CHAPTER 2: POWER SERIES

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this chapter students will be able to

1. Use polynomial to approximate the values of some functions which have no
exact values.
2. Derive the Power series representation of a given function.
3. Determine the Power series representation of a given function.
4. Derive Taylor series representation of a given function.
5. Determine the Taylor series representation of a given function.
6. Determine thee intervals of convergence of a power series.
7. Differentiate and integrate a power series.
8. Determine the power series representation of a function using the properties
of derivatives and integrals of power series
9. Determine the Fourier series representations of functions.
10. Use Fourier series expansion to obtain the sum of an infinite series.
1
 POLYNOMIAL APPROXIMATION
Suppose f is defined at x = a and in the neighborhood of a that is for values of x near x = a,
𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓 𝑎
′
𝑓 𝑎 ≈  𝑓 𝑥 ≈ 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 ′ 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 − 𝑎 … 1
𝑥−𝑎
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐0 = 𝑓 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐1 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑎

Eq. 1 is the linear approximation of the function f near x = a.

Let , 𝑝1 𝑎 = 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 ′ 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎 , then we will have the following relations hold.
𝑝1 𝑎 = 𝑓 𝑎 and 𝑝1 ′ 𝑎 = 𝑓′ 𝑎 … (2)
The above relation can be generalized on the basic assumption that the approximation becomes
better and better as we proceed to higher degree polynomials such as quadratic, cubic, and etc.

2
Table 1: The approximated values of f(x) = ln x near x = 1 using
polynomial approximations
Taylor Polynomial Function Value at x = 1.1

𝑝1 = 1−𝑥 −0.1

𝑝2 = −1.5 + 2𝑥 − 0.5𝑥2 0.0950

𝑝3 = −1.8333+ 3𝑥 − 1.5𝑥2 + 0.3333𝑥3 0.0953223

𝑝4 = −2.0833+ 4𝑥 − 3𝑥2 + 1.3333𝑥3 − 0.25𝑥4 0.0952973

3
Now, we may generalize Eq. 2 for the nth degree polynomial

2 3 𝑛
𝑝𝑛 𝑎 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 − 𝑎 + 𝑐2 𝑥 − 𝑎 + 𝑐3 𝑥 − 𝑎 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑎 … 3
𝑝1 𝑎 = 𝑓 𝑎
𝑝1 ′ 𝑎 = 𝑓′ 𝑎
𝑝1′′ (𝑎) = 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎)
. … (4)
.
.
𝑛
𝑝1 (𝑎) = 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)

Since we have n +1 coefficients 𝑐0 , 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , … , 𝑐𝑛 and n + 1 equations (Eq. 4), we can obtain each
coefficients. Finally we obtain the Taylor polynomial

𝑛
𝑓 (𝑘) (𝑎) 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑘
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑘!
𝑘=0

4
 𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒔
Consider the following example series:
𝑛 𝑘
2
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑘!
𝑘=0

• What does our intuition tell us about the convergence or divergence of this series?
• What test should we use to confirm our intuition?

5
Power Series

Now we consider a whole family of similar series:

 2
k

 1  4  1
k  k
   
2k 214k
   k!  
k 0 k !
k 0 k ! k 0 k! k 0 k 0 k!
•What about the convergence or divergence of these 
xk
series? 
k 0 k !
•What test should we use to confirm our intuition?

We should use the ratio test; furthermore, we can

use the similarity between the series to test them
all at once.
6
How does it go? We start by setting up the appropriate limit.
Why the absolute values?
k 1 Why on the x’s and not elsewhere?
x
k 1

lim
 k  1!  lim
x k!
 lim
x
0
k 
x
k k 
x
k
 k  1! k  k  1
k!

Since the limit is 0 which is less than 1, the ratio test tells us
that the series 
xk
 k!
k 0

converges absolutely for all values of x.


xk
The series  is an example of a power series.
k 0 k !

7
What are Power Series?
It’s convenient to think of a power series as an infinite
polynomial:

Polynomials:
2  x  3x 2  12 x5
1  ( x  1)  3( x  1)2  1  4 ( x  1)3
Power Series:

1  2 x  3x 2  4 x3  5 x 4    (k  1) x k
k 0

 x  3  x  3  x  3  x  3  1  x  3
2 3 4  k k

1     
3! 5! 7! 9! k 0  2k  1!
8
Definition: Power Series
An expression of the form
∞

𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥 2 + 𝑐3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ = 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
𝑛=0

is a power series centered at x = 0 and an expression of the form

𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥 2 + 𝑐3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ = 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
𝑛=0

𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎.

9
 Checking for Convergence
I should use the ratio
test. It is the test of
choice when testing for
convergence of power
series!

10
 Checking for Convergence

Example 1: Checking on the convergence of


1  2 x  3x 2  4 x3  5 x 4    (k  1) x k
k 0

We start by setting up the appropriate limit.

k 1
(k  2) x (k  2) x
lim  lim  x
k  ( k  1)
(k  1) x
k  k

The ratio test says that the

series converges provided
that this limit is less than 1.
11
That is, when |x|<1.
 Example 2: What about the convergence of
 x  3  x  3  x  3  x  3  1  x  3
2 3 4  k k

1      ?
3! 5! 7! 9! k 0  2k  1!
We start by setting up the ratio test limit.
k 1
x3 k 1
 2(k  1)  1! x3 (2k  1)!
lim  lim (2k  3)!
x3
k  k
x3
k  k

 2k  1! x  3 1  2  3  4   2k  1 2k  (2k  1) 

 lim
k 
1  2  3  4   2k  1 2k  (2k  1)  2k  2  2k  3 
x3
 lim
k   2k  2  2k  3  Since the limit is 0 (which is
less than 1), the ratio test says
0 that the series converges
12 absolutely for all x.
Now you work out the convergence of
 x  3  x  3  x  3  x  3  1  x  3
2 3 4  k k

1     
3 5 7 9 k 0  2k  1

Don’t forget those

absolute values!

13
 Now you work out the convergence of
 x  3  x  3  x  3  x  3  1  x  3
2 3 4  k k

1     
3 5 7 9 k 0  2k  1
We start by setting up the ratio test limit.
k 1
x3
k 1
 2(k  1)  1 x3 (2k  1) (2k  1)
lim  lim  x  3 lim  x3
k 
x3
k k 
x3
k
(2k  3) k  (2k  3)
 2k  1 What does this tell us?

•The power series converges absolutely when |x+3|<1.

•The power series diverges when |x+3|>1.
•The ratio test is inconclusive for x = -4 and x = -2. (Test these
separately… what happens?)
14
 Interval of Convergence of a power series
Definition: The set of all real numbers x for which a
power series converges is said to be the interval of
convergence.

A power series can have the following intervals of

convergence.
1) (-r, r), [-r, r), (-r, r], or [-r, r]. Here the radius of
convergence is r.
2) (-, ). Here the radius of convergence is .
3) At a single point x = a. Here the radius of
convergence is 0.

15
Example 3: Find the interval and radius of convergence of the following power series.
∞

1. 𝑛! 𝑥 − 2 𝑛
𝑛=0

𝑛
𝑎𝑛+1
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛! 𝑥 − 2 ,𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim = lim 𝑛 + 1 𝑥 − 2
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞

By the ratio test, the series converges when lim𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 1 𝑥 − 2 < 1  𝑥 − 2 = 0 𝑥 = 2.

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑥 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑅 = 0

16
 ∞ 𝑛
𝑥−3
2.
𝑛2𝑛
𝑛=0

𝑥−3 𝑛 𝑎𝑛+1 𝑛 𝑥−3

𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛 = , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim = lim
𝑛2𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 1 2
𝑥−3
𝐵𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 < 1  𝑥 − 3 < 2 1 < 𝑥 < 5.
2

In addition to this, we tested for convergence at the end points as follows:

∞ 𝑛
−1
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 1, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡.
𝑛
𝑛=0
∞
1
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 5, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑃 − 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡.
𝑛
𝑛=0
5−1
Therefore, the interval of convergence is (1, 5] and the radius of convergence is 2
= 2.

17
 ∞
𝑥−4 𝑛
3.
𝑛 2 2𝑛
𝑛=0

𝑥−4 𝑛 𝑛 𝑥−4 𝑥−4

𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛 = 2 𝑛 ,𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim 𝑎𝑛 = lim 2 =
𝑛2 𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 2
2𝑛𝑛
𝑥−4
𝐵𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡,𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 < 1  𝑥 − 4 < 2 2 < 𝑥 < 6.
2
−1 𝑛
∞ ∞ 1
At the end points we get the series 𝑛=0 𝑛 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛=0 𝑛 2 which are both divergent.

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒,𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 (2,6) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 2.

18
 ∞
𝑥𝑛
4.
ln𝑛 𝑛
𝑛=0

𝑥𝑛 𝑛 𝑥
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛 ,𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim 𝑎𝑛 = lim = 0
ln𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ ln𝑛

𝐵𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡,𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 −∞,∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑖𝑠 𝑅 = ∞.
Exercises: Find the interval and radius of convergence of the following power series.
∞ 𝑛 𝑛+1 ∞ ∞ 𝑛 3𝑛
3𝑥 5 𝑥 − 1
1. 𝑛+3
2) 𝑛! 3𝑥 + 1 𝑛 3)
𝑛2 3𝑛 + 1 !
𝑛=0 𝑛=0 𝑛=0
19
Convergence of Power Series

What patterns can we see? What conclusions can we draw?

When we apply the ratio test, the limit will always be
either 0 or some positive number times |x-x0|. (Actually,
it could be , too. What would this mean?)
•If the limit is 0, the ratio test tells us that the
power series converges absolutely for all x.

•If the limit is k|x-x0|, the ratio test tells us

that the series converges absolutely when What does
k|x-x0|<1. It diverges when k|x-x0|>1. It fails this tell us?
to tell us anything if k|x-x0|=1.

20
Suppose that the limit given by the ratio test is k | x - x0 | .

We need to consider separately the cases when

• k |x-x0| < 1 (the ratio test guarantees convergence),

• k |x-x0| > 1 (the ratio test guarantees divergence), and
• k |x-x0| = 1 (the ratio test is inconclusive).
Recall that k  0 !
This means that . . .

1
when | x - x0 |  the series converges absolutely.
k
1
when | x - x0 |  the series diverges.
k
1
21 when | x - x0 |  we don't know.
k
Recapping

1
when | x - x0 |  the series converges absolutely.
k
1
when | x - x0 |  the series diverges.
k Must test
1 endpoints
when | x - x0 |  we don't know. separately!
k

1
x0  1 x0 x0 
k k
22
Conclusions


Theorem: If we have a power series  n  n

a ( x x0 ) ,
n 0

• It may converge only at x=x0. Radius of

convergence is 0

x0 Radius of conv. is
•It may converge for all x.
infinite.
•It may converge on a finite interval centered at x=x0.

Radius of conv. is
R.
x0  R x0 x0  R

23
 Additional Exercises

24
25
26
27
POWER SERIES

28
29
30
31
 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎:𝑫𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑺𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔
∞

𝐼𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑛 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅 > 0,𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ

𝑛=0

𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑎 − 𝑅,𝑎 + 𝑅 ,𝑎𝑛𝑑

∞ ∞ ∞
′
𝑑 𝑛
𝑑
1) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑎 = 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑐𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛=0 𝑛=1 𝑛=1
∞ ∞ ∞
𝑐𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑛+1
2) 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑛+1
𝑛=0 𝑛=0 𝑛=0

32
 ∞
𝑥𝑛
𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑙𝑒 1: 𝐼𝑓 , 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 .
𝑛!
𝑛=0

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
′
𝑑 𝑥𝑛 𝑑 𝑥𝑛 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑥𝑛
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: 𝑓 (𝑥) = = = = = = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑛! 𝑑𝑥 𝑛! 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)! (𝑛 − 1)! 𝑛!
𝑛=0 𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=0

33
 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒:𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠.
𝑥
3
1+𝑥
𝑎)ln 1 + 𝑥 𝑏) 2
𝑐) 𝑙𝑛
(2 − 𝑥) 1−𝑥
𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑥 ∞
3
3𝑥 2
1 2
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎): ln 1 + 𝑥 = 3
𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑥 3)
𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑥 −𝑥 3𝑛 𝑑𝑥
0 1 + 𝑥 0 1 − (−𝑥 0 𝑛=0
𝑥 ∞ 𝑥 ∞
= 3𝑥2 −1 𝑛 𝑥 3𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 3 −1 𝑛 𝑥 3𝑛+2 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑛=0 0 𝑛=0
∞ 𝑥 ∞ 3𝑛+3
𝑥
=3 −1 𝑛 𝑥 3𝑛+2 𝑑𝑥 = −1 𝑛
𝑛+1
𝑛=0 0 𝑛=0

34
 ∞ ∞ 𝑛
𝑥 𝑑 1 𝑥𝑑 1 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑 𝑥
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏): 2
=𝑥 = 𝑥 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 2 =
(2 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 1 − 2 𝑑𝑥 2 2 𝑑𝑥 2
2 𝑛=0 𝑛=1
∞ ∞ ∞
𝑥 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑛𝑥 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑛𝑥𝑛
= = = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 2
2 22 22 2 22
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1

35
 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 ∞ 𝑥 ∞
1+𝑥 1 1
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐): 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 1
1−𝑥 0 1+𝑥 0 1−𝑥 0 𝑛=0 0 𝑛=0
∞ 𝑥 ∞ 𝑥 ∞ 𝑛+1 ∞ 𝑛+1
𝑥 𝑥
= −𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = −1 𝑛
+
𝑛+1 𝑛+1
𝑛=0 0 𝑛=0 0 𝑛=0 𝑛=0

36
Problems: Find the power series representation of the following functions.
−1
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑥+1
𝑎) 𝑏) 2
𝑥 𝑥 −5𝑥+6
Exercise: Evaluate the indefinite integral as a power series.
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 ln⁡(1−𝑥)
𝑎) 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥
0 1−𝑥 0 𝑥

37
 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 :𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 ℎ𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑎,𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠
∞ 𝑛
𝑓 𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑛
𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 .
𝑛!
𝑛=0
∞
𝑓 𝑛 𝑎 𝑥𝑛
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡:𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 = 0,𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑛!
𝑛=0

𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠.

38
𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 1: 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓 𝑥 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡.

𝑎) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 − 3𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 , 𝑎 = 2. 𝑏) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛𝑥, 𝑎 = 1
∞ 𝑛 𝑛
𝑓 2 𝑥−2
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎):
𝑛!
𝑛=0
0 0 1
𝑓 2 𝑥−2 𝑓 2 𝑥−2 1 𝑓 2
2 𝑥−2 2
𝑓 3
2 𝑥−2 𝑛
= + + +
0! 1! 2! 3!
4 𝑛
𝑓 2 𝑥−2 2
+ + ⋯ = 16 + 17 𝑥 − 2 + 10 𝑥 − 2
4!

1 1 2 6 24
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏): 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = , 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = − 2 , 𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥 = 3 , 𝑓 4
𝑥 =− ,𝑓 5
𝑥 = ,…
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥4 𝑥5
𝑛+1 𝑛+1
−1 𝑛−1 ! −1 𝑛−1 !
𝑓 𝑛
𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑛
2 =
𝑥𝑛 2𝑛
𝑛+1
∞ −1 𝑛−1 ! 𝑛 𝑛 ∞
𝑓 2 𝑥−2 (−1)𝑛+1 𝑥 − 2 𝑛
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑛 =
𝑛! 𝑛2𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

39
𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 2:𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓 𝑥 .

𝑎) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0.

∞ 𝑛 𝑛 ∞ 𝑛 𝑛
𝑓 0𝑥 𝑘𝑥
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑒  𝑓 0 = 𝑘  𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑛 𝑛 𝑘𝑥 𝑛 𝑛
=
𝑛! 𝑛!
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
∞ 𝑛 ∞ 𝑛 ∞ 𝑛+𝑚
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡:𝑎) 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑘 = 1,𝑒 =𝑥
𝑏) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚 ∈ ,𝑥 𝑒 = 𝑥
𝑚 𝑥 𝑚
=
𝑛! 𝑛! 𝑛!
𝑛=0 𝑛=0 𝑛=0

40
 𝑏) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
1,𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 = 0,4,8,…
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑓 𝑛 0 = 0,𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 = 1,3,5,…
−1,𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 = 2,6,10,…
∞ 𝑛 𝑛 2 4 6 8 ∞
𝑓 0𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 −1 𝑛 𝑥2𝑛
𝑓 𝑥 = =1− + − + +⋯=
𝑛! 2! 4! 6! 8! 2𝑛 !
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
∞
2
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 1 1 −1 𝑛 2𝑥 2𝑛
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡: 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = + = +
2 2 2 2 2𝑛 !
𝑛=0

41
 𝑬𝒙𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒔
1.𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠.
𝑎) 𝑓 𝑥 = 5+2𝑥 −3𝑥2 ,𝑎 = 1. 𝑏) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑥,𝑎 = 2 𝑐) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2𝑒𝑥
2.𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓 𝑥 .
𝑒𝑥
𝑎) 𝑓 𝑥 = 3 𝑏) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 𝑐) 𝑓 𝑥 = 1+2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
𝑥

42
 The Fourier Series of a function

43
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