] (vi) the dental fricatives /θ, d/ are often pronounced
as/d/ in such words as thank, smooth, father and mother.
#(iii) word final consonants are often devoiced as in was /wdz/ produced as [was] (vi) the dental
fricatives /θ, d/ are often pronounced as/d/ in such words as thank, smooth, father and mother.
#substitution of unfamiliar English sounds with indigenous sounds
# replacement of stress by tone
Lexical
Coinages and Neologisms: This is a situation where entirely new terms are created for new
experiences. Examples are: been to, bush meat, cash madam, go-slow, junior brother, co-wife.
(ii) Hybridisation: (e.g., kiakia bus, bukateria,). Here, there is a combination of a word or sense
of a word in the indigenous language with a word or sense of a word in English. (iii)
Analogisation: This is the formation of words on the basis of the pattern of an existing word or
pattern in English. Example of such words formation include: invitee, decampee, arrangee,
conferee, etc. (iv) Direct Translation or Transliteration from Mother Tongue: This is a very
significant feature of Nigerian English. This entails the creation of new structures with words
that are obviously English lexis but are direct translation from indigenous languages. Examples
include: goat head, long leg, cow leg, bush meat. (v) Transfer: This, according to Adegbija has to
do with the transfer “of culture, sense or meaning from the native language into English, or
reinterpretation or extension of an existing meaning in English to cover new areas of experience
in Nigerian English”.
Grammatical
Transliteration how’s your body
Semantic
‘area boys’ (a group of miscreants), ‘four-one-nine’ (a dupe), ‘money-doubler’ (one who
dupes people of their money by promising them that he possesses the power to multiply their
money), ‘second burial’ (the more elaborate performance and celebration of the funeral rites of
the dead).

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND SOCIAL VARIABLES

Variations abound in the use of the English Language in diverse sociocultural contexts due to the
interactions between English and certain social factors. This interplay sheds light on the ways in
which language reflects and shapes social identity, power dynamics, and interpersonal
communication within communities around the world.

 Socioeconomic Status (SES): Social class can influence the vocabulary and pronunciation
patterns used by individuals. Higher social classes may use more prestigious or standardized
forms of English, while lower social classes may employ regional dialects, slang, or non-
standard pronunciation. For example, differences in pronunciation of certain words or usage of
specific terms can be markers of social class identity. Socioeconomic status significantly impacts
language use and proficiency. Individuals from higher socioeconomic backgrounds often have
greater access to educational resources, leading to more proficient English skills. Conversely,
individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may face barriers to language acquisition
and proficiency due to limited access to quality education and language-learning opportunities.

 Education Level: Education plays a crucial role in shaping language skills and usage
patterns. Higher levels of education are associated with greater proficiency in English, as well as
exposure to formal language instruction, academic vocabulary, and literary texts. Education also
influences individuals' ability to navigate complex linguistic registers and genres.

 Age: Age influences language acquisition, use, and change. Younger generations may adopt
new linguistic trends, vocabulary, and slang more readily, contributing to language evolution.
Conversely, older generations may preserve traditional language norms and dialects, reflecting
linguistic heritage and identity.

 Gender: Gender affects language use in terms of vocabulary choice, speech patterns, and
communication styles. Sociolinguistic research has identified differences in male and female
language usage, such as conversational strategies, politeness norms, and linguistic features
associated with gender identity.

 Ethnicity and Cultural Background: Ethnicity and cultural background shape individuals'
language attitudes, dialectal variations, and linguistic identity. Multicultural societies exhibit
linguistic diversity, with speakers from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds contributing to
language contact, hybridization, and code-switching.
 Urban vs. Rural Environments: Urban and rural environments present distinct linguistic
contexts characterized by factors such as population density, social mobility, and community
cohesion. Urban areas often exhibit greater linguistic diversity and language contact, while rural
areas may preserve traditional dialects and speech patterns.

 Media and Technology: Media platforms, digital communication tools, and technological
innovations influence language usage patterns and communication norms. Social media, for
example, facilitates rapid dissemination of linguistic innovations, memes, and online
communities, shaping language trends and internet vernaculars.

 Migration and Globalization: Migration flows, globalization, and transnational mobility

contribute to linguistic diversity, language contact, and language diffusion across borders.
English serves as a global lingua franca, enabling communication among speakers from diverse
linguistic backgrounds and facilitating cross-cultural exchange.

In sum, the English language interacts with a multitude of social variables, which are factors that
influence its usage, evolution, and perception within diverse communities.