UNIT 5 LEARNER AND LEARNING *

Learner and Learning

Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 What is Learning?
5.3.1 Behaviourist School of Thought
5.3.2 Cognitivist School of Thought
5.3.3 Constructivist School of Thought
5.4 Nature of Learning
5.5 Child Development and Learning: Implications for Curriculum and
Practice
5.6 How do Children Learn and their Learning Styles
5.6.1 Learning through Imitation
5.6.2 Learning through Observation
5.6.3 Learning through Listening
5.6.4 Learning through Trial and Error
5.6.5 Learning through Experimentation
5.6.6 Learning through Reflection
5.6.7 Learning Styles
5.7 Factors Influencing Learning
5.7.1 Aptitude
5.7.2 Attitude
5.7.3 Concentration
5.7.4 Motivation
5.7.5 Intelligence
5.7.6 Readiness to Learn
5.8 Multiple Intelligence
5.9 Types of Learning
5.9.1 Signal Learning
5.9.2 Stimulus Response Learning
5.9.3 Chain Learning
5.9.4 Verbal Association Learning
5.9.5 Discrimination Learning
5.9.6 Concept Learning
5.9.7 Rule Learning
5.9.8 Problem Solving
5.10 Let Us Sum Up

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Prof. K.S. Joseph & Dr. Elizabeth Kuruwilla 95
Teaching and 5.11 Unit- End Exercises Teaching and
Learning Learning
5.12 References and Suggested Readings
5.13 Answers to Check Your Progress

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Learning is an essential ingredient of meaningful and effective life. It can
open up the doors of opportunities and successful life. In the absence of
required level of learning, chances for success and development can be few.
As we know, none of us is born with all the knowledge and skills that now
we have. At the time of birth, we had only a few traits and impulses.
However, as we began to interact with our environment with the help of
these, we gradually began to construct very simple concepts and skills. As
time passed, we went on growing physically and developing intellectually. If
we go on learning on our own, it would take a long time to build up all what
we require. So to facilitate learning, society has set up schools and appointed
teachers to help us learn. As a student of education discipline, you ought to
know what learning is, how learners learn and what nature of learning is. In
this Unit, you will come to know how child development and learning are
related, and the implications of curriculum and practice. In addition to the
above, you should also study how children learn, their learning styles and the
factors that enhance learning.

5.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:

• define learning;
• explain the process of learning as construction of knowledge and skills;
• spell out the characteristics of learning;
• explain how child development and learning are related;
• highlight the implications of curriculum, practice, and rehearsal of
learning;
• explain briefly the different ways through which children generally learn
and their learning style;
• elucidate the various factors that influence learning;
• illustrate the concept of multiple intelligence; and
• explain the various types of learning.

5.3 WHAT IS LEARNING?

If we look at the concept of learning from its historical perspective, we can
easily notice that its meaning has been steadily changing over the last
hundred and twenty-five years or so. These changes have mainly happened
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under threestages namely, (i) the behaviourist school of thought, (ii) the Learner and Learning

cognitivist school of thought, (iii) the constructivist school of thought,

respectively. As these stages are important milestones in the development of
the concept of learning, they need to be explained briefly.

5.3.1 Behaviourist School of Thought

The scholars who lived from about 1900 to almost 1950 mostly belonged to
this school of thought. The behaviourists, in their attempt at making
psychology a science, gave importance to those behaviours that can be
observed and measured. They considered learning to be nothing but a
response strengthening process. When learners responded to the questions
correctly, if they were reinforced, their responses would get strengthened. So
behaviourists considered learning as a response strengthening process.

5.3.2 Cognitivist School of Thought

As the behaviourists did not pay any attention to the inner processes
involving learning and paid attention only on observable aspects, a new
school of thought known as cognitivist school of thought came up. The
cognitivists believed that every discipline has a structure and when large unit
of knowledge is broken up into smaller ones and presented logically through
lecture or demonstration, learners would acquire knowledge and skills easily.
So they believed that learning is nothing but acquisition of knowledge and
skills.

5.3.3 Constructivist School of Thought

It is a new school of thought that came up during the 1980s. The
constructivists believe that learning is not as passive as the cognitivists
thought. They began to consider learning as personal and that everyone
constructs his or her own knowledge and skills as a result of integration of
the present knowledge with their prior knowledge.

As we can see, learning is a process that involves a series of actions that lead
to some output. Our five senses take information from the environment. It
enters the brain as streams of chemical impulses. The brain analyzes the
information, retains the relevant and rejects the irrelevant. The retained
information is sent to the working memory where the new information and
the relevant aspects of prior knowledge that is already stored in the memory
get integrated. As a result, new knowledge and skills are constructed. Hence,
constructivists believe that learning is nothing but construction of knowledge
and skills.

As our discussion above, points out that the concept of learning has been
steadily undergoing conceptual changes over the years. Most scholars today
believe that learning is a relatively permanent change in an individual’s
potential behaviour as a result of integration of the knowledge that he or she
has presently gained with that which was stored in the memory. As a result,
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behaviour is modified either by the addition of new and different information
Learning Learning
and capabilities or by the extension and enhancement of those that an
individual already possessed. These changes that have taken place as a result
of learning get exhibited in the cognitive structure of the learners by way of
cognitive growth, development of newer life skills, methodological skills,
attitudes and interests. Thus, the new knowledge that the learner has
constructed, depending on their nature, can belong to the cognitive domain,
affective domain or the psychomotor domain.

Check Your Progress 1

Notes: (a) Write your answers in the space provided after each item.
(b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) Why did the behaviourists focus only on behaviours that could be
observed and measured?
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2) What according to the behaviourists is learning?
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3) What is learning in terms of cognitive perspective?
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4) What according to the constructivists is learning?
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Learner and Learning Learner and Learning
5.4 NATURE OF LEARNING
We have, by now seen what learning is. Now let us briefly look at the nature
of learning. As in the case of any other process, learning is also marked by
certain characteristics. As students of education, it would be advantageous for
you, to know what they are. Some of these characteristics are as follows:

a) Learning is a very complex process. It involves all sorts of things such as

knowledge, skills, insights, values, and even habits.
b) Learning can be active as well as passive. It is active when you are
actively involved in the process of learning. It is passive when you are
not actively involved just as when you learn by listening to a lecture or
watching a demonstration.
c) All learning involves some sort of processing of information. It involves
a series of activities such as analyzing, synthesizing, evaluation, etc. In
the absence of processing, there can be no learning.
d) Learning can be triggered by experiences, intense desire for
accomplishing something worthwhile, failures and successes.
e) Learning can result in the construction of new knowledge or
incrementally adding to what has been learned previously.
f) Learning can be planned or unplanned.
g) Outcome of learning can be something desirable or even undesirable.
h) Learning can be done individually or collectively.
i) Learning is lifelong. It begins from the time of birth and continues till we
die.
j) Learning is not a matter of adornment, as it was often thought in the past.
It is a matter of sheer necessity.

Learning, as the above list indicates, is multifaceted. It is complex. It can be

incremental, cumulative or even transformational. It is not a matter of
adornment but a sheer necessity. We need to learn or else we will perish.

Check Your Progress 2

Notes: (a) Write your answers in the space provided after each item.
(b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) Why do we say that learning is a very complex process?
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Learning
2) Why is learning from lectures and demonstration considered to be
Learning
passive?
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5.5 CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING:

IMPLICATIONS FOR CURRICULUM AND
PRACTICE
We have by now, discussed at some length the concept of learning and its
characteristics. Let us now deliberate a bit on the topic of child development
and learning. Child development refers to a field of study that deals with
different aspects of human development and change from conception through
adolescence. It focuses on growth, rate of change and social interaction in the
family and among peers. Although a few studies have been carried out in the
area, that of Piaget seems to be more appropriate as far as child development
and learning are concerned.

After having studied elaborately how infants and children develop

cognitively, Piaget noted that they develop in four stages, namely, (i)
sensory-motor stage, (ii) pre-operational stage, (iii) concrete operational
stage, and (iv) formal operational stage. He argued that all people,
irrespective of race and nationality, pass through the same stages in exactly
the same order. These stages are generally associated with specific ages.
Let’s now take up each of these stages and see how they develop from
infancy through adolescence.

i) Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)

This stretches out from 0-2 years of ages. This stage is concerned with
senses such as seeing, hearing, tasting and the motor activity. Hence, it is
called sensorimotor stage. Making use of their senses and movement,
infants develop some capacity for imitation, memory and thought.
Infants begin to recognize that objects do not cease to exist when they
are hidden. The organized way of making sense of experience (scheme)
of a 6 month old baby catching sight, grasping and dropping an object is
rigid. However, by 16 months, its dropping scheme becomes more
deliberate and creative.

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Learner and
ii)Learning
Pre-operational Stage (2 to 7) Learner and Learning

This stage refers to the phase before a child masters logical mental
operations. At this stage, children gradually develop the use of language
and ability to think in terms of symbols. They are able to think
operations through logically in one direction. Children begin to use
symbols such as words, gestures, signals, images, etc. to represent
actions or objects mentally. For example, the word “bicycle” can create
an image of it even when it is absent. The stage thus sees change from
sensorimotor to representational schemes through direct interaction with
the environment. This process is called adaptation.

Adaptation involves two complementary activities, namely assimilation

and accommodation. Assimilation involves fitting new information to
existing schemes. Accommodation has to do with altering existing
schemes or creating new ones in response to new information. This stage
sees extraordinary increase in mental representation. However, their
thought processes are not logical. They are rigid, limited to one aspect of
the situation at a time and strongly influenced by the way things appear
at the moment.

Both teachers and parents concerned with learning of children should

realize that children at this stage need use of concrete props and visual
aids. They should make short instruction and use demonstrations, games,
and audio-visual aids wherever possible. In addition, they should be
given a lot of hands-on-experiences. Thus, in this stage, children should
be provided with a wide range of experiences in order to build a strong
foundation for concept learning and language.

iii) Concrete Operational stage (7-11 years)

This stage is a major turning point in children’s cognitive development.

As their thought processes are far more logical, flexible and organized,
their thoughts more closely resemble those of adults. They have ability to
arrange items along qualitative dimensions such as length and weight.
Children also have better understanding of spatial reasoning. However,
their thinking is logical only when it comes to matters that are concrete.
Their mental operations are poor when dealing with abstract things.

Children at this stage need continued use of props and visual aids
especially when dealing with matters that are more sophisticated.
Similarly, they use diagrams to illustrate hierarchical relationships such
as branches of government, etc. When explaining complex idea, use
familiar examples. Children should also be given opportunity to classify
objects and ideas on increasingly complex levels. They should also be
presented with problems that require logical and analytical thinking.

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Teaching and iv) Formal Operational stage (11 years to Adulthood) Teaching and
Learning Learning

The capacity for abstract thinking becomes full-fledged around age 11.
At this stage, they can think like scientist. Unlike a concrete, operational
child who can only operate “reality,” a formal operational adolescent can
“operate on operations”. Concrete things and events are no longer
required as objects of thought. Instead, adolescents can come up with
new and more general rules through reflection. Formal operations
involve mental tasks involving abstract thinking and coordination of
variables.

The formal operational adolescent can make use of charts, graphs and
diagrams. They should be given opportunity to solve problems and
reason scientifically. At this stage, teachers should give them opportunity
for exploring many hypothetical questions. Teachers should also resort to
active learning techniques and ask open ended questions rather than
convergent questions. In addition, teachers should give them opportunity
to put things in their own language, get them solve problems, discuss
with peers and others and apply knowledge in novel situations.

As our above discussion reveals, children move through four stages during
which the exploratory behaviour of the infants changed into abstract logical
intelligence of adolescents and adulthood. Piaget’s stage sequence has three
important features, namely:

i) It assumes that all aspects of cognition develop in an integrated fashion,

undergoing a similar course of change.
ii) The changes are invariant. It follows a fixed order and no stage can be
skipped.
iii) The stages are universal as children all over the world undergo the same
fixed order of cognitive development.

Implications of Piaget’s theory on Curriculum and Practice

Piaget’s theory advocates four main implications on the theory and practice
of education. His theories emphasized the notion of developmentally
appropriate curriculum in which the curriculum, context, resources, and
instruction are appropriate to the cognitive, affective and psycho-motor
domains of education. More than that, several theories of education has its
root in Piaget’s theory of education. The recent constructivist theory of
learning is indebted to Piaget’s contribution to education. The four main
teaching implications drawn from Piaget’s theory are as follows:

• Focus on children’s thinking process rather than on products:

Generally teachers focus on correct answers of students while giving
activities. According to Piaget, instead of correct answers, teachers
should appreciate the methods used by learners to arrive at particular
conclusions. Appropriate learning experiences should be provided
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Learner and Learning
according to the level of cognitive functioning of learners. Children Learner and Learning

profit from experience only when they can interpret this experience with
their cognitive structures.
• Active involvement of learners in the learning process: Piaget de-
emphasized rote memorization of learning and encouraged discovery
approach. In this approach, teachers provide activities that allow learners
to interact directly with the environment.
• De-emphasis on practices to make thinking process of children
similar to adult: In order to speed up development, some techniques
might be used to accelerate children’s progress through various stages
proposed by Piaget. Piagetian theory proposed that no teaching is better
than premature teaching because it imposes adult formulas upon children
instead of true cognitive understanding.
• Acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress:
Piaget’s theory assumes the same developmental stages for all children.
Children may do so but at different rates. Therefore, different small
group or individual activities must be given to children instead of the
whole class. Besides, while assessing children instead of using normative
standards of same age-peers, assessment should be made on previous
course of development of each child.
Check Your Progress 3
Notes: (a) Write your answers in the space provided after each item.
(b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) Define the following terms in a sentence each:
a) Child development
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b) Accommodation
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2) What are the implications of Piaget’s theory to curriculum and practice?
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Teaching and Teaching and
Learning 5.6 HOW DO CHILDREN LEARN AND THEIR
Learning
LEARNING STYLE
We have seen that learning is tentatively permanent changes in the behaviour
of the learners. It is a process of becoming different from what we were
earlier. We keep on learning something or other all the time when we are
awake and alert. Our sensory organs keep on capturing and passing on
information related to the things that receive our attention. It would be quite
beneficial to know the different ways through which children learn. In what
follows an attempt is made to describe some of all modalities children use for
learning.

5.6.1 Learning through Imitation

Imitation is one of several ways in which children learn. They generally
imitate their parents. Little girls take their mothers while little boys take their
fathers as role models. They also try to imitate their teachers in many ways.
Many of the skills they pick up are as a result of imitation. Not only children
but also even adults are often imitating others. Those who are not confident,
for example, are found looking for people who are confident. Once they find
one, they watch their behaviour very closely and try to act in the way they do.
In course of time, such people are found to be confident as a result of
imitating others.

5.6.2 Learning through observation

Observation is yet another way through which children learn. In schools,
teachers put up several experiments and demonstrations in the laboratory.
Children observe them very closely and learn. Similarly, children who want
to study the social behaviour of chimpanzees go to the forest where they are
found. They observe them as they play and take in details of their behaviour.
Thus observation is one of the very common ways of learning.

5.6.3 Learning through Listening

If you just look into the classrooms of even today, you can see that much of
the knowledge and skills students gain is through listening. Teacher talk is
the medium through which they generally teach. Students listen to them and
learn. They also listen to radio and other such media and learn. Most of the
learning that children do is through observation and listening.

5.6.4 Learning through Trial and Error

When an individual confronts a situation, if s/he is not sure as to how it can
be solved, s/he strives to find out all the possible ways through which the
problem can be solved. Then s/he examines all the options and chooses the
one that s/he thinks is the most appropriate. In case, it is not working, s/he

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would takeup the next item. The process continues until the problem is Learner and Learning

solved. This way of trial and error is another way to learn.

5.6.5 Learning through Experimentation

Carrying out an experiment is yet another way to learn. When you are in
doubt as to what the reality is, it is not always wise to rely on intuition and
guess work. Our guessing can often go wrong. Suppose you are a teacher,
you may think that your students are very happy with your ways of teaching
and evaluation. Our thinking may be different from the reality. In such cases,
if you wish to know the reality, it would be nice to carry out an experiment.
Conducting experiments is another way to learn.

5.6.6 Learning through Reflection

Once you have done an act, if you think that it is not up to the level of your
expectation, you can learn to do it better through reflection. You can coin a
few questions pertaining to the act such as “What was the purpose of the
action? Was it good enough to fulfil the objective? What went wrong? What
went right?” After having mentally recreated the action, you can make use of
such questions for reflection. As you do this, the insight you have gained will
enable you to come out with better performance when you do it again next
time.

As you have seen, there are several ways through which you can learn. When
it comes to learning, we should not think in terms of the best way but in
terms of the most appropriate one in the given situation. Our success in
learning depends to a great extent, on our ability to select the correct
alternative.

5.6.7 Learning Style

We have, by now, discussed some of the ways through which students learn.
However, it should be remembered that, although they use these methods
occasionally, every learner has his or her preferred style of learning. Some of
them prefer to learn by seeing. Such learners are called visual learners.
Some others prefer to learn through by listening. They are called auditory
learners. Yet some others prefer to learn through doing. They are called
kinesthetic learners or tactile learners. These are the three most widely
recognized categories of learning styles. Most people in the world are visual
learners. They use their sight to gather information. Visual learners fare well
in lessons with lots of written, pictorial, diagrammatic modes of presentation.

Unlike visual learners, auditory learners prefer to make use of spoken

explanations for learning. They make good use of their ability to listen. They
like to use technological aids such as voice recorders in the process of
learning. Kinesthetic or tactile learners, on the other hand, enjoy movement
and space. They enjoy hands-on activities, watch demonstrations of what
they need to do before trying themselves.
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Teaching and As noted above, every learner has his or her preferred style. One hasTeaching
to findand
Learning Learning
one’s preferred learning and use it for learning purpose. This is important, if
one is to make the most of his ability for learning. This will make learning
more easeful, efficient and effective.

Check Your Progress 4

Notes: (a) Write your answers in the space provided after each item.
(b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) Define the following terms in a sentence each:
a) Learning Style
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b) Auditory Learners
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c) Kinesthetic/Tactile Learners
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2) Why is it important to know about one’s own learning style?
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5.7 FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING

Learning well is not everyone’s cup of tea. Whether or not one can learn well
depends on a number of factors such as aptitude, attitude, concentration,
motivation, intelligence, readiness for learning, etc. If these qualities are
present in a person at the appropriate level, s/he will be able to learn well. Let
us take up some of these factors and discuss briefly what they are, and how
they can enhance the process of learning.

5.7.1 Aptitude
Aptitude refers to the potential of a learner to assimilate knowledge, skills or
understanding successfully. It is often used in relation to specific 109
areas of
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knowledge or skills such as science, arts, commerce, technology, etc. We Learner and Learning

often notice that some students take an aptitude test towards the end of Class
X before they select a particular stream of study. Such a test will help them
find the area of study in which they have natural inclination. In case they
happen to select the area as per their aptitude, it will help them learn with
ease and effectiveness.

5.7.2 Attitude
Attitude refers to a mental state that affects performance. Depending on
whether we have a positive or negative attitude towards learning, we may do
well or badly in our studies. If our attitude is positive it will provide us with
self-confidence, determination and ambition that help us avoid failure by
eliminating all negative thoughts. This will also help us build up a positive
belief in our ability to perform and willingness to take risks. So our attitude
towards learning is an important factor that decides whether we learn well or
not.

5.7.3 Concentration
Concentration has to do with the act of focusing our attention on learning. It
refers to our ability to think as we wish, control our thoughts and direct them
to a definite end. It refers to the ability to keep our mind on one subject until
we have thoroughly mastered it. When we listen to a lecture or read a book, if
we do not concentrate, we will fail to capture what is being presented. Only
when we concentrate, we will be able to perceive the ideas and arrange them
in their logical order and understand. In the absence of understanding, no true
learning can take place.

5.7.4 Motivation
Just like aptitude, attitude and concentration, motivation is another important
factor that can contribute to learning in a big way. A motive is something that
can make a person move to action. This driving force can be a need, a desire
for accomplishing something or an emotion. The main components of
motivation are energy, determination and a willingness to work. Motivation,
thus, stimulates one into action. In the absence of motivation, no learning can
take place. It is one of the main springs of learning.

5.7.5 Intelligence
Intelligence has to do with how people gather and use information to solve
problems and behave appropriately. People, who are intelligent, have the
ability to think analytically and creatively. They also have the required level
of common sense. People with these abilities at the appropriate level will be
able to meet and adopt to novel situations quickly and effectively, to utilize
abstract concepts and grasp relationships and learn quickly. So intelligence
plays an important role in learning.
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Learning
5.7.6 Readiness to Learn Teaching and
Learning

Maturation and learning are closely related. For learning to take place in the
way required, certain level of maturation is essential. Maturation has to do
with an increase in competency and adaptability. Learning without attaining a
definite level of maturation does not yield good results. Learning at each
level should be initiated only when children attain the required level of
readiness. In case, learning is thrust upon children prior to attaining readiness
for learning, the time and energy spend can go waste.

As we have discussed above, whether or not learning take place, to a great

extent, depends on the presence or absence of these aspects at the required
level in the students. In the next section, we will discuss about multiple
intelligence.

5.8 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE

Our notion as to what intelligence is growing increasingly complex these
days. For several years psychologists referred to it as a general ability called
“g” factor. However, it took a major leap in the 1980s. In the year 1983,
Howard Gardner and in 1985, Richard Sternberg came out with separate
models of different types of intelligence. Their works brought about drastic
changes in the notion of intelligence from a singular entity to a multifaceted
complex one. Gardner suggested that in our everyday life we can exhibit our
ability in any of the nine intelligences. He also observed that there are several
ways in which human brain can manipulate information and skills during the
learning process. He also opined that the best teaching and learning occurs
when we use the greatest variety of techniques thereby making success
possible for all learners.

As noted above, Gardner (1983, 1993) came out with his “Theory of Multiple
Intelligence”. He argued that we do not have intelligence but rather multiple
intelligence each independent of the others. He insisted that intelligence does
not consist of a hierarchy of abilities but rather it is composed of several
separate intelligences. These intelligences according to him are as follows:

1) Visual-Spatial Intelligence: This intelligence refers to ability to think

three dimensionally. Architects, artists, sailors are people who exhibit
this intelligence.

2) Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: This intelligence involves ability to

think inductively and deductively, ranking, organizing, analyzing,
concluding and evaluating. Scientists, engineers, accountants excel in
this intelligence.

3) Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence: This intelligence refers to the idea of

speaking and listening. The ability to use words into its myriad forms is
the base of this intelligence. Speakers, journalists, authors are the people
108 who have this intelligence. 111
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Learner and Musical Intelligence: It involves the sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm Learner and Learning
and tone. Composers and musicians are people who have this intelligence.
5) Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: This intelligence has to do with skills
to manipulate objects and be physically adept. Athletes, dancers are
people who have this intelligence in abundance.
6) Interpersonal Intelligence: This ability is mostly concerned with the
give and take of communication and ability to understand people and
manage them. Teachers, mental health professionals are examples of
people with this intelligence.
7) Intrapersonal Intelligence: This refers to the ability to introspect and
understand oneself and direct oneself. Theologists and psychologists are
people with this intelligence.
8) Naturalistic Intelligence: This refers to the ability to find subtle changes
in the environment, collect, sorts, and categorize objects, classify, label
are discern patterns. Farmers, botanists, and ecologists are examples of
people with this intelligence.
9) Existential Intelligence: This refers to the ability to use intuition,
thought and metacognition and answer deep questions about human
existence. Scientists, philosophers and theologians are people with this
intelligence.

Following the footsteps of Gardner, many scholars, no more consider

intelligence as a singular entity but rather as a composite of several separate
intelligences. Although in the initial stages of schooling (up to Std.X),
curriculum should be developed by cutting out relevant points from all the
intelligences, thereafter it should be based on specific intelligences. We need
to find out the aptitude of students and they should be allowed to pursue their
studies in specific intelligences in accordance with their aptitude. This will
allow students to carry out their studies with ease and confidence.

Check your Progress 5

Notes: (a) Write your answers in the space provided after each item.
(b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) Define the following terms in a sentence each:
a) Aptitude
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b) Attitude
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Teaching and Teaching and
Learning c) Intelligence Learning

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2) What does readiness to learn mean?
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3) How does intrapersonal intelligence differ from interpersonal
intelligence?
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4) Give examples for two types of people who have naturalistic intelligence
in abundance.
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5.9 TYPES OF LEARNING

As our experience shows, not all learning is the same. Learning keeps
differing depending on the internal and external conditions that prevail.
Internal conditions, as Gagne notes, are the learner’s prior knowledge,
physical stamina, emotions and mental makeup. External conditions are
things and elements in the environment that enhance learning from the inside.
Only when these internal and external conditions are properly organized,
good learning can take place. After having meticulously studied, Gagne
divided human learning into eight categories. According to him, classical
conditioning or signal learning is the simplest way of learning. It is followed
by stimulus- response learning. Gagne, thus, arranged the different types of
learning from the simplest to the most complex one which happens to be
problem solving. This hierarchical way of arranging human learning is quite
useful to everyone of us especially to those who are students of education.
Let us therefore, take up each one of them and discuss briefly.
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 5.9.1
Learner and LearningSignal Learning Learner and Learning

The Russian physiologist Pavlov through his experiment on a hungry dog

developed signal learning, commonly known as classical conditioning. He
offered the dog food following the ringing of a bell. This process of ringing
the bell and giving food continued for quite a number of times. Thereafter,
when the bell was rung, although no food was given, the dog was seen
salivating. This process of eliciting saliva through the association of a neutral
stimulus is called conditioning. In other words, classical conditioning is a
form of associated learning in which a neutral stimulus become associated
with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar
response.

5.9.2 Stimulus – Response (S.R.) Learning

This way of learning has its origin from the puzzle-box experiment carried
out by Thorndike on a cat. He placed a hungry cat inside a box and a dish of
food outside the box. To get the good, the cat had to manipulate a lever
within the box. B.F.Skinner, using this type of learning, conducted a series of
experiments and made it suitable for human learning known as operant
conditioning. The word operant refers to voluntary behaviour of emission by
a person. Stimulus-response reinforcement or operant conditioning is a type
of learning in which voluntary behaviour is strengthened by consequences.

5.9.3 Chain Learning

In chain learning two or more stimulus-response connections are joined
together. Such connections may be of words or motor activities. Boy-girl,
daddy-mummy are examples of word chaining. Similarly, the unlocking of a
door with a key which involves a number of motor activities such as facing
the lock, holding the key right side-up, inserting it into the key-hole, turning
the key, etc. are examples of motor chaining.

5.9.4 Verbal Association Learning

In this type of learning, the child learns to link an object and its name. As the
child plays with the ball, mother tells “ball”. As a result of listening to her a
number of times, the child learns to associate the object ball and its name.
Even in the absence of the object, the child would be in a position to
associate the object and its name.

5.9.5 Discrimination Learning

This type of learning has to do with the ability to respond differently to
similar but not identical stimuli. For example, when a child is able to
discriminate a feeding bottle from other types of bottles, he has learned to
discriminate. Discrimination involves ability to look at things analytically.

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Learning
5.9.6 Concept Learning Teaching and
Learning

When we deal with countless objects, events, and people around us, we have
to first simplify things by organizing specific items into general cognitive
categories called concepts. In other words, concepts are categories that group
objects, events, and characteristics on the basis of common properties. For
example, let’s take up the concept “fruits”. This mental grouping sums up a
variety of items such as apple, grapes, pear, banana, guava, papaya, etc. Thus,
when we use a word such as “vegetables”, “tree”, etc, we refer to a general
category of things. Conceptual understanding is a key aspect of learning.

5.9.7 Rule Learning

Another name for rule learning is learning of principles. We need to master a
large number of principles, rules, and formulas to make life easeful. For
example, learning of rules is very important in the learning of languages. The
rule “Nouns are naming words” will enable us to distinguish nouns from all
other categories of words. Similarly, learning of formulas will help us a lot in
the learning of mathematics, science, etc.

5.9.8 Problem-Solving
The word “problem” refers to any situation that we find difficult to
overcome. Problem-solving involves finding a solution to the problem. In
solving a problem, it should be studied analytically, all possible ways of
solving it need to be thought out and listed, out of which the one that seems
to be the best need to be selected and acted upon and evaluated to find
whether or not the solution has been achieved. Problem-solving is considered
to be the most complex way of learning mainly because it involves all the
higher order skills such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

Gagne, thus, found that no human learning is the same. He categorized

learning into eight types and ordered them hierarchically. He believed that
children naturally follow this order and that each one of them is a prerequisite
for the learning of the next level. He emphasized that, in learning, the lower
steps must be mastered before moving to the higher levels. Gagne’s theory of
learning has, thus, provided a genuine basis for the process of teaching and
learning.
Check Your Progress 6
Notes: (a) Write your answers in the space provided.
(b)Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) Define each of the following concepts in a sentence.
a) Classical conditioning
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
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Learner and Learning Learner and Learning

b) Operant conditioning
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2) Why is problem-solving considered to be the most complex of all learning?
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3) What do you mean by concept learning?
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5.10 LET US SUM UP

Learning is construction of knowledge, skills and attitude through integration
of prior knowledge and incoming new knowledge. Learning is a complex
process. It involves processing of information. Learning can be done
individually or collectively generated in groups. Learning can result in the
construction of new knowledge or incrementally added to what has been
learned previously. Child development happens in four stages during which
the exploratory behaviour of infants passes through various stages and turns
out into abstract logical intelligence of the adolescents. In learning, the role
of curriculum rehearsal and practice is very crucial. Children use several
ways to learn. Their learning is enhanced by such factors as attitude, aptitude,
motivation and concentration. Intelligence is not just a single entity as it was
thought in past but it comprises several separate and independent abilities. As
children develop, they make use of eight types of learning starting with the
simplest signal learning and keep on moving until they reach the most
complex- problem-solving method of learning.

5.11 UNIT- END EXERCISES

1) How is child development related to learning?

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Teaching and Teaching
2) ‘In the absence of information processing no learning can take place’.and
Learning Learning
Discuss.
3) Explain the concept of ‘multiple intelligence’. Discuss how it can
influence the process of teaching and learning.
4) What is learning style? Name any two of the styles and comment on
them briefly.

5.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

• Cottrell, S. (2003). The Study Skills Handbook. New York: Palgrave
Macmillan.
• Gardner, Howard. (1993). Frames of Mind: The theory of multiple
intelligences, New York: Basic Books.
• Hattie, John. (2013). Visible Learning for Teachers: Maximizing Impact
on Learning.London: Routledge.
• Holt, J.(2017). How Children Learn. New York: Da Capo Press.
• Joseph, K.S. (2014). Learning to Learn Effectively. Mumbai: Better
Yourself Books.
• Joseph, K.S. (2017). Study Skills for Excellence. Mumbai: Better
Yourself Books.
• Leonard, David, C. (2002). Learning Theories A-Z. Westport:
Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.
• Ron Fry (2003). The Great Big Book of How to Study. New Delhi:Viva
Books Private Limited.

5.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

1) The behaviourists focussed only on such behaviours as they wished to

make psychology a science.
2) To Behaviourists learning was a response strengthening process.
3) The cognitivists believed that learning was nothing but acquisition of
knowledge and skills.
4) Constructivists believe that learning is personal and that everyone
constructs his or her own knowledge and skills through integration of the
present knowledge with their prior knowledge.

Check Your Progress 2

1) We consider learning as a complex process as it involves learning of all

sorts of things such as knowledge, skills, insights, values and even
habits.
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Learner and
2)Learning
Learningthrough lectures and demonstration is considered to be passive Learner and Learning

as the learners are not actively involved in the process. ii) Learning like
any other process, involves a series of activities such as breaking the
content into concepts, logically organizing them thereby making it
meaningful and understandable. Hence, processing is unavoidable.

Check Your Progress 3

1) a) Child development refers to a field of study that deals with

understanding human constancy and change from conception
through adolescence.
b) Accommodation is the process of altering existing schemes or
creating new ones in response to new information.
2) Focus on children’s thinking process rather than on products,
Active involvement of learners in the learning process,
De-emphasis on practices to make thinking process of children similar to
adult, and Acceptance of individual differences in developmental
progress.

Check Your Progress 4

1) a) Learning style refers to the preferred style of learning of an

individual.
b) Auditory learners are those who prefer to learn through listening.
c) Kinesthetic learners are those who prefer to learn by doing.

2) If one knows one’s preferred style of learning, it will help him make the
most of his learning. It will also make his learning more easeful,
effective, and efficient.

Check Your Progress 5

1) a) Aptitude refers to the potential of a learner to assimilate specific areas

of knowledge or skills such as science, arts, commerce, technology, etc,
successfully. (b) Attitude refers to a mental state that depending on
whether positive or negative helps us do things well or badly. (c)
Intelligence has to do with ability to think analytically and creatively and
solve problems and behave appropriately.

2) As maturation and learning are closely related, for learning to take place
in the way expected, certain level of maturation is required. So learning
at each level may be initiated only when children attain the required level
of readiness.

3) While interpersonal intelligence is concerned with ability to understand

and manage people, intrapersonal intelligence has to do with ability to
introspect, understand and direct oneself.

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4) Farmers, botanists are examples of people with naturalistic intelligence
Learning Learning
in abundance.

Check Your Progress 6

1) (a) Classical conditioning is a form of associated learning in which a

neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and
acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.

(b) Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which the voluntary

behaviour is strengthened by consequences.

2) Problem-solving is considered as the most complex of all types of

learning because it involves all the higher order skills such as analysis,
synthesis and evaluation.

3) Concepts are categories that group objects, events and characteristics on

the basis of common properties. Concept learning would help us deal
with countless objects, ideas and events with ease.

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